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The Changi East Reclamation projects in Singapore were implemented in ve phases starting from 1991 and
completed in 2005. Due to the excessive magnitude of settlement likely to occur over a long period of duration
caused by the consolidation process, an extensively large area was required to be improved using ground
improvement techniques to accelerate the consolidation process. The planning and implementation of site
investigation works for land reclamation projects is discussed in this paper. An accurate and extensive geotechnical
characterisation of underlying soft compressible marine clay was undertaken as part of this project. The geotechnical
characterisation was undertaken using site investigation, specialised laboratory testing and specialised in situ
testing. Correlations were obtained using empirical methods, which will be useful for future use such as correlations
between classication parameters as well as specialised in situ test parameters and strength and compressibility
parameters of Singapore marine clay at Changi, Singapore. This paper presents how the research-oriented ground
investigation projects were implemented for this mega land reclamation project in the Republic of Singapore.
30
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Geotechnical Research Research-oriented ground investigation
Volume 4 Issue GR1 projects at Changi, Singapore
Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
Republic of Singapore
Location
Singapore Changi airport
Phase 1C Phase 1B
A A
B Phase 1A B
Area A
Area A (south)
(north)
Sea
Figure 1. Location of the Changi East Reclamation projects (Chu et al., 2009)
foreshore areas, boundaries and edges of land reclamation were research-level planning, investigation and implementation processes
required to be retained and protected by suitable forms of shore- was required throughout the projects from the master planning to
protection structures. These shore-protection structures were the commissioning stages. Several kinds of quality control and
required for short- and long-term stability designs. quality assurance and several pilot tests were implemented. This
paper presents how the research-oriented ground investigation at
In order to be able to implement these complex projects successfully, Changi East Reclamation and Ground Improvement projects was
using the latest state-of-the-art technologies, the implementation of implemented in the last decade in the Republic of Singapore.
31
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Geotechnical Research Research-oriented ground investigation
Volume 4 Issue GR1 projects at Changi, Singapore
Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
Table 2. Details of construction materials used in the Changi East Reclamation projects
Phase 1A Phase 1B Phase 1C Area A (north) Area A (south) Total
3
Sand: million m 65 75 68 12 52 272
Rock: million m3 1 103 009 212
PVD: linear m 28 49 133 504 1407
Geofabric: million m2 05 04 0075 0975
Steel: t 14 000
32
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Y 2500
Volume 4 Issue GR1
D1 area
Tanah Merah
Geotechnical Research
Ro
ck
Ferry terminal
bu
nd
0
A4 area
0
00 C4 area
10
20
300
Pilot D1
0
300
0
00
200
0 A2 area
30
0
0
0
10
20
0
20
0
20
0
00
100
0
100
0
200
10
00 NT area
A3E area 100
0
A6 area
Y 500 A7 area
10
00
30
00
Phase-1A 3000
30
0
0
50
400
0
0
0
00
100
400
30
0
0
4000
000
20
4000
2000
0
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Y 500
2000
3000
000
00
10 1000
10
0
0
000 0
200
50
00
10
Y 1500 00
00
40
0
10
00
100
0
0
10
00
2000
3000
100
200
000
projects at Changi, Singapore
X 000
X 1000
X 2000
X 3000
X 4000
X 5000
X 6000
X 6500
X 1000
Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
Figure 2. Diagram (isoline) showing the total thickness of marine clay (Bo et al., 2012)
33
Geotechnical Research Research-oriented ground investigation
Volume 4 Issue GR1 projects at Changi, Singapore
Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
geophysical survey. Site investigations at the foreshore location self-boring pressuremeter tests (SBPMTs)
were usually carried out from a jack-up pontoon. Bengt-Arne Torstensson permeameter tests (Bats)
seismic cone tests (SCTs)
Usually, continuous undisturbed sampling with either a piston cone pressuremeter tests (CPMTs)
sampler or thin-wall sampler was carried out. The choice of gammagamma probing
sampler was made depending on the consistency of the clay plate load tests (PLTs)
encountered. Samples of soft clay (less than 25 kPa) were taken screw plate tests (SPLTs)
with either a 75 or a 100 mm dia. piston sampler, whereas rm clay ram sounding tests (RSTs).
samples (between 25 and 50 kPa) were taken with a 100 mm dia.
Shelby tube thin-wall sampler. Samples of stiff-to-hard clay (greater Many of the specialised in situ tests were carried out side-by-
than 50 kPa) were taken with a thick-wall drive sampler. Collected side with conventional in situ tests and standard boring and
sample tubes were sealed straight away with a mixture of wax and sampling; many site-specic empirical correlations required for
Vaseline on-site and sent to the on-site laboratory with great care geotechnical parameter interpretations were developed during the
during transportation. If there was soft clay or rm clay, eld vane site investigation.
shear tests (FVTs) were carried out adjacent to the borehole to
measure the in situ undrained shear strength of the clay. The type of tests carried out, measured parameters and interpreted
parameters obtained are given in Table 4. Details of each type of
Termination criteria of boreholes were generally set as achieving in situ test are briey described below.
three consecutive standard penetration test (SPT) blow counts of
50. The SPT was used only for the determination of termination CONE PENETRATION TESTS WITH PORE PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
criteria in accordance with the specication requirement stated Extensive numbers of CPTUs were carried out for site
above and was not used for any characterisation purpose. characterisation purposes, stratigraphic proling purposes and
compaction quality control purposes. Cone resistances and side
Details of the site investigation works for Changi East Reclamation frictions were measured, and those parameters were used for
projects can also be found in the studies by Bo et al. (1998a, the classication and interpretation of geotechnical parameters.
1998b, 2000, 2003, 2012) and Arulrajah et al. (2004b, 2006a, CPTUs were also used, not only for the determination of
2006b). Table 3 gives the numbers of boreholes and conventional clay thicknesses and PVD installation depths but also for the
in situ tests carried out for the various phases of the projects. measurement of the settlement after ground improvement. Various
applications of CPTU in these projects are described in detail by
Specialised in situ testing Bo et al. (2001). The number of cone penetration tests (CPTs)
As the project being carried out has major geotechnical carried out in Changi East Reclamation and Ground Improvement
challenges, many advanced geotechnical parameters, such as the projects is given in Table 5.
coefcient of consolidation due to horizontal ow, modulus of
elasticity, overconsolidation ratio (OCR), shear wave velocities DILATOMETER TESTS
and so on, were required for geotechnical analyses and modelling. DMTs were also carried out prior to the improvement and post-
Therefore, the following kinds of specialised geotechnical in situ improvement of compressible soft clay. Pressures required to
tests were carried out in each project phase both prior to land inate the attached membrane were measured, and the pressure
reclamation and during and after soil improvement during the deation was measured. These measured pressures
were used to classify the soils and interpret the geotechnical
cone penetration tests with pore pressure measurements (CPTUs) parameters. The details of DMTs carried out in these projects are
dilatometer tests (DMTs) described by Arulrajah et al. (2004a) and Chang et al. (1998).
Table 3. Numbers of boreholes, SPT and FVT carried out in Changi East Reclamation projects
Projects
Total
Phase 1A Phase 1B Phase 1C Area A (north) Area A (south)
Number of offshore boreholes 82 75 139 10 51 357
Number of offshore SPTs 941 441 1461 176 820 3839
Number of offshore FVTs 40 99 118 10 43 310
Number of land boreholes 112 162 211 64 51 600
Number of land SPTs 1216 848 1524 669 246 4503
Number of land FVTs 35 193 188 62 76 554
Total number of boreholes 194 237 350 74 102 957
Total number of SPTs 2157 1289 2985 845 1066 8342
Total number of FVTs 75 292 306 72 119 864
34
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Geotechnical Research Research-oriented ground investigation
Volume 4 Issue GR1 projects at Changi, Singapore
Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
Table 4. Types of in situ specialised test, measured parameters SEISMIC CONE TESTS
and interpreted geotechnical parameters Several SCTs were carried out prior to the improvement and post-
Measured parameters Interpreted parameters improvement of granular soils. A seismic cone was pushed into
the granular soils, which registered cone resistances and side
CPT Cone resistance Undrained shear strength
Side friction OCR frictions. At the depth of interest, seismic waves were generated
Pore pressure Coefcient of and measured. Shear wave velocities and shear modulus were
Pore pressure consolidation interpreted from the measurements. Details of SCTs carried out in
dissipation Modulus these projects are described in the study by Bo and Choa (2004).
DMT Material index Undrained shear strength
Lateral stress index OCR
Total stress dissipation Coefcient of CONE PRESSUREMETER TESTS
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Geotechnical Research Research-oriented ground investigation
Volume 4 Issue GR1 projects at Changi, Singapore
Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
the depths of interest and PLTs carried out at various depths to the comparison of geotechnical parameters obtained from pre- and
determine the modulus of elasticity and stress-strain characteristics of post-ground improvement. Table 6 gives the number of specialised
granular soils both prior to improvement and post-improvement. in situ tests carried out in Changi East Reclamation projects.
After soil improvement Water Natural void Preconsolidation UU shear strength: Field vane:
Prior to reclamation
with vertical drain content: % ratio pressure: kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2
PB-12 (Seabed 402 m CD) 0 25 50 75 100 0 1 2 3 0 100 200 300 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 20 40 60 80 100
15
Elevation: m
Sandy clay
Predicted
Sand with gravels Dense, fine-to-
25 preconsolidation Date of surcharge:
coarse sand with
pressure 30 December 1994
traces of silt and Date of surcharge: 30 December 1994
Very dense clayey Date of assessment test:
organic materials Date of assessment test: 2 April 1996 4 June 1996
sand
Figure 3. Comparison of geotechnical parameters obtained from pre- and post-ground improvement (Bo and Choa, 2004)
Table 6. Numbers of specialist in situ tests carried out at Changi East Reclamation projects
Projects
Total
Phase 1A Phase 1B Phase 1C Area A (north) Area A (south)
DMT 0 11 10 2 4 27
SBPT 0 11 10 2 4 27
Bat 0 8 27 2 6 54
CPMT 0 85 31 0 0 116
Ram sounding 78 1463 0 0 243 1784
Seismic cone 0 3 0 0 0 3
In situ permeability test 0 0 10 0 3 13
36
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Geotechnical Research Research-oriented ground investigation
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Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
Table 7. Numbers of various conventional and specialised laboratory tests carried out at the Changi East Reclamation projects
Phase 1A Phase 1B Phase 1C Area (north) Area A (south) Total
Moisture content 1640 2250 4170 400 1530 9990
Atterberg limits 820 1130 2085 200 765 5000
Laboratory vane tests 820 1130 2085 200 765 5000
Grain size distribution 3250 3750 3400 600 2600 13 600
Hydrometer 820 1130 2085 200 765 5000
Specic gravity 205 283 520 50 190 1248
Organic content 100 100 200 25 50 475
UU 410 565 1040 100 380 2495
Direct shear 205 280 520 50 190 1245
CIU triaxial 5 30 50 5 20 110
CID triaxial 5 30 40 5 15 95
CK0U triaxial 10 20 5 10 45
Shansep 5 5 2 3 15
Oedometer 410 565 1040 100 380 2495
Rowe cell 50 100 10 20 180
CRS 10 30 5 10 55
CRL 10 30 5 10 55
XRD 5 5 5 5 5 25
SEM 5 5 5 5 5 25
UU, unconsolidated undrained; CIU, isotropically consolidated undrained; CID, isotropically consolidated drained; CK0U, consolidated undrained; Shansep, stress
history and normalised soil engineering properties; XRD, X-ray diffraction; SEM, scanning electron microscopy
oedometer consolidation tests could be carried out in these Mineralogy tests on marine clay
laboratories. The mineralogy of the marine clay was determined by the
extraction of piston samples for X-ray diffraction (XRD) and
In addition to the conventional laboratory set-up, each laboratory scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses.
also included specialised equipment such as the Bishop and
Horsley stress path equipment to be able to perform stress path X-ray diffraction
tests and a hydraulic Rowe cell to carry out consolidation tests The XRD analysis was conducted using a Philips PW1700 series
under various drainage conditions to obtain the coefcient diffractometer equipped with a cobalt target tube and operated at
of consolidation due to horizontal ow. The hydraulic Rowe 45 kV and 40 mA. The clay mineralogy of the air-dried and glycol-
cell was also extensively used to carry out end-of-primary (EOP) solvated samples was determined using oriented mounts from 15 to
consolidation tests, constant rate of loading (CRL) and constant 32 2q with 048 2q/min, where q was the diffraction angle. The
rate of strain (CRS) tests to obtain compression and consolidation diffraction data were analysed using Philips APD1700 software
parameters under various rates of loading and strain rates. coupled with a Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards
Photographic identication
Photographic identication of the marine clay obtained from the
marine sampling boreholes was carried out with a high-resolution
camera. The marine clay specimens were extruded, and the entire
length of the specimen was carefully cut and subsequently opened
in two different ways: by cutting it with a wire saw and
by splitting it open without cutting it. Opening the specimen
exposed the inner core of the specimen to enable identication of
the textures and laminations of the marine clay. Figure 4 shows
the photographic identication of the upper marine clay. The
colour of the marine clay was compared with colour charts to
describe the colour of the various layers of marine clay.
Photographic identication enables the characterisation of the
colours, textures and laminations of the marine clay. The
Figure 4. Photographic identication of upper marine clay (Bo et
identication depths of the sand seams, organic material and al., 2015a)
layers of past exposure to oxidation are also evident.
37
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Geotechnical Research Research-oriented ground investigation
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Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
Kaolinite
Scanning electron microscopy
Smectite Mica
The SEM specimens were examined in an energy-dispersive X-ray
Chlorite
analysis system, which provided qualitative chemical information 18 m
from areas of interest. An accelerating voltage of 20 kV was used Glycol-solvated
SmectiteMica
throughout this study. The concentration qualitative chemistry of
Kaolinite 18 m
each clay mineral is identied on the list of elements detected.
Air-dry
Figure 6 shows the SEM micrographs for the marine clay (plates
13, upper marine clay; plates 46, lower marine clay) showing Kaolinite
the content of kaolinite and smectite minerals and their pore sizes. Smectite
Mica
Smectite
one-dimensional (1D) oedometer tests with various load
Mica
increment ratios
1D oedometer tests with various loading duration on each step Glycol-solvated 8m
between 12 and 72 h
Kaolinite
EOP tests Smectite Mica
the ring was detached from the extruded sample using a wire saw.
Loads were applied in stages from 25 to 1600 kPa with a load
Kaolinite
incremental ratio of unity. Each step of load was applied either for
Smectite
24 h or until the EOP. However, tests with longer duration were also Mica
38
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Geotechnical Research Research-oriented ground investigation
Volume 4 Issue GR1 projects at Changi, Singapore
Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
Figure 6. SEM micrographs of marine clay: plates 13 for upper marine clay and plates 46 for lower marine clay (Bo et al., 2015a)
Constant rate of loading tests of 150 and 75 mm were used. Pore water pressure was measured
The CRL tests were carried out using a modied triaxial cell on at the centre of the bottom boundary. The following types of
specimens that were trimmed inside the standard oedometer ring. consolidation tests were carried out
The dimensions of the samples were identical to the oedometer
samples. Drainage was from the top, and the pore water pressure vertical drainage under either EOP or CRS load
was measured at the centre of the bottom boundary. The loading horizontal drainage to the centre under EOP load
rates used for different tests varied between 3 and 9 kPa/h. Details horizontal drainage to the side boundary under EOP or CRS
of the CRL tests carried out at Changi Reclamation projects can load.
be found in the study by Bo et al. (2010).
EOP determinations on these tests were based on the pore
Rowe cell tests pressure measurement at the base of the sample.
The Rowe cell tests were carried out primarily to measure
the coefcient of consolidation in the horizontal direction (Chu Isotropic consolidation test
et al., 2002), but were also used to estimate the compressibility For the completeness of the study, isotropic consolidation tests
properties of the soil, although the horizontal drainage could were also carried out using a triaxial cell on 38 mm dia. and
slightly affect the compressibility of the soil (Atkinson et al., 76 mm high specimens to establish the isotropic compression line.
1985; Houlsby and Nageswaran, 1982). Rowe cells of diameters Details of these tests can be found in the study by Bo et al.
39
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Geotechnical Research Research-oriented ground investigation
Volume 4 Issue GR1 projects at Changi, Singapore
Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
(2016). Details of consolidation tests on Singapore marine clay generally greater than 95%. Due to the thin nature of intermediate
can be found in the study by Chu et al. (2004). One-dimensional clay and its low compressibility, the correlation of such layers was
consolidation tests on Singapore marine clay were extensively not carried out
discussed by Bo et al. (1998c, 2001b, 2016).
upper marine clay
Strength tests
The following strength tests were carried out in order to study
the stress strain-dependent strength characteristics of Singapore
1a. Cc 0025W 325
marine clay
Table 8. Comparison of compression and recompression indices from various consolidation tests
24 h EOP RC(1) RC(3) RC(4) CRS 05 mm/h CRS: 10 mm/h CRS: 15 mm/h CRS 20 mm/h
Cc 086 076 098 089 089 091 115 094 123
Cr 007 006 012
40
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Geotechnical Research Research-oriented ground investigation
Volume 4 Issue GR1 projects at Changi, Singapore
Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
90
75
Moisture content: %
60
y = 03024x + 76746
45
30
15
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Figure 7. Correlation between undrained shear tests obtained from FVTs and natural moisture content
12 12
Undrained shear strength ratio: su/v
10 10
08 08
06 06
04 04
0 0
1 5 10 1 5 10
Overconsolidation ratio Overconsolidation ratio
(a) (b)
Figure 8. Correlation between normalised undrained shear strength and overconsolidation ratio of (a) upper marine clay and (b) lower marine
clay
41
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Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
3
8. Nkt 13 55=50PI 2
su/v = 03652(OCR)08676
qt, is inuenced by the stress history of soil and critical state soil
1 parameters. Bo et al. (1998b) proposed an empirical correlation
between Nkt and the plastic index based on eld vane test data
and CPTU data from the Singapore marine clay (Figure 10), and
the correlation is as follows
0
01 1 10
OCR 9. Nkt 238 0263PI
7. su qt svo =Nkt
50
where svo is total overburden pressure and Nkt is the cone factor. 45
40
the type of clay and the eld or laboratory test on which the su value 30
inferred Nkt values for different clays. For example, De Ruiter (1982) 20
reported that the typical values of Nkt were 1015 for normally 15
consolidated clay and 1521 for the on-land Singapore marine clay, Nkt = 238 0263PI
10
which is generally lightly overconsolidated. However, the range of 5
the Nkt values reported by both has a maximum difference of 56. 0
This variation in Nkt values could lead to a 3040% difference in the 0 20 40 60 80
Plastic index, PI: %
predicted undrained shear strength.
Figure 10. Correlation between cone factor (Nkt) and plastic index
Aas et al. (1986) proposed a relationship between Nkt and the (PI)
plastic index (PI) of clay as follows
42
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Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
0
where svo is effective vertical stress and KD is the lateral stress Correlation of OCR with in situ measured
index. Bo et al. (2000) proposed the power function as 10 for parameters
upper and intermediate Singapore marine clay and 07 for lower
Correlation of cone resistance with OCR
Singapore marine clay, instead of 125. Figure 11 shows the su
Proling of OCR in clays by piezocone soundings was widely
values estimated from DMT.
discussed by Mayne and Bachus (1988). Sugawara (1988) proposed
the following equation for estimating OCR from clay
Correlation of limit pressure with undrained shear
strength 0
13. qt svo =svo kOCR
Undrained shear strength can also be estimated from limit
pressure using the following equation
where k is the coefcient of constant
P sho
su L
11. Np The interpretation of the OCR of Singapore marine clay from
cone penetration tests was also described by Chang (1991). Chang
et al. (1997) proposed the correlation of OCR with pore pressure
where parameters Bq as follows
Np 1 loge
G 14. OCR 23Bq= 37Bq 1
12. Su
vane shear strength tests carried out site by site at many locations
and depths at Changi, Singapore. 16. forBq 075085
Undrained shear strength where L is the coefcient of constant with value of 075 and M =
0 20 40 60 80 100 6 sin f0 /(3 sin f0 ).
0
5 SBPT2 The estimation of OCR from the CPT can be based on the net
corrected cone resistance normalised by the overburden pressures.
10 FVT-VA6 Bo et al. (1998b) have proposed the following correlation with
OCR (Figure 13) and normalised corrected cone resistance
Elevation: mCD
15 DMT2
0
20 CPT2 17. OCR a qt svo =svo
25 CK0U
where a is a constant and has a value of 032 for the Singapore
30
marine clay at Changi.
35
The correlations above are obtained by applying regression
40
analyses on a large database for the Changi site using cone
resistance data and OCR values interpreted from oedometer tests
Figure 11. Undrained shear strength interpreted from specialised
in situ tests (Bo and Choa, 2004) carried out on the samples collected at the same location and
same depths from the boreholes.
43
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Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
Elevation: mCD
15
10
20 SBPT2
FVT-VA6
25
Elevation: mCD
15
DMT2
30
CPT2
35
20 Oedometer
40
30
1=h 1
K0oc
OCR 01 1 10
19. K0nc OCR
44
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Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
Conclusions REFERENCES
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history, undrained shear strength and normalised soil engineering Singapore marine clay at Changi. Quarterly Journal of Engineering
properties of the Singapore marine clay in Changi from in situ Geology 31(42): 291299.
Bo MW, Arulrajah A, Choa V and Chang MF (1998b) Site characterization
tests as well as from laboratory tests. Correlations were also
for a land reclamation project at Changi in Singapore. In 1st
established between Swedish ram sounding equipment and SPTs. International Conference on Site Characterization (Geotechnical Site
Characterization) (Robertson PK and Mayne PW (eds)). Balkema,
In addition to the conventional oedometer tests, various types of Leiden, the Netherlands, pp. 333340.
consolidation tests such as CRS, CRL, EOP and Rowe cell tests Bo MW, Cao LF, Chu J and Choa V (1998c) One-dimensional
with various combinations of strain rates, loading rates and drainage consolidation tests on Singapore marine clay at Changi. Proceedings
of the 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Taipei, Taiwan,
condition were carried out to study the stress-, strain- and drainage-
pp. 199206.
dependent consolidation behaviours of Singapore marine clay in Bo MW, Chang MF, Arulrajah A and Choa V (2000) Undrained shear
Changi. Empirical correlations have been proposed for relationships strength of the Singapore marine clay at Changi from in-situ tests.
between classication parameters as well as compressibility Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the Southeast Asian
parameters for the marine clay in Changi, Singapore. Geotechnical Society 31(2): 91107.
Bo MW, Chu J and Choa V (2001) Comparison of consolidation
parameters measured by laboratory and in-situ tests. Proceedings of
The properties and correlations developed for the Singapore
the 15th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
marine clay at Changi in this paper will be useful to researchers Geotechnical Engineering, Istanbul, Turkey.
and practising engineers involved in land reclamation and ground Bo MW, Choa V and Hong KH (2003) Material characterization of
improvement projects on soft marine clay formations. Singapore marine clay at Changi. Quarterly Journal of Engineering
Geology and Hydrogeology 36(4): 305319, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/
Acknowledgements 1470-9236/03-009.
Bo MW, Choa V and Wong KS (2008) Constant rate of displacement test
The fourth and last authors are grateful to the Thailand Research on ultra-soft soils. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Fund under the TRF Senior Research Scholar programme grant Geotechnical Engineering 161(3): 129135, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
RTA5980005 and Suranaree University of Technology. geng.2008.161.3.129.
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Geotechnical Research Research-oriented ground investigation
Volume 4 Issue GR1 projects at Changi, Singapore
Bo, Arulrajah, Choa, Horpibulsuk and Samingthong
Bo MW, Choa V and Wong KS (2009) Discussion on constant rate of Choa V, Chu J, Bawajee R, Bo MW and Arulrajah A (1996) The strength
displacement test on ultra-soft soils. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil and consolidation behaviour of Singapore marine clay at Changi.
Engineers Geotechnical Engineering 162(6): 347348, http://dx.doi. Proceedings of the 12th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference,
org/10.1680/geng.2009.162.6.347. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 8185.
Bo MW, Choa V and Wong KS (2010) Constant rate of loading test on Chu J, Choa V and Bo MW (1999) Determination of undrained shear
ultra-soft soil. Geotechnical Testing Journal 33(3): 192200, strength of clay by direct simple shear tests. In 11th Asian Regional
http://dx.doi.org/10.1520/GTJ102802. Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
Bo MW, Chang MF, Arulrajah A and Choa V (2012) Ground investigations (Hong SW (ed.)). Balkema, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, pp. 4952.
for Changi East Reclamation projects. Geotechnical Chu J, Bo MW, Chang MF and Choa V (2002) The consolidation and
and Geological Engineering 30(1): 4562, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ permeability properties of Singapore marine clay. Geotechnical and
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Bo MW, Arulrajah A, Leong M, Horpibulsuk S and Disfani MM (2014) http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2002)128:9(724).
Evaluating the in-situ hydraulic conductivity of soft soil under land Chu J, Bo MW, Chang MF and Choa V (2004) Closure to the consolidation
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