Colonialism and Sir Gawain and The Green Knight

The Ends of Enchantment: Colonialism and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
Author(s): Lynn Arner

Source: Texas Studies in Literature and Language, Vol. 48, No. 2 (SUMMER 2006), pp. 79-101
Published by: University of Texas Press
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The Ends ofEnchantment:
Colonialismand SirGawain and
theGreenKnight
LynnArner
By thethirteenth century, theEnglishhad learnedthattheWelshwere

treacherous In thelast quarterofthefourteenth
and fickle.1 century,the
English trembled when the Welsh bothraided and
Englishterritory pro-
ducedan alarming increaseinthenumberofsettlers migrating intoEnglish
bordercounties.2 AfterthewidespreadWelshuprisingin thefirstdecade
ofthefifteenth century,theEnglishrealizedthattheWelshwerenotthe
submissiveand deferential nativestheyhad feignedto be, but were a
perfidious on
people, par with thewildIrish.3 These"insights" intothena-
tureoftheWelshwerewidelyheldperceptions among Englishin the
the
lateMiddleAges.LesttheEnglishforget thattheWelshpossessedthese
SirGawainand theGreenKnight(SGGK)was preparedto
characteristics,
remindthem.
SGGKwas thoroughly tiedtoEngland'scolonialprojectinWaleswhen
thepoem was composed. SGGK is typicallydatedbetween1350and 1400
(a commonascription being thelast quarterofthefourteenth a
century),
periodduringwhichtheEnglishwereattempting completeto theircolo-
nizationof Wales,whiletheWelshviolentlyopposed such domination.
Resembling severalArthurian historiesfrommedievalBritain,4 SGGKis
structured bythesecolonialconflicts and,appropriately, arisesfroma bor-
derculture:thepoemis conventionally believedto have been composed
in northwest England,alongsidetheWelshborder,and employsa north-
westmidlandsdialect,specifically, thedialectofLancashireand Cheshire.
Appropriately, thebulkofSGGK's narrative actionunfoldsintheEnglish-
Welshborderland. Thislocationis specifiedat thebeginning ofGawain's
quest to findthe GreenKnight.Gawain initiallyjourneysthroughthe
realmofLogres(England,southoftheHumber)5and eventuallyreaches
northern Wales.GawainpassestheAngleseyIslands,fordsriversnearthe
headlands,crossesat Holy Head, and lands "In '>e wyldrenesse ofWy-
rale"("In thewilderness ofWirral," 701),6a peninsulajustinsideEngland,
by thenortheastern borderofWales.Gawainis in WirralwhenBertilak's
castlemagicallyappears,makingSGGKa borderromance.
and Language,Vol. 48, No. 2, Summer2006

TexasStudiesin Literature
2006 by theUniversityofTexas Press,P.O. Box 7819,Austin,TX 78713-7819
80 LynnAmer
This articleinvestigatesSGGK's participation in colonialstruggles

betweentheEnglishand theWelshin thelatefourteenth As the
century.
modelsofideologyemployedinBritish culturalstudiesattest,a textdoes
not simplyreflect the politicalclimatein whichit is composedbut in-
tervenesin thepoliticalterrainand participates in theproduction ofthe
social formation. Hence,using a methodology in dialogue withStuart
Hall,RaymondWilliams, LouisAlthusser, and AntonioGramsci,7 thisar-
ticleexamineshow theideologiesspeakingthroughSGGKattempted to
reformulate readers'conceptions ofthemselves and oftheirneighbors and
thusshapetheirperceptions ofhowtonegotiate English-Welsh conflicts.
The definingworkof SGGK in relationto England'scolonization
ofWalesis thatof PatriciaClare Ingham,and we disagreedramatically
abouthow to understandthe English-Welsh negotiations embeddedin
thepoem.Inghamarguesthat,as thepoemunfolds,theissuessurround-
ingcolonization raisedearlyin thetextdisappearand thattheethnicand
geographicdisparities betweentheEnglishand theWelshin thefirst half
ofthepoemcollapsetobe replacedbygenderdifference.8 1maintainthat
SGGKinsiststhroughout theentirepoem- as did,in general,theEnglish
and theWelshin thelate fourteenth century - thatthetwo peoplesdif-
feredgreatly.Ethnicand geographicincongruities arenoteffacedas SGGK
unfolds, but are reinscribedat the locus of gender - more precisely,at
thesiteoffemalesexuality - in a conventional movethatactsto further
elaborateand consolidatecolonialpowerbybuttressing ideologiesofco-
lonialismwithideologiesofgender.
Thisdivergence pointstoa morefundamental disagreement between
Ingham's work and my own. We understand the English colonization
of theWelsh,and hencethepoem's colonialistpolitics,verydifferently.
Inghamwrites,
Welshand Englishinteraction in marchtowns,at regionalmarket-
places,onthebattlefield,orinthe tropesofa MiddleEnglish
narrative
poembecomethemultiple places where unityisforged from ethnichet-
Colonial
erogeneities. union becomes an actofculturalsynchronicity,
a coordinationofcapitulation . . . Rhetorics
ofdistanceand differen-
- thedesiretoseparate"Welsheries"
tiation from"Englishries"inlate
medievalhistories,or in thecase beforeus to determine onceand for
all whichpartsofGawainareWelshor English - effacethefamiliari-
ties,shareddreamings, common spacesof household and story.9
Inghamviews the intermixing of the Welshand English(in the poem

and in Wales) as the creationof a hybridity,
a conflation
whichis, for
themostpart,a reasonablypleasantculturaland geographical commin-
gling.Rhonda Knight's work on SGGK and colonization
also on
centers
SirGawainandtheGreenKnight 81
hybridity,insisting thatGawain'sidentity is a "culturalcollage"and that

BertilakembodiesAnglo-Welshhybridity, reflective oftheborderregion.10
Knightacknowledges the harshness of England'sseizureof Wales but
claimsthatbythetimeSGGKwas composed,theintensity ofconquestand
occupation had subsided to be replacedby a more settled coexistence.11
Hence,bothKnightand InghamseemunawarethattheEnglishconquest
oftheWelshin thelatefourteenth century was frequently bloody:many
Welshmen and womenweredispossessedoftheirlandsand livelihoods;
and manywerekilledby theinvaders.Focusingmorestrongly on con-
sensualrelationsthancoerciveones,Inghamrootsherdiscussionin the
dialectical(specifically in Homi Bhabha'sformulation ofmimicry);12 but
when discussinga dialectic,it is important to emphasizethattwo dis-
parategroupsdo not approachtheirconvergenceon equal terms,as
Ingham'sworkfrequently seemstoimply.As AntonioGramsciand Stuart
Hall argue,whena dominantgroupseeksto producehegemony, thereis
a dialectic,where, in order to be the
effective, rulinggroup must takeac-
countoftheinterests and tendenciesofthesubalterngroupsoverwhom
hegemonywillbe exercised.However,suchcompromise does notimply
equity,and thetwogroupsdo not contribute equally to theproduction of
thenew socialformation.13 Inghamand Knight make the power relations
inthepoemand inWalesseemmoreequitableand especiallymorepalat-
able,I would argue,thantheyindeedwere.As thehistoricaldiscussion
in thisarticlewilldemonstrate, relationsbetweentheWelshand thecolo-
nizingEnglish - includingin northeastern Walesand in theMarchesin
thesoutheast14- weregenerally bitterin thesecondhalfofthefourteenth
century.Accordingly, rather thanarguingforthelevelingofdissimilarities
and theliquidationof"ethnicheterogeneities . . . intonothingmorethan
thedifferences ofan extendedfamily," as Inghamholds15 or forsomecol-
lage ofidentities as Knight maintains, thisarticle argues thatSGGKinsists
thattheWelshand theEnglisharetwodistinct groupsand thatthepoem
promotedEngland'sconquestofWales.
England'sConquestofWales
As R. R. Davies explains,by theclose ofthetwelfthcentury,theAnglo-
Normanshad entrenched themselves firmlyin much of Wales,especially
in thesoutheast,in the farsouthwest,and, in places along theeastern
border.16Bytheend ofthenextcentury, EdwardI had paid extraordinary
amountsto effect and to sustaintheconquestof theremaining areas of
northand westWales,areas thathad moresuccessfully resistedcoloni-
zation.17
Thereafter,theWelshprovokedconstantanxietyin theEnglish.
Therewereoccasionaloutbreaksof violenceby theWelshagainsttheir
colonizers,includinganti-English violencein the northin the 1340s.18
82 LynnAmer
TheEnglishfearedWelshuprisings, a fearthatintersected withapprehen-

sionthattheFrenchand theScotswouldemployWalesas a threshold for
attacking England.Thistrepidation mountedrapidlyaftertheresumption
oftheHundredYearsWarin 1367,producingEnglishgarrisonsat most
Welshcastlesin the 1370s.Tensionsin Walesgrewpalpablyin thelast
threedecades of thefourteenth century. RuthlessEnglishlordsexploit-
ed Welshtenantsto a particularly pronounceddegree,and underthese
conditionstheindigenouscommunity grewincreasingly resentful.Rela-
tionsbetweentheruralWelshand burgessesin Englishtownsin Wales
were fraughtin places as distantas Carmarthen and Flintshire.In the
1370s,Owain Lawgoch,anotherin a longlineofWelshrebelsemerged,
proclaiming hisintention torecoverWales.Lawgoch's cause attracted the
support of the French,the Castilians, and some leading men in northern
Wales,and in response,theEnglishgovernment assassinatedLawgoch.
The last quarterof thefourteenth century witnessed a resumption and
intensificationofcampaignsby Englishcountiesbordering Walesagainst
Welshraidsand againstwhatthe Englishperceivedto be an alarming
influxofWelshsettlers intoEnglishbordercounties.19
Northeast Walesin particular generatedconsiderable anxietyforthe
English near theend ofthe fourteenth century: in the 1390s,itwas thesite
ofbotha bitter familyfeud and a violent demonstration thatthreatened to
becomea sizableuprising. In 1400,an insurrection, ledbyOwainGlynDwr,
diderupt.Northern WaleswastheseatofGlynDwr's power,withGlynDwr
the
alsoenjoying support ofhispowerful cousinsfrom Anglesey. Englishbor-
in
oughs northern the
Waleswere primary of
targets Glyn Dwr's followers
intheirinitialforays,
although insurgency quicklyspreadthroughout Wales.
GlynDwr's uprisingwas thelongestrebellion in WalessincetheNorman
Conquest,and theuprising threatened to secureWelshindependence from
foreignrule.However, by1408,Welshrebelshad effectively lostthebattle.20
Whatevertheirbiologicalor culturalinterminglings, theWelshand
theEnglishunderstoodthemselves to differgreatly.Thiswas evidenton
thepartoftheEnglishthrough theirpronounced divisionsbetweenthem-
selvesand theWelshadministratively As thethirteenth
and institutionally.
century unfolded, thecategorization of "theWelsh"versus"theEnglish"
becamemuchsharper, and theexistence oftwoseparatepeopleswas insti-
tutionalized in thegovernance ofWales.TheWelshnotonlydiffered from
theEnglishbutwereformanypurposesconsideredinferior. Thisshiftin
perceptions was discernable in newlyemergent pejorative representations
oftheWelshin official documents - especiallyclaimsthattheWelshwere
treacherous In thefourteenth
and fickle.21 century, thedistinctionbetween
conqueror andconquered, settlerandnative,was evenmoreclearlydefined
in formaland institutional termsthanat anyothertime.22 FortheWelsh,
a pronounceddistinction betweenthemselves and theEnglishwas intact
andtheGreenKnight
SirGazvain 83
notonlyas thesporadicanti-English violencethroughout thefourteenth

century but
testified, as thewidespread led
rebellion, by GlynDwr,ofthe
colonizedagainsttheircolonizers Most
proclaimed. Welshmen and women
wereunitedagainsttheEnglishundera commonfeeling ofoppressionand
undera sharedpoliticaland historicalidentity23SGGK -
articulatesand
to
helps produce - the understandingthatthe English and theWelsh dif-
fereddramaticallyand thatthetwopeopleswereantagonistic.
and SGGK
KingArthur,
Colonialism,
English- Welshcolonialstruggles includedcontestations overKingArthur.

According to Welsh the
traditions, invading Saxons drove Arthurand his
BritonsintoWales.The Welshnot onlyclaimedto be Arthur'sdescen-
dants,but theytracedtheirgloriousheritagethroughArthurto Brutus,
toAeneas,and ultimately ElissaR. Henkenexplainsthat,in the
to Troy.24
MiddleAges,Arthur confirmed theinherent worthoftheWelshbyestab-
lishing theirhonorable and oftengloriouspastandbyoffering thepromise
ofa gloriousfuture. Arthur became one ofthe most renowned redeemer-
heroesoftheWelsh the in Middle - a
Ages figure who would someday
returnto emancipatehis people.25MedievalWelshtexts,includingthe
Mabinogion and Geoffrey ofMonmouth's writings,typically situateArthur
and his courtin Wales,frequently at Caer Llion ar Wysg(Caerleon-on-
Usk).FortheEnglish,however, Arthurand theBritonswereforebears of
Englishmen. Hence,medievalEnglishtextsmorereadilyidentify Camelot
as Arthur'sprimarydwelling,locatedin someundisclosedspotin Eng-
land. Some Englishkings,especiallyEdwardI and EdwardIII, claimed
descentfromArthur, citinghissovereignty overBritainas proofthatEng-
lishmonarchs oughtto ruletheBritish Isles.26
SGGKemphatically in English-
participates Welshcontestations over
Arthur andhislineage.In itsopeninglines,thepoemprovidesa thumbnail
sketchofArthur's genealogy: AeneasfleesTroy, leadingto thefounding of
Rome(and laterofTuscanyand Lombardy); Brutus, descendent ofAeneas,
abandonshishomelandto settlein Britain; and,ofthesubsequent kingsof
Britain,Arthur is thenoblest(1-26).In thefirstsceneoftheensuingtale,Ar-
thuris at "Camylot"("Camelot,"37)- notCaerleon - withGuenevereand
theKnightsofheRoundTable.WhenGawainleavesArthur'scastle,the
knight first
passesthrough Logres,indicating thatArthur's abodeis situated
in England,southoftheHumber.27 Only aftertravelingextensively,a foray
thatincludestraversing northern Wales,does GawaindiscoverBertilak's
castle,signifyingthatArthur's Englishcourtand thatofhisrivalarea great
distance and
apartgeographically symbolically. Appropriately, whenGawain
entersWalesandthefrontier, heenterswhatis codedas otherworldly orradi-
callyalien,a wondrous and strange a
territory, placeof magic and marvels.28
84 LynnAmer
By anglicizingArthur, SGGKchallengesWelshclaimsto be thede-

scendantsofArthur and theBritonsand totherefore deserveautonomyas
oftheirformer
a partialrestoration glory.Thepoemalso undermines mes-
sianicpropheciesabouttheking'simminent returnto delivertheWelsh
fromforeign rule,prophecieswhichhelpedtoigniteand tosustainWelsh
rebellionsunderLawgochand GlynDwr.29 In fact,in SGGK,notonlyare
theWelshnottheprogenyofArthurand his court,buttheinhabitants of
Walesand thefrontier arepositionedas thefoesofGawainand,byexten-
sion,as enemiesofArthur'skingdom.
at theFrontier
Gawain'sAdventures
AfterpassingtheAngleseyIslandsand traversing northern Wales- areas

which,as explainedearlier,were,in thelatefourteenth century,theleast
Anglicizedregions ofWales and themost hostile to Englishcontrol- Ga-
wainlandsin an English- Welshborderregion.ThereGawainencounters
fiercefoeswho forcehimto fight:"wormez"("dragons,"720),"wolues"
("wolves,"720),"bullez" ("bulls,"722),"berez"("bears,"722),"borez"
("boars," 722), "etaynez"("giants,"723), and "wodwos" ("wodwos"
meaning"hairywoodlandmonsters ofmedievalimagination," fromthe
Old Englishwuduzvasaor "wood man,"30 721). This litanyof adversaries
indicatesthattheland is teemingwithsavage beasts.The herodoes not
engagein knightly contestswithothermen,forthereare nonein sight.
The existenceofsuchsemi-human creatures as giantsand wodwos sug-
geststhat inhabitants of thefrontierare close to beasts,so close thatthe
boundarybetween where the human ends and theanimalbeginsis not
entirelyclear.
BecauseGawainfightsno humans,thiscatalogueofopponentsalso
impliesthat,excludingthemagicalcastle,fewpeoplelive at thefrontier.
Thecreatures vanquishedbyGawainechothetwenty giantswho,accord-
ofMonmouth'sHistoriaRegumBritanniae
ingto Geoffrey oftheKings
{History
ofBritain)and Layamon'sBrut,inhabited BritainwhenBrutusarrived.To
seizetheisland,Brutushad tovanquish thesegiants,buthe didnotdestroy
humanlife.Thismythology ofBrutus'svictoryenabled medievalEnglish-
mento recalltheirfounding moments withoutshame. Brutus'sconquest,
thecrucibleofEnglishhistory - a genealogyreinscribed in SGGK's open-
ing lines- did notinvolvedomination over,or genocideof,theisland's
inhabitants.Rather,the land was vacant,awaitingthefortuitous discov-
eryofwhoever foundit.The onlypresencewas a small of
group godless
monsters, thedestruction ofwhichwas no greatloss.SGGKoffers a similar
of the the
representation territory Englishsought to colonize.LikeBrutus's
newfoundland,thefrontier in SGGKis vastlyunderpopulated - at least
by humans.Furthermore, menacinggiantsare indigenousto thisregion:
thelistof Gawain's opponentsspecifically includesgiants(723);and the

borderland ishometotheGreenKnight, aboutwhomthenarrator remarks,
"And his lyndesand his lymesso longeand grete,/ Halfetaynin erde
I hope tâthe were,/ BotmonmostI algatemynnhymto bene" ("And
his loinsand his limbs[were]so longand so great,I believethathe was
a half-giant hereon earth;but,at anyrate,I declarehe was thebiggestof
men,"139-41).31 The half-human, half-giant GreenKnightis one of the
hybrid creatures that abound at the frontier. The land's desolationis also
evidentin Gawain's inability tofindshelter, rendered vividlyin theimage
ofGawainsleepingin his armoron nakedrocks(729-30).WhenGawain
finallyfindsaccommodations, hishost'stitleforegrounds thesparsenessof
thepopulation. Theappellation"Bertilak de Hautdesert" (2445)- "Bertilak
oftheHighDesert"or"Bertilak ofthe'HighWasteland"32 - insinuates that
thereis littleofvaluein thatland.Thisjudgmentis echoedin thepoem's
remarksaboutWirralForest:"In ')e wyldrenesse of Wyrale;wonde '>er
botlyte/ PatauJDer God o]pergomewythgoud hertlouied"("In thewil-
dernessofWirral;littledwelttherethateitherGod or a manwitha good
heartcould love,"701-02).This snideremarkaboutWirralimpliesthat
theresidents oftheWelsh-English borderland and Walespossessless hu-
manitythantheEnglish,a claimbuttressed bytherepresentation ofthese
landsas thehabitatofbeastlymen.Hence,conquering territory that should
fosternomoraldilemmasfortheEnglish.SGGKencourages English readers
to resistidentifying withor sympathizing withpeoplefromtheseregions
and, instead,instructs audiencemembersto understandthemselvesto
be a superiorformof humanityto the Welshand therefore entitledto
dominatethem.
Thevisionofgiantsroamingtheborderland workstobolstera sense
of Englishsuperiority in anotherway.As CatherineA. Lutz and JaneL.
Collinspointout,membersofpowerful, colonizingcountriesfrequently
represent themselves as existing in a later timethanthe era inhabited
by people in weaker, poorer countries. Those in geopoliticallydominant
countries routinely construct teleological histories of development, locat-
ing themselves at the end of these evolutionary while
trajectories, placing
men and womenfromsubordinateregionsin earliermoments.33 SGGK
employs at leasta nascent version of colonial temporality. The references
togiantslocatethefrontier in an earliererathanArthur'srealm,whilethe
hybridity of some men in the borderlandfurther atteststo thealignment
ofthisland withunbridlednatureand verifies thatthisterritory remains
closetoitsprimevalstate.Thefrontier stillcontainsgiantsand othermon-
strosities,as Britainhad whenBrutusdiscoveredtheisle,testifying that
thefrontier remainsrather static,lodgedin a periodnotfarremovedfrom
Brutus'sinitialcontactwiththeisland.A temporalgap is also signified by
thepoem'scalendricreferences: Bertilak's castleis removedfromCamelot
86 LynnAmer
byoneyear,indicating thatthetwocourtsarevastlydisparatetemporally.
The frontieris a primitive terrain thathas yetto developintoa cultivated
regionresembling Arthur's kingdom. Thus,SGGKoffers itslate-fourteenth-
century Englishreadersanethnographic colonialistunderstanding ofWales:
thepoemimpliesthatthefrontier and Walesinhabitan earliermomentof
development thantheepochinwhichEnglandexistsandthatWalesstands
incontradistinction tothemoredeveloped,sophisticated England.
Anothernarrative SGGKoffers is thattheWelshborderland needsa
stronger Christian influence. Arthur'scourt is decidedly Christian.Thenar-
rativebeginsat Camelotin themidstofextensivecelebrations ofChrist's
birth.As SheilaFishernotes,at Camelot'sChristmasfeast,a high-rank-
ingclergyman, BishopBawdewyn, occupiestheseatofpreeminence atthe
headofthetable.34 Thecourt'srepresentative, Gawain,demonstrates great
piety,reflectingnotonlyhisown devotion, butalso thedevoutnessofthe
English,foroncehe embarkson hisjourney, theknightbecomesa synec-
docheforArthur'scourt.WhenGawainbattlesbestialfoes,"Nade he ben
du3tyanddry3e, andDry3tyn had serued,/Douteleshehadebended and
dreped fulofte" ("Had he not beenvaliantand enduringand had he not
servedtheLord,withoutdoubt,Gawainwouldhavebeenslainand killed
on numerousoccasions,"724-25).Arthur'sknight has God on hisside;by
implication,his foes do not. In theseduels, the hero bearsa shieldwithim-
of
ages Mary and a pentangle, with an additional pentangle on hissurcoat.
Thispentangle, shapedbySolomon,gives Gawain courage,forhe associ-
atesitwiththeFiveJoysofMaryand theFiveWoundsofChrist(619-50).
As GeraldineHengnotes,themeaningthepoemascribestothepentangle
is notconventional butarbitrary,35 and thisarbitrariness foregrounds the
alignment ofChristianity withGawain.On hisjourney, thepious knight
hearsGod'svoice(695-97),talkstoHeaven'sQueen(736-39),entreats God
andMaryforlodgingwherehe mightattendmass(753-58),andrepents for
hismisdeeds(760-62).
The contestbetweensacredand secular(or perhapspagan) cultures
is morepronounced in theborderregionthaninArthur'scourt.Thiscon-
in
testis evident theresponseto Gawain's supplication. Fishernotesthat
Gawain'sprayertoMarydelivershimtothecastlewherehe is testedbythe
Lady and Morganla Faye.36 ThisassociationbetweenMaryand Morgan
foregrounds thesimultaneous presenceof bothsacredand pagan pow-
ersat thefrontier. Attendance at massbysomeofthehouseholdbespeaks
Christianpiety,but,as Fisherpointsout,at thiscastle,Morganenjoys
thebishop'sseatofhonorat thehead ofthetable,a displacement which
anticipatesBertilak'sepithetforher:"MorgneIpegoddes" ("Morganthe
goddess,"2452).37 Morgan,nota Christian divinity,is theprevailingdeity
ofthisdomain.Border-dwellers' commitment to Christianityseemstenu-
ous,foralthoughGawainis verypiousen routetothecastle,afterreposing
SirGaivainandtheGreenKnight 87
there,thisknight, themostreverent ofmen,shedssomeofhis immense

faith.Insteadofrelying exclusively MaryorGod to guidehimthrough
on
his ordealwiththegreenexecutioner, Gawainis persuadedby Lady Ber-
tilaktotransfersomeofhisfaithontoan amulet.Evidently, eventhemost
dedicatedChristians startto lose theirspiritualway in thisland.As the
diminution ofGawain's beliefin God attests, Englishmen mustnotdwell
atthefrontier toolong,ortheyrisk"goingnative/'
The guidewho conductsGawainto theGreenChapeldemonstrates
littlerespectforhis maker.The guidefreely volunteersto "swerebi God
and alle hisgode haêz, / As helpme God and pe halydam"("swearby
God and all his good saints,so help me God and all thingsholy")that,
wereGawainto flee,he would concealthetruth(2122-23).Thisborder-
dwelleris fullywillingtotakethenameofGod and all hissaintsinvainto
makea fabrication convincing. Appropriately, thepathtowhichtheguide
conductsGawainculminates in a devilishend:
"We!Lorde,"quoj} '>e gentylekny3t,

"WheJêr ]Msbe pe grenechapelle?
Heremy3taboutemydny3t
Pe delehismatynnes telle!
"Now iwysse,"quo]?Wowayn,"wystyis here;

Pisoritore is vgly,witherbezouergrowen;
Weibisemezpe wy3ewruxledin grene
Dele herehisdeuociounon pe deuelezwyse.
Now I felehitis pe fende,in myfyuewyttez,
PathatzstokenmeJîssteuento stryemehere.
Pisis a chapelofmeschaunce, chekkehitbytyde!
Jât
Hitis pe corsedestkyrkpateuerI cominne!"(2185-96)
"Alas! Lord,"says thenobleknight,"Is thistheGreenChapel?Around

midnightthe Devil mightsay his matinshere. Now certainly," says
Gawain,"it is desolatehere:thischapel,over-grown withvegetation, is
It is
ugly. fitting forthe knightclad in to
green perform his devotionhere
inthemanneroftheDevil.Now I feelinmyfivesensesthatitis theDevil
who has imposedthisappointment on me,to destroyme here.Thisis a
chapelofevilpractices - mayill-luckbefallit!Itis themostcursedchurch
I have everentered."It is hardlysurprising thatsucha siteexistsin the
borderregion.A chapelsuitableforrendering devilishdevotionand fitfor
Satan'smatinsis notlocatedanywherenearArthur'scourt.Becausethe
GreenChapelhostsevilpracticesand becauseGawainannouncesthata
malevolent forcehas luredhimthere,SGGKalignsMorganand Bertilak -
theorchestrator -
oftheplan and herminion withmaliceand sinfulness.
88 LynnAmer
TheassociationofMorganand Bertilak, therulersofthecastle,withwick-

ednessbesmirches theentirehousehold.Moreover, as theonlyapparent
humansat thefrontier, thecastle'soccupantsbeartheburdenofrepresen-
tation:theystandin forall who livein thisterritory.
Evidently,border-dwellersneedtoabandontheirpractices ofenchant-
mentand to morestrongly embracethefaithofArthur'sEnglishcourt.
Suchrepresentations ofborder-dwellers and theWelshheldsomedegree
ofconsentamongtheEnglishand promotedEngland'scolonialventures
in Walesin thelatefourteenth century.As Davies explains,Englisheccle-
siasticsin the late MiddleAges maintainedthatwhileconqueringand
slaughtering pagansmightbe acceptable, evenpraiseworthy,theconquest
ofChristians was a differentmatter.One argument advancedin thelate
MiddleAges to ease theconscienceof Englishclergymen overthecolo-
nizationof Waleswas to proclaimthattherewas an intolerable level of
sinfulnessin Walesand that,as theOld Testament conquestwas
testifies,
a due and properpunishment forsin.38Hence,SGGKreinscribed English
understandings thattheWelshwerenotsufficiently pious and therefore
deservedtobe dominatedbythemoredevoutEnglish.
Anotherjustification SGGKoffersforthecolonizationofWalesrevolves
aroundcivility. The poem is concernedwithan intersecting nexusofis-
suessurrounding courteousness,
civility: and
politeness, conformity tothe
principlesof behavior a
befittingrespectable member of the community,
and theinterrelated artofgood secularlordship,solidpolity,and sound
civilorganization.SGGKrepresents theWelsh-English borderland as rath-
eruncivil,inhabited bycreatures who are disorderly,who lackresponsible
governance, and who need a morejudiciousbody politic.Lifeoutside
Bertilak'scastleis barbarous.The land teemswithcombativecreatures,
offersvisitorsnakedrocksforbeds (729-30),and sproutsdeep,wild for-
ests(741-45).TheGreenKnight, a productofthisregion,is an ambiguous
In manyways,theGreenKnightis cultivated:
figure.39 whenhe appearsat
Arthur'scourt,he is impeccably dressed and coiffured,whilehishorse's
mane and tail are elegantlybraided in a green and gold patternrecall-
ingCelticdesign.Butthedemi-giant is tied to nature'sbarbarousness at
thefrontier.LarryD. Bensonargues that the Green Knightrepresents the
stockenemyofknighthood in medievalromance - thewildman,a figure
who opposesknightsand who strivesagainstthevalues represented by
courts,includingan adherencetorefined manners. Wildmenin medieval
romancesusuallyfight withaxesorclubs,underscoring thesavagenessof
thesecreatures. The GreenKnight, Benson is
continues, churlish, ignor-
ingcourtly rulesand continually revealinghischurlishness in thecontent
and deliveryofhis speech;thus,he is thenaturalfoeofCamelotand the
knighthood it represents.40
Accordingly, thebeheadinggame proposed
by theGreenKnightis uncouth.Honorablechallengesbetweenknights
assumetheformof duels involvingswords,spears,and
conventionally
lances (as in TheAwntyrs at theTerneWathelyn,
offArthure TheKnightlyTale
ofGologras and Gawain,and Malory's Le Morte and
Darthur), such instru-
mentssignifychivalrouscodes of conduct.Axes are associatedwithan
allegedbackwardnessof a people; forexample,in Topographia Hibernica
(TheTopography ofIreland),Geraldof Wales, who often participates incolo-
nialistunderstandings ofthenon-English in theBritishIsles,41 maintains
thatoneindication ofthebarbarousness oftheIrishis thattheyalwayscar-
ryaxes,perpetually prepared "to execute whateveriniquitytheirminds
suggest/'42 Axes were frequentlyinstruments ofshameemployedin late
medievalEnglandtopunishcriminals, includingbeheadingmenconvict-
ed oftreason.In SGGK,theGreenKnightburstsintoKingArthur'scourt,
askstobe decapitated, and demandsfuture reciprocity.Thegiganticgreen
man issueshis challengeat a formalChristmasdinnerforlordsand la-
dies and boisterously tauntsthecourtfornotacceptinghisoffer (309-15).
This is notthe most chivalrous challenge.Itis inkeepingwiththelogicof
thepoemthatborder-dwellers would desiresuchlowlyformsofcombat,
formsassociatedwithwildness,backwardness, and criminality. More-
over,theGreenKnight'sproposedexchange of blows recallspluck-buffet,
a gameoccasionally featured inpopularromances(forexample,inA Little
GesteofRobinHoodandhisMeiny).43 Arthur'scourtis reluctant toengagein
thisaffair,perhapsinpartdue to cowardice, butitsreluctance also entails
itsapparentunfamiliarity withsuchlowlygamesas pluck-buffet and its
desiresto adhereto etiquette'sdictatesand to participate in morechival-
ricpursuits.44The outlandishgianthas issueda rathercrasschallengefor
one knightto offerto another, especiallyto a knightoftheRoundTable.
In theend,theGreenKnight'sbetterhalf,Bertilak, remainsat thefrontier
whileGawainrejoinsArthur'scompany. UnlikeArthur'sfoesinsomelate
Middle Englishromancesexplicitly centeredon Englishcolonizationin
theBritish is notsufficiently
Isles,Bertilak refined tobe a suitableaddition
to Camelot.The ScottishSirGalernjoinstheRoundTableat theend of
TheAwntyrs Arthure
off at theTerne Wathelyn, and eventhetitlecharacter in
TheCarleofCarlisleis ultimately knighted, granted land, and assimilated
intoArthur'scourt.45 Bertilak,however,is apparently too aliento be suc-
cessfully integratedinto thisretinue.
Admittedly, Bertilak'scastleis morecivilizedthanits environs.At
thecastle,Gawain is honoredas a specialguestand, in manyways,is
treatedwell:he consumeslavishmeals,dons elegantrobes,and reposes
in a splendidbedroom.The hospitality extendedto Gawainto somede-
the
greechallenges poem's dominant representation of border-dwellers
as ill-mannered. However,thiscourtliness is intertwined withmanifest
impropriety. As the cross-cuttingbetween the hunting and thebedroom
90 LynnAmer
scenesindicates,Lady Bertilakpreysaggressively upon Gawain,an un-

seemlymannerinwhichtotreata guest.Theattempted seductions suggest
theabsenceofgood secularlordshipat thecastle,forBertilakinstructed
hiswifetoactthisway.Moreover, theladyofthehouseis sexuallyaggres-
sive,whilean ill-cladman,corneredinbed,fendsoffhisinsistent suitor.46
One mightexpectsuchbehaviorinthisterritory, forinverted genderroles
are allegedlya commontraitof lands notyetthoroughly colonizedand
henceattestto theneed fora stronger surveillanceof theseregions.At
thesametime,suchnarratives ofattempted seductionsbyWelshwomen
catertocolonizers'imaginings aboutthecolonized,imaginings inkeeping
withwhatAnneMcClintockand Ania Loombaidentify as longstanding
traditionsofrepresenting thelandtobe subduedas a placeofaberrant and
excessivesexuality, screenontowhichtravelers
a fantastic and conquerors
projectedtheirsexualdesiresand fantasies.47
Thebaldestpronouncement ofthelackofgoodsecularlordshipatthe
frontieris theunveilingofMorganas therealmasterofBertilak' s castle.
Thisis an inappropriate of
system governance because a woman occupies
thetraditionalseatofthepatriarch. As a femaleruler, Morgandisruptsthe
patrilineallegacyof rule,establishedin theopeningof thepoem (1-26)
and itsconclusion(2522-30)notonlyas natural,but,as discussedearlier,
as theguaranteeof a realm'sgreatnessand as a testimony to itsentail-
a
ing legacy worth inheriting.Meanwhile,Bertilak, the titular head of
thehousehold,mustscurryaroundBritainas a giantgreenelfto fulfill
Morgan'sschemes,evensubmitting todecapitation toindulgeherwhims.
Thegenderedstateofaffairs inArthur'scourtversusMorgan'sdomainis
in keepingwithwhatLoombaand McClintock have outlinedas thecon-
ventionalalignment ofthedominating culture with masculinity and the
colonizedculturewithfemininity.48
Morgan'sgovernance embodiesan interesting ideologicalcontradic-
tioninthepoem.Whilesheguarantees poorleadershipintheborderland,
shesimultaneously challengesthepoem'sassociationofgoodsecularlord-
shipand civilorganization withtheEnglishcourt.Morganis traditionally
a hybridfigure,connected bothwithArthur's courtandwiththeCeltic,pa-
ganfringes; butin SGGK,Morganis ineluctably on thesideofthenatives.
WhileGawainsuccessfully the
resists temptation to go native,and con-
firms hiscommitment the
tohispeopleand to superiority ofEnglishways,
Morganhas betrayedherArthurian to kin remain with herCeltickind.
As Arthur'shalf-sister,Morgan's decision to align with border-dwellers
undermines Englishclaimsthattheirwaysareinherently betterthanthose
oftheWelsh.Heralliancetestifies thatthe (alleged)superiority ofEnglish
to In
customsis notself-evident everyone. league with the enemy, Morgan
strivesto injuretheEnglishcourt,buthermotivations are camouflaged.
Althoughtheenchantress participatesin a long-standing ethnicstruggle
betweenborder-dwellers (and theWelsh)and Arthur'sEnglishcourt,the

poemexplicitly ascribes insufficientreasonstoMorganforheraggressivity
towardstheEnglish:she hopes thedecapitatedGreenKnight'sabilityto
speakwouldliterally frighten Guenevereto death;and shewishesto test
theprideofArthur'scourtto see ifitdeservesitscurrent glory(2456-62).
Byexplicitlyassigning Morgan weak rationales (weak largelybecausethere
is nofurtherelaboration oftheseexplanations andbecausethetextdoesnot
providenarrative justifications forMorgan'sposition),SGGKimpliesthat
unwarranted spitefulness motivates thesorceress, which,inturn,subtends
thedramastagedforGawainand forthelargerArthurian court.Border-
it
dwellers, seems, lack substantive, convincing motivations fordisliking
theEnglishandarenotmotivated by reason or justice butarepropelledpri-
marilybypeevishness. Thereinsofpowerareinthehandsofa mistress of
theblackarts,artsthatareconventionally considered irrational,
feminized,
andmalevolent, which,bya coincidence, is alsohowcolonizedpeoplesare
frequently characterized.
By contrast, Camelotis imbuedwithcivility. DuringtheChristmas
holidays,Arthur's "gentyle kni3tes"("nobleknights") spendtheirtimein
genteelendeavors,riding in tournaments and jousting(41-42).TheLords
in
and Ladies also engage feasting, singing,dancing,and generalmerry-
making(43-49).Thecourtmaybe youngand itsrulermayattimesappear
inexperienced and even"sumquatchildgered" ("somewhatboyish,"86),49
butamidstthisrevelry, thehouseholdremainsstructured.50 KingArthur
rulesthecourtand setstheagendathere,whileBishopBawdewynsitsin
theplace of honor(109-12),51 indicatingthattheappropriatepatriarchs
governthisdomain.Testimonies of propersocial organization abound:
banqueterssitaccordingto degree,withthehighest-ranking knightinthe
mostprestigious oftheknights'seats(72-73),whileGuenevereis flanked
by herhusband's nephews.Assignedsocialrolesprevail:Gueneverere-
mainsfaithful to herhusbandand sitsquietlyin his presence;and there
areno rivalriesamongtheknights. In thispoem,disorderis notintrinsic
to Camelot,butcomesfromelsewhere,in theformofa demi-giant from
thefrontier.WhendisorderburstsintoArthur'ssphere,thehouseholdre-
spondsin a fairlymethodicalmanner:Gawainrequestspermission from
hiskingand queentoengagethegreenvisitor; and theroyalcouple,along
withtheirknights, unanimously consent(339-65).At Camelottheproper
and
bodypolitic assigned social rolesprevail.
By aligningthe Englishcenterwithcivility, the poem conveysto
fourteenth-century readers that the English could educatepeople at the
frontierand inWalesand teachtheWelshtheprinciples ofbehaviorbefit-
tinggood members of a civic community. The English could refinetheir
neighbors, improve their humanity, and instruct the Welsh on sociopoliti-
cal matters(advisingthemon solid polity,strongcivilorganization, and
92 LynnAmer
theartofgood governance). Inhabitantsofthefrontierand ofWales,the

poemimplies,wouldbenefit tremendously.
In thelateMiddleAges,Englandemployedsucha discourseofcivil-
ityto legitimateitscolonization ofWales.As Davies pointsout,claimsby
colonizerstobe theagentsofcivilization werecertainly
notnew:conquest
and attempts to civilizethenativeshavebeenclosealliesfora longtime.
In thethirteenth century, theEnglishdevelopeda particularinterest in
whattheyunderstoodtobe theircivilizingmissionin thedarkreachesof
theBritishIsles.The Churchdid muchto bless and to promoteEnglish-
men'sperceptions of themselvesas a greatcivilizingforceand justified
English invasions with claimsthattheEnglishcorrected evilcustomsand
viceamongthenativesand instructed themin good morals.Forthelaity,
conquestwas recurrently justifiedby maintainingthattheEnglishwere
theconduitsofpeace,good governance, and soundlaws tothebackward
inhabitants oftheBritishIsles.The earlierpluralityof customsin Wales
was increasingly replacedby the imposition Englishlaw and govern-
of
mentalorder.Civilizingthe Welshincludedalteringindigenoussocial
customsand morality, remoldingWelshsystemsof governance, and in-
scribingEnglish models of the socialbody.52
Genderand Colonialismin SGGK
As the discussionof Morgan'srule indicates,ideologiesof colonialism

intersectwithideologiesofgenderin SGGK.A genderednarrative ofcon-
quest structures thepoem. Gawain journeys to thewild countryside of
Walesand Wirral, venturingintothedepthsofa primordial land,farfrom
homeand thefamiliar. Whilethere,theknightenduresmanyhardships.
Nature,intheguiseofsleetnearlypiercing hisarmorand icicleshovering
overhishead,persecutes him(726-32).Gawaingrappleswitha streamof
masculinized, worthyopponentsand,duringtheseentanglements, faces
thepossibility of death.However,theheroemergesvictorious, proving
his braveryand manlinessand,by extension, thevalorand masculinity
of Englishmen. Next,the knightprogressesto a moredifficult level of
combat,involvinga different opponent,one harderto defeat.He has an
entanglement withthefoeintheformofLadyBertilak. Thisentanglement
is sexualized:thebattleoccurswhilethepairis aloneina bedroom,engag-
ingin amorousverbalpursuits, he corneredin bed and she aggressively
offeringherlove.Gawainand theLadyfencefordays,intellect againstin-
rhetorical
tellect, skillagainstrhetorical
skill,and sexualadvanceagainst
sexualrestraint.
Aftera prolongedduel,Gawaindefeatshis admirableadversary, but
onlywithconsiderable effort
and onlyafternear defeatto himself.He
emergessufficiently because,althoughhe acceptsa love-token,
victorious,
hedoesnotengageinadultery, whichwouldhavebeena grossaffront tohis

knightly host and to chivalric
codes. When grappling with Lady Bertilak,
Gawainultimately wrestleswithhertwoalliesas well:thegoddessMorgan,
whoorchestrated thedrama,andtheGreenKnight, atwhosehandsGawain
faces
literally death. However, Gawain escapesdecapitation becauseofhis,
ifnotperfect,atleastacceptable behaviorduringtheordeal.
Aftergrapplingwiththistrioofworthyopponents, Gawainemerges
a differentman.He is changedby theencounter, graduating to a higher
levelofunderstanding: he possessesmoreprofoundinsightintohimself;
he gains a betterknowledgeof women'snature,as his diatribeagainst
womentestifies (2409-28);and he now realizeswhattypeofpeopleliveat
thefrontier.Gawainreturns homewiserand moreworldly. Theknight has
had a conventional colonizer'srelationship witha subduedpeople,with
thecolonizedactingas bothwitnesses andparticipants intheEnglishman's
transformation.53 His fellowEnglish, whodonthegreengirdleinsolidarity
withGawain,arealso enlightened through theirambassador'sjourney, for
theytoonow know what of
type people inhabit the frontierand what be-
haviortoexpectfrom them.Gawain'sexperience hasgenerated knowledge
aboutthosewhomtheEnglishwish dominate,and such geographic
to
and ethnographic knowledge-production is thebasis of colonialcontrol.
Moreover, becauseSGGKenactsa colonizing journey, a narrativefantasy of
poweranddesire,ofseduction bya womanofa dissimilar ethnicity,an em-
phasison genderand femalesexuality does notrepresent a disappearance
of ethnicand geographicdifference and an end of theissues surround-
ingcolonization raisedearlierin thepoem,as Inghammaintains.54 Rather,
thereis a rearticulation ofethnicdifference at thesiteofgenderand,more
precisely,a rearticulation primarily at thesiteoffemalesexuality. The re-
inscription of colonization at the locus of gender is a conventional move
thatactstofurther elaborateand consolidate colonialpowerbybuttressing
ideologiesofcolonialism withideologiesofgender.
The fantasyof an Englishman'sseductionby a Welshwomancam-
ouflagestherealrelations ofpowerinlatefourteenth-century Britain. The
web ofdeceitwovenforGawainindicatesthattheWelshseekto humili-
ate and subdueEnglishmen. It is theWelshwho menacetheEnglish:the
English are not the aggressors, buttheobviousvictimsin English- Welsh
relations.In otherwords,theEnglishadoptwhatRobynWiegmancalls
a minoritizing discourse,55positioning themselves as theoppressedin an
unequalpower relation. Thepoemencourages readers tomisrecognize the
realrelations betweenthesetwogroupsand worksto assuage whatever
guiltEnglishreadersmayharborabouttheconquestofWales.
Gawain'sjourneyalso restores threatened manhoodand reasserts the
seminalpositionoftheEnglishin theBritishIsles.WhenGawainfirstre-
turnstoArthur's court,he bearsthegreenbelt,whichhe pronounces tobe
94 LynnAmer
hismarkofshameand whichis also hismarkofsymboliccastration.56 At

theGreenChapel,Gawainhad discoveredthathe was not"thesuperior
and singularbeinghe had thought himself tobe/'57forhe had brokenhis
knightly oathtohishostandhad flinched undertheax.TheGreenKnight/
Bertilakinterpreted thewoundas evidenceofGawain's inability topossess
complete When
self-control. the knight returns home,he reveals thegreen
belttoArthur's courtand reproduces (moreemphatically thantheoriginal
declaration) Bertilak'
s understanding ofboththegarment and thenickon
theneckas signifiers ofGawain'simperfection. The Englishcourt,how-
ever,immediately rejectstheknowledgethattheWelshlordtransmitted
via theEnglishambassador.58 Scoffing atBertilak's interpretation, thelords
and ladiesoftheRoundTablegleefully decreethat,"forsakeof]?atsegge"
("forthesakeofthatsiege,"2518),eachknightin thebrotherhood should
weara brightgreenband:"ForJât watzacordedIperenounofIpeRounde
Table,/AndhehonouredJât hithadeeuermore after"("Forthat[thegreen
band] became the glory of the Round Table, And whomeverworeitwas
honoredeverafter," 2519-20). The band is thus transformed intoan object
ofnostalgia, the
reminding English court of itsbattlewith itsfoe,wherethe
Englishemerged from theconfrontation, havingproven theirworthand
valor.Thebandbecomesa medalofcolonialcampaign, bearingwitnessto
and
Englishauthority functioning as evidence thatthe Englishdeserveto
rule.By discardingtheWelshinterpretation ofEnglishweaknessand by
reinscribing itsown understanding, one whichbecomeswidelyaccepted,
theEnglishcourtreassertsitselfas thecentralcourtin Britain, thebody
whoseunderstanding oftheworldis themostauthoritative. The English
courtthereby reinscribesitselfas thelocusofknowledge-production inthe
BritishIsles.Regardingculturalproductions, therestof Britainis repre-
sentedas whatHengidentifies as a placeofincoherent narratives and raw
materials tobe laterprocessedand givenmeaningatArthur's court,where
storiesareshapedand relayed.59 Thepoem'sstructure corroborates thepo-
sitioningofCamelotas thepreeminent courtin theland,forthenarrative
actionfocuseson Camelotin theend and reinvokes thenameofBrutusin
relationtoArthur. The references to Brutusand Troyin SGGK'sfinallines
(2522-27),echoingtheopening,situateArthurand his knights as thede-
scendents ofheroicmenand as theinheritors ofan impressive legacy.The
poemthusreasserts thattheEnglisharetheseminalfigures in Britainand
inthehistory oftheworld.
Conclusion
SGGKoffers Welshborderland
a colonialviewoftheEnglish- and ofWales,
whileprovidinga self-congratulatory onEnglandthatultimate-
perspective
lypromotestheEnglishconquestofWales.Suchare theideologicalends
ofthistaleofenchantment. The close ofthefourteenth century ushered

in theuprising(1400-1408)led by Owain GlynDwr,thelastwidespread
attempt by theWelshto gain independencefromtheircolonizers.After
Glyn Dwr' s impressiveinsurrection was extinguished,itbecameclearthat
Welshemancipation was no longerpossible.Hence,theintenseanxiety
thattheEnglishfeltearlierabouttheWelsh(as SGGKattests)musthave
eased considerably,and theEnglishwereno longercompelledtotellsuch
outlandishtales about Wales and the English-Welsh frontier.60
Because
theWelshhad irrevocably losttheirindependence, English writerscould
insteadspend theirenergieselsewhere,spinninganxioustales of other
peoples,includingtheIrish,theScottish, and eventuallytheinhabitants
oftheNew World.
The New Worldis important to keep in mind,forthetypesofcolo-
nialistparadigmsand ethnocentric knowledge-production in SGGKare
echoedinlaterEnglishtexts, no longerregarding theWelsh,butindiscus-
sionsofnon-Europeans, suchas indigenouspeoplesofAfrica,Asia,and
theAmericas.Ella Shohatand RobertStammaintainthata conceptual
and disciplinaryapparatusemployedbylatemedievalEuropeansagainst
theEuropeanOther - Jews - was laterprojectedoutwardagainstEurope's
externalOthers,namely, indigenouspeoplesofAfricaand theAmericas.61
My studysuggeststhatsome of thetermsof colonialistideologiesthat
theEnglishlateremployedin itsera of expansionand colonizationbe-
yondBritish and Europeanborderswerenotentirely new.Rather, nascent
versionsof thesetermswere firstutilizedby the Englishagainsttheir
neighborsin theBritishIsles in thelateMiddleAges beforetheEnglish
exportedthesemechanisms tomoredistantlands.
ofPittsburgh
University
Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania
NOTES
I presenteda versionofthisarticleat the36thInternational
Congresson Me-
dieval Studies,WesternMichiganUniversity, 3-6 May 2001. I am gratefulto
GeraldineHengand SheilaDelanyforinvaluablefeedbackon thisarticle.
1. Such EnglishclaimsbetrayedmoreaboutEnglishanxietiesthanaboutthe
Welsh.See R. R. Davies, Dominationand Conquest:Theexperience
ofIreland,Scotland
andWales1100-1300 (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press,1990),116-17.
2. R.R.Davies,TheAgeofConquest: Wales1063-1415(Oxford:OxfordUniversity
Press,2000),441.
3. Davies.TheAeofConquest,458.
4. As MichelleR. Warrendemonstratesin History
on theEdge:Excaliburandthe
BordersofBritain,1100-1300(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2000),
chroniclers' of thefoundingmomentsof Britain,especiallyaccounts
renditions
ofArthur, werefrequently in theborderregionsofthevariouscountries
written
96 LynnAmer
withintheBritish Islesand areintenselyinterestedin relationsbetweenEngland,

on theone hand,and Ireland,Wales,and Scotland,on theother.Warrendem-
onstrates thatArthuris an important figurein medievalBritish historiographies
surrounding colonization.
5. SirGawainandtheGreenKnight, ed. J.R. R. Tolkienand E. V.Gordon;2d ed.,
ed. NormanDavis (Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press,1967),98.
6. Referencesto SGGXare tromTolkienand Gordon,eds.,SirGawainandthe
Green Knight.Unlessotherwise noted,all translations
ofMiddleEnelisharemine.
7. Antonio Gramsci,Selections
fromthePrisonNotebooks
ofAntonioGranisci,ed.
and trans.QuintinHoare and Geoffrey
NowellSmith(New York:International
Publishers,1971); StuartHall, TheHard Road to Renewal:Thatcherism
and theCrisis
oftheLeft(London:Verso,1988);RaymondWilliams,
"Base and Superstructure
in
MarxistCultural Theory,"in Problemsin Materialismand Culture:SelectedEssays
(London:Verso,1980),31-49;LouisAlthusser,"ContradictionandOverdetermina-
tion,"in ForMarx,trans.BenBrewster (London:Verso,1990),87-128;and Louis
Althusser,"Ideologyand IdeologicalStateApparatuses(Notestowardsan Inves-
inLeninandPhilosophy
tigation)/' andother Essays,trans.BenBrewster
(New York:
Monthly ReviewPress,1971),127-86.
8. PatriciaClare Ingham, In ContrayezStraunge: ColonialRelations,Brit-
ish Identity,and Sir Gawainand theGreenKnight,"NezoMedievalLiteratures
IV, ed.
WendyScase,RitaCopeland,andDavid Lawton(Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press,
2001),61-93;and "'In Contrayez SovereignRivals,FantasiesofGender,
Straunge':
and Sir Gawainand theGreenKnight,"in SovereignFantasies:Arthurian
Romanceand
theMakingofBritain
(Philadelphia:
University ofPennsylvaniaPress,2001),107-36.
Another exampleof our is
disparities thetheoretical
assumptions subtending our
respectivearguments.Ingham uses a reflective
modelof ideology,where SGGK
reflects
English-Welshrelations,whileI understand thepoem to simultaneously
reflect
and producetheserelations.
9. Ingham,SovereignFantasies,135-36.
"AllDressedUp withSomeplacetoGo: RegionalIdentity
10.RhondaKnight, in
Sir Gawainand theGreenKnivht,"Studiesin theAge ofChaucer25 (2003): 282.
11.Knight, 269-71.
12.Fora critiqueofHomiBhabha'sformulation ofhybridity,see AniaLoomba,
(London:Routledge:1998),173-83.
Colonialism/Postcolonialism
13. Gramsci,"TheModernPrince,"in ThePrisonNotebooks, 123-205;and Hall,
"Popular-Democratic vs.Authoritarian
Populism:TwoWaysofTakingDemocracy
Seriously'"and "Gramsciand Us" in TheHardRoadtoRenewal, 123^19and 161-73.
14.In herarticlein NewMedievalLiteratures,
Ingham tocuses primarilyon the
Marchesin southeastWales and on the northeast borderregion,areas where
Englishsettlers had beenestablishedwellbeforethefourteenth century.Ingham
argues for
a hybridityofconsciousnessforpeopleinthisregionand fora peaceful
coexistence.Theseregions,however,repeatedly witnessedstrongEnglish-Welsh
antagonisms duringthelatefourteenthcentury.See Davies,"Tensionand Revolt,
1370-1415," in TheAgeofConquest,431-59,and Davies,Domination, 115-19.
15. Ingham,SovereignFantasies,132.
16. Davies, TheAgeofConquest,271.
Sir Gawainand theGreenKnight 97
17. Davies, Domination,111.See also N. J.G. Pounds, TheMedievalCastlein Eng-

land and Wales: A social and politicalhistory(Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press,1990), 159 and 166-78.
18. Davies, TheAe ofConquest,411 and 437.
19. Davies, TheAe ofConquest.437-41.
20. Davies, TheAge ofConquest,441-47.
21. Davies, Domination,116-18.
??. Davips. ThpAQp.nfCnnaupst. 419-21
23.Granted, 452-53,pointsout,someWelshmen
as Davies,TheAgeofConquest,
fromthewealthiest
(typically fromtheEnglishpresencein
ranks)who profited
Walesdistancedthemselves fromGlynDwr or evenactivelyopposedhim;how-
ever,thebattlelineswereclearlydrawn.
24. Elissa R. Henken,NationalRedeemer: in WelshTradition
Owain Glyndwr (Ithaca:
CornellUniversityPress,1996),26-27,and Davies,TheAgeofConquest, 434-35.
25. Henken,23-53.See also Davies,TheAgeofConquest, 434-37and 449,and
Warren, 72-76.
26. RogerShermanLoomis,"EdwardI, Arthurian Enthusiast/'Speculum28
discusses
(1953),114-27, Edward I' s claimsfor with
continuity Arthur.
27.See note7.
28.Regarding suchotherworldly elements,seeMurielA. Whitaker,
"Otherworld
Castlesin MiddleEnglishArthurian Romance/'in TheMedievalCastle:Romance
ed. Kathryn
andReality, Reyerson and FayePowe (Dubuque,Iowa: Kendall/Hunt
PublishingCompany, 35-36;
1984), MartinPuhvel,"Snowand Mistin SirGawain
and theGreenKnight-Portentsof the Otherworld?" 89 (1978),224-28;
Folklore
BarbaraKline,"Duality, and Magicin SirGawainandtheGreenKnight,"
Reality, in
FunctionsoftheFantastic:SelectedEssaysfromtheThirteenth
International
Conference
on theFantastic in theArts,ed. JoeSanders(Westport,Connecticut: Greenwood
Press,1995),109-10;and HelenCooper,"TheSupernatural," inA Companion tothe
Gawain-Poet, ed. DerekBrewerand Jonathan Gibson(Cambridge:D. S. Brewer,
1997),277-91.
29.See note25.
30. MalcolmAndrewand RonaldWaldron,eds., ThePoemsofthePearlManu-
script(Berkeley: University Press,1978),235,n. 721.
ofCalifornia
31. The glossin Tolkienand Gordon'seditionreads,"'Halfa gianton earthI
believehe was,butat anyratethebiggestofmenI declarehimtobe"' (80).
32. LawrenceBesserman,"The Idea of the GreenKnight,"ELH 53 (1986):
226,translates "Hautdesert"as "'High Wasteland,'"whileMichaelW. Twomey,
"Morganle Fay at Hautdesert,"in On Arthurian Women:Essaysin Memory of
Maureen Fries,ed. BonnieWheelerand FionaTolhurst Press,
(Dallas: Scriptorium
2001),105,translates thetermprincipallyas "highwilderness." Bothtranslations
supportmyargument.
33.Catherine A. LutzandJaneL. Collins,ReadingNationalGeographic(Chicago:
The University ofChicagoPress,1993),111-13,116-17,125,150-51,247-53,and
268. Fora versionof thistemporaltropein TheMan ofEaw'sTale,see Kathleen
Davis,"TimeBehindtheVeil:TheMedia,theMiddleAges,andOrientalism Now,"
in ThePostcolonial MiddleAges,ed. Jeffrey
Jerome Cohen(New York:St.Martin's
Press,2000),105-22.
98 LynnAmer
34. SheilaFisher,'Taken Men and TokenWomenin Sir Gawainand theGreen
Knight"in Seeking theWomanin LateMedievalandRenaissance Essaysin
Writings:
Feminist Contextual Criticism, ed. SheilaFisherand JanetE. Halley(Knoxville: The
University ofTennesseePress,1989),79-80.
35. GeraldineHeng,"FeminineKnotsand theOther:SirGawainandtheGreen
Knight/' PMLA106(1991):505.
36.Fisher, 77.
37.Fisher, 79-80.
38. Davies, Domination, 109-11.Knight,274,arguesthatthejuxtaposition of
wildnessand courtliness in theGreenKnightis subversive to thedominantmet-
ropolitan culturerepresented byArthur'scourt.
39.Cooper,286-88,discussestheambiguity oftheGreenKnight.
40.LarryD. Benson,ArtandTradition inSirGawainand theGreenKnight(New
Brunswick, New Jersey: RutgersUniversity Press,1965),72-95.
41.Ingham,Sovereign Fantasies, 109-14,discussesGeraldofWales'sconnections
withcolonization intheBritish Isles.
42. GeraldofWales,TheHistorical Works ofGiraldus Cambrensis, trans,and ed.
ThomasWright (London:H. G. Bohn,1863),135.
43.1am indebtedtoGeraldineHengforraisingtheissueofpluck-buffet.
44. Kline,112,remarks,theirsilenceis due notjustto fearbutto theircortay-
sye/implying thateveninthefaceofsucha terrifying sightas a brightgreenman
on a greenhorse,Arthur'scourtmaintains perfect decorum/'
45. Interestingly, whentheCarl is a carl,he livesin Wales.However,oncethe
enchantment is brokenand hebecomesa morefunctional humanbeing,he appar-
entlyprepares to move to Carlisle.
46. See GraldineHeng,"A WomanWants:The Lady,Gawain,and theForms
ofSeduction," TheYaleJournal ofCriticism 5 (1992):110-15,fora discussionofthe
articulation offemaledesireand Gawain'sconformation tofemaledemands.
47. For a discussionof thiscommoncolonialisttrope,see AnneMcClintock,
Imperial Leather: Race,Gender andSexuality intheColonialContest (New York:Rout-
ledge, 1995):21-24. See also Loomba, 151-60.
48. For discussionsof thisalignment, see Loomba,151-55and 160-63,and
McClintock, 21-31and 54-56.
49. Regarding Arthur'sboyishness, consult,forexample,Christine Chism,Al-
literativeRevivals(Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2002),68-74,
and ClareR. Kinney, 'The (Dis)EmbodiedHeroand theSignsofManhoodin Sir
GawainandtheGreen Knight," inMedieval Masculinities:Regarding MenintheMiddle
Ages, ed. Clare A. Lees (Minneapolis: University of MinnesotaPress, 1994),48-49.
50. SarahStanbury, SeeingtheGawain-Poef: andtheActofPerception
Description
(Philadelphia: University ofPennsylvania Press,1991),97,briefly remarks thatbe-
cause theGreenKnightis unableto identify Arthuramonghis knights, Camelot
is perhapsnotas ordered(and itsstructure is notas coherentand apparent)as the
openingstanzasofthepoemlead readerstobelieve.
51.RobertBlanchand JulianWasserman, 'The MedievalCourtand theGawain
Manuscript," in The Medieval Court in Europe, ed. EdwardR. Haymes(Munich:
WilhelmFinkVerlag,1986),181-82,arguethatArthur'sfailureto sitat thecenter
Sir Gazvainand theGreenKnight 99
ofhis assemblyindicatesa lack of orderat Camelot.By contrast, Fisher,79-80,

impliesthattheseatofhonorshouldbe reservedfora high-ranking ecclesiastic,
as therepresentative ofa divineking,who rulesoveran earthlyone. Therefore,
Arthur'sseatingarrangement does reinscribeorder.
52.Davies,Domination, 113-15.
53. For later,notentirely dissimilargenderedtalesof colonialcampaign,see
Donna Haraway,Primate Visions:Gender, Race,andNaturein theWorldofModern
Science (NewYork:Routledge, 1989),26-58,especially42-58,andbellhooks,Black
Looks:RaceandRepresentation (Boston:SouthEnd Press,1992),22-26.
54.Ingham,NewMedieval 83-90,especially87-89and 83,n. 47; and
Literatures,
Sovereign Fantasies,especially107-09,121,and 130-34.Kinney, 54-55,is interested
incollapsingdifferences betweenGawainand theborder-dwellers, butherdecon-
struction is premisedupona universal, humancondition.
55. Fora discussionof a dominantgroupclaimingminoritization, see Robyn
Wiegman,"WhatAils Feminist Criticism?A SecondOpinion/'Critical Inquiry25
(1999):376-79.
56. Heng,"FeminineKnots/'505-06,also viewsthegashon Gawain's neckas
a markofcastration.
57.Kinney, 54. Kinneynotesthatreadershaveregularly observedthatGawain
makesthisdiscovery.
58.Referring tothegirdleas a "commodity." Knight, arguesthatArthur's
283-84,
courtisunabletounderstand theworldbeyonditsown,quicklyothering objectsand
persons, investing themwithnewmeaning, makingthemsafeand consumable.
59.GraldineHeng,Empire ofMagic:Medieval Romance andthePoliticsofCultural
Fantasy (New York:ColumbiaUniversity Press,2003),249-50.
oU.Une textthatatteststo thisshittis thesixteenth-century piece WhyIhere
Are No Welshmenin Heaven,"in MedievalComicTales,trans.PeterRickardet
al. (Totowa,New Jersey: Rowmanand Littlefield, 1973),55-56.ThisEnglishjest,
whichportrays Welshmen as astonishingly easy to outwit,revealsinfinitelyless
anxiety abouttheWelshthandoes SGGK.Theearliestknownversionofthistaleis
inA Hundred MeryTalys(1526).
61. Ella Shohatand RobertStam,Unthinking Eurocentrism:
Multiculturalismand
theMedia(London:Routledge, 1994),60.
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The Ends of Enchantment: Colonialism and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Author(s): Lynn Arner

By thethirteenth century, theEnglishhad learnedthattheWelshwere

and Language,Vol. 48, No. 2, Summer2006

This articleinvestigatesSGGK's participation in colonialstruggles

Inghamviews the intermixing of the Welshand English(in the poem

hybridity,insisting thatGawain'sidentity is a "culturalcollage"and that

TheEnglishfearedWelshuprisings, a fearthatintersected withapprehen-

notonlyas thesporadicanti-English violencethroughout thefourteenth

English- Welshcolonialstruggles includedcontestations overKingArthur.

By anglicizingArthur, SGGKchallengesWelshclaimsto be thede-

AfterpassingtheAngleseyIslandsand traversing northern Wales- areas

thelistof Gawain's opponentsspecifically includesgiants(723);and the

there,thisknight, themostreverent ofmen,shedssomeofhis immense

"We!Lorde,"quoj} '>e gentylekny3t,

"Now iwysse,"quo]?Wowayn,"wystyis here;

"Alas! Lord,"says thenobleknight,"Is thistheGreenChapel?Around

TheassociationofMorganand Bertilak, therulersofthecastle,withwick-

scenesindicates,Lady Bertilakpreysaggressively upon Gawain,an un-

betweenborder-dwellers (and theWelsh)and Arthur'sEnglishcourt,the

theartofgood governance). Inhabitantsofthefrontierand ofWales,the

As the discussionof Morgan'srule indicates,ideologiesof colonialism

hedoesnotengageinadultery, whichwouldhavebeena grossaffront tohis

hismarkofshameand whichis also hismarkofsymboliccastration.56 At

ofthistaleofenchantment. The close ofthefourteenth century ushered

withintheBritish Islesand areintenselyinterestedin relationsbetweenEngland,

17. Davies, Domination,111.See also N. J.G. Pounds, TheMedievalCastlein Eng-

ofhis assemblyindicatesa lack of orderat Camelot.By contrast, Fisher,79-80,

Blanch,Robert, andJulian Wasserman. 'The MedievalCourtandtheGawainManu-

Kline,Barbara."Duality, Reality, and Magicin SirGawainandtheGreen Knight." In

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