Handbook on Aircraft Mass & Balance

Handbook on Aircraft Mass &

Balance

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 Handbook on Aircraft Mass & Balance

Aircraft Weight/Mass Breakup

Taxi Fuel

The Composition of Aeroplane Weight

The total weight of an aeroplane is the weight of the aeroplane and everyone
and everything carried on it or in it. Total weight comprises three elements, the
basic weight, the variable load and the disposable load.

This is the aeroplane weight plus basic equipment, unusable

fuel and un-drainable oil. Basic equipment is that which is
Basic Weight
common to all roles plus inconsumable fluids such as
hydraulic fluid

This includes the role equipment, the crew and crew baggage.
Role equipment is that which is required to complete a
Variable Load specific task such as seats, toilets and galley for the
passenger role or roller conveyor, lashing points and tie down
equipment for the freight role.

The traffic load plus usable fuel and consumable fluids. The
Disposable traffic load is the total weight of passengers, baggage and
Load cargo, including any non-revenue load. The disposable load is
sometimes referred to as the useful load

Absolute
Traffic Load: The maximum traffic load that may be carried in any
circumstance. It is a limitation caused by the stress limitation
of the airframe and is equal to the maximum zero fuel

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weight minus the aircraft prepared for service weight

All Up Weight The total weight of an aircraft and all of its contents at a
(AUW): specific time.
Design
The lowest weight at which an aeroplane complies with the
Minimum
structural requirements for its own safety.
Weight:
The total weight of the aeroplane for a specific type of
operation excluding all usable fuel and traffic loads.

It includes such items as crew, crew baggage, catering

Dry Operating equipment, removable passenger service equipment, and
Weight: potable water and lavatory chemicals.

The items to be included are decided by the Operator. The dry

operating weight is also referred to as the Aircraft Prepared
for Service (APS) weight.

Total Loaded The sum of the aircraft basic weight, the variable load and
Weight: disposable load.

The weight of the aircraft excluding usable fuel, crew and

traffic load but including fixed ballast, engine oil, engine
Empty Weight/
coolants (if applicable) and all hydraulic fluid and all other
Standard
fluids required for normal operation and aircraft systems,
Empty Weight:
except potable water, lavatory pre-charge water and fluids
intended for injection into the engine

Landing The gross weight of the aeroplane, including all of its

Weight: contents, at the time of landing.

The maximum weight at which an aircraft may commence

taxiing and its equal to the maximum take-off weight plus
Maximum
taxi fuel and run-up fuel.
Ramp Weight:

*** It must not exceed the surface load bearing strength.

Maximum
Structural The maximum permissible total aeroplane weight on landing
Landing in normal circumstances.
Weight:

This is the dry operating weight plus the traffic load.

Zero Fuel
Weight: In other words it is the weight of the aeroplane without the
weight of usable fuel.

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Maximum
Structural The maximum permissible total aeroplane weight at the start
Take-Off of the takeoff run.
Weight:

The maximum total weight of aircraft prepared for service, the

Maximum
crew (unless already included in the APS weight), passengers,
Total
baggage and cargo at which the aircraft may takeoff
Weight
anywhere in the world, in the most favorable circumstances in
Authorized
accordance with the Certificate of Airworthiness in force in
(MTWA):
respect of aircraft.

The maximum permissible weight of an aeroplane with no

usable fuel.

Maximum Zero The weight of fuel contained in particular tanks must be

Fuel Weight: included in the zero fuel mass when it is explicitly mentioned
in the Aeroplane Flight Manual limitations. This is a structural
limitation imposed to ensure that the airframe is not
overstressed.

Anyone or anything on board the aeroplane the carriage of

which is paid for any someone other than the operation. In
Payload:
other words anything or anyone carried that earns money for
the airline.

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Weight Limitations

The factors which may limit the maximum Take-Off Weight (TOW) are:

These are weight limits, which are imposed by the

manufacturer, and agreed by the Authority, to ensure the
airplane is not over-stressed.
The Structural
Limits: These structural weights include the maximum structural
ramp weight, the maximum structural take-off weight, the
maximum zero fuel weight and the maximum structural
landing weight
The Field-
This is the TOW as limited by the available field lengths and
Length Limited
the prevailing meteorological conditions at the departure
Take-Off
aerodrome
Weight:
The Weight-
Altitude- This limitation is imposed on TOW by minimum climb
Temperature gradient requirements, which are specified in CARs
(WAT) Limit:
The weight of the aircraft at any stage of the flight en-route
must be such that the aircraft can safely clear any objects
within a specified distance of the aircrafts intended track.

Depending on the aircrafts performance category, the loss

The En-Route of power from a specified number of engines will be
Requirements: assumed when determining the maximum weight at which
the aircraft can safely clear en-route obstacles.

En-route terrain clearance may impose a limitation on the

take-off weight

The Maximum This may be dictated by the structural limitation, the Field-
Landing Length Limit or the WAT Limit at the destination or alternate
Weight: aerodromes
The Maximum The lowest restricted weight of the field-length limitation, the
Take-off WAT limitation and the structural limitation is the maximum
Weight: TOW

The Fuel Story

In order that the maximum traffic load can be carried it may be necessary to
limit the amount of fuel which is carried to a safe minimum.

It is normally prudent to reduce the fuel load to a safe minimum in order to

reduce the all up weight of the aircraft. This will result in lower operating costs,
higher cruise levels, reduced thrust take-offs and/or easier compliance with noise
abatement procedures on take-off.

The total fuel required on any particular flight comprises of the following:

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This is the fuel used from departure to destination

aerodromes and may be minimized by operating at the most
Route Fuel:
economical pressure altitude accounting for the temperature
and wind component, but not below the minimum safe
altitude.
The fuel required to proceed from the destination to the
Diversion Fuel:
alternate aerodrome in the prevailing conditions.
Holding The fuel required to enable the aircraft to hold at a specified
Allowance: pressure altitude and for a specified period of time.
Contingency An amount of fuel carried to counter any disadvantage
Allowance: suffered because of un-forecast adverse conditions.
Landing The fuel required to be used from overhead the landing
Allowance: aerodrome to the end of the landing roll.

Operating Overweight:

The effects of operating in an overweight condition include:

a. Reduced acceleration on the ground run for take-off. The take-off

speeds are increased because of the weight, and this results in an
increased take-off run required and an increased take-off distance required
b. Decreased gradient and rate of climb which decreases obstacle
clearance capability after take-off and the ability to comply with the
minimum climb gradient requirements
c. Increased take-off speeds impose a higher load on the undercarriage
and increased tire and wheel temperatures. Together these reduce the
airplane's ability to stop rapidly in the event of an abandoned takeoff
d. Increased stalling speed which reduces the safety margins
e. Reduced cruise ceiling which increases the fuel consumption resulting
in a decreased operational range. It may also cause en-route terrain
clearance problems
f. Impaired maneuverability and controllability
g. Increased approach and landing speeds causing a longer landing
distance, landing ground run, increased tire and wheel temperatures and
reduced braking effectiveness
h. Reduced one-engine inoperative performance on multi-engine
aircraft
i. Reduced structural strength safety margins with the possibility of
overstressing the airframe

In addition to ensuring that the maximum permissible all-up weight of an aircraft

is not exceeded it is of vital importance to ensure that the distribution of the
permissible weight is such that the balance of the aircraft is not upset.

The Weight & Balance Theory

In order to understand the concept of weight and balance as it applies to

airplanes it is essential to have a thorough knowledge of the basic theory of
balance and force moments. This is best described by using a seesaw to
illustrate the terms, cause and effect.

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In this case at any specified distance from the fulcrum, the turning moment (that
is the downward force imposed at that point) will be equal on both sides of the
fulcrum. The seesaw is said to be in equilibrium or to be balanced, and will
therefore rest in a horizontal position.

The position through which all of the weight acts in a vertically downward
direction is referred to as the Centre of Gravity (CG).
The turning moment at any particular point can be determined by multiplying
the weight (the downward force) by the arm (the distance of that point from the
fulcrum). Moments can be expressed as foot pounds (ft.lb.) inch pounds (in.lb.) or
meter kilograms (m.kg.)

If we do this

Then we may
balance this
seesaw by doing
this

Or

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Or

The Reference Datum

The point from which the arms of force moments are measured is
termed the reference datum. In the preceding examples the reference datum
was the centre of gravity of the unladen seesaw, which was coincident with the
fulcrum.

The CG of an aircraft is the point through which all of its weight is

assumed to act in a vertically downward direction.

The position of the CG measured along the fore and aft axis of the aircraft will
change due to changes in aircraft configuration (passenger configuration with
seats in, freight configuration with seats out), total weight and distribution of the
fuel load at any given point in the flight, total weight and distribution of the
payload, and so on.

It is therefore important to appreciate that with an aircraft the reference datum

cannot be the position of the CG, but will instead be a fixed point on the aircraft
structure, or indeed a point on the extension of the aircrafts fore and aft axis
which is in fact forward of the aircrafts nose.

In order to determine the position of the CG of a laden aircraft the weight and
distance fore or aft of the datum (arm) of each piece of equipment, cargo and
person on board the aircraft must be known.

By convention any weight which is positioned forward of the reference datum

has a negative arm and therefore produces a negative moment.

Conversely, by convention, any weight which is aft of the reference datum has a
positive arm and therefore produces a positive moment.

The Center of Gravity Envelope

In order to ensure that an aeroplane can be safely controlled by the aerodynamic

control surfaces the CG must remain within safe limits.

The distance between the maximum safe forward position of the CG and the
maximum safe aft position of the CG is termed the CG envelope.

The envelope dimensions are determined by the manufacturer, approved by the

appropriate authority, and subsequently described in the Approved Flight Manual
(AFM), which is part of the Certificate of Airworthiness.

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It is a legal requirement that the CG remains within the CG envelope at all times.
Some aircraft may have more than one CG envelope.

Public transport airplanes may have two CG envelopes, one for public
transport flights and one for use on ferry or training flights. The CG envelope will
be wider in the latter case, however it may still be necessary to use ballast in
order to position the CG of the essentially empty aeroplane within limits.

Similarly, some light aircraft are certified in two categories, semi-aerobatic

category CG envelope will be significantly narrower than the non-aerobatic CG
envelope (or utility, or normal) category, the aft limit is likely to be especially
restrictive. The maximum weight at which semi-aerobatic maneuvers may be
conducted may also be limited.

Forces Acting on an Airplane in Flight

In order to maintain steady flight the forces acting on an aeroplane must be in

balance, with no turning moment about any axis. In this condition the aircraft is
said to be trimmed. The condition is achieved by balancing the lift, weight, thrust
and drag forces acting at the aircrafts C of G and C of P so that:

(a) Lift equals weight, otherwise the aircraft would climb or descend
(b) Thrust equals drag, otherwise the aircraft would accelerate or decelerate

Providing that the centre of gravity and the centre of pressure are not coincident
a force couple will be set up by the lift and the weight forces, and this will result
in a pitching moment, as shown

The magnitude of the pitching moment will depend on the magnitude of lift
and weight forces, but also on the distance between the centre of gravity and
the centre of pressure.

The position of the C of G will depend on the way in which the aircraft is
loaded, and on the manner in which fuel is transferred or consumed during flight.

The forward and aft limits of the centre of gravity are determined by the
capability of the elevators to control the aircraft in pitch at the lowest flight
speed. These limits are established by the aircraft manufacturer and it is
therefore of paramount importance to safe flight that the aircraft is never
operated with the centre of gravity beyond the limits set down by the
manufacturer.

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The effects of operating with the centre of gravity forward of the

permitted forward limit include

a. Difficulty in rotating to take-off attitude

b. Difficulty in flaring, rounding-out, or holding the nose-wheel off the ground
after touchdown on landing
c. Possible damage to nose-wheel, nose oleo and propeller tips
d. Restricted elevator trim resulting in an unstable approach
e. Increased stalling speed against full up elevator
f. Additional tail down force requires more lift from wing resulting in greater
induced drag, higher fuel consumption and reduced range
g. Slow rotation on take-off
h. Inability to trim out elevator stick forces

The effects of operating with the centre of gravity aft of the permitted
aft limit include

a. Pitch up at low speeds causing early rotation on take-off or inadvertent

stall in the climb
b. Difficulty in trimming especially at high power
c. Longitudinal instability, particularly in turbulence, with the possibility of a
reversal of control forces
d. Degraded stall qualities to an unknown degree
e. More difficult spin recovery, unexplored spin behavior, delayed or even
inability to recover

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Center of Gravity Calculations Airplane Profile

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Center of Gravity Calculations Example

Given that the aircraft described earlier, is loaded in the following manner,
determine the take-off weight and the position of the CG at take-off

Basic aircraft 4,600lb

Arm 122.5inches
Captain 170lb
Co-pilot 150lb
Seat 3 120lb
Seat 4 145lb
Seat 5 80lb
Seat 6 0lb
Seat 7 0lb
Seat 8 0lb
Forward baggage hold 40lb
Rear baggage hold 120lb

The left and right forward and the left and right aft nacelle lockers each contain
50 lb. of baggage.

Inboard fuel tanks 200 litres port, 200 litres starboard

Outboard fuel tanks 200 litres port, 200 litres starboard; SG of fuel 0.72.

Adding, Removing & Repositioning Loads

Adding & Removing Loads

To facilitate the rapid and easy calculation of either the new CG position, when a
load is added or removed, or the amount of load which must be removed in order
to achieve a given CG position there is an algebraic solution.

By introducing an algebraic value for the unknown quantity into the following
formula, the value of the unknown quantity can be determined. The formula is:

New Total Moments = Old Total Moments Load Moment

In the formula above the Load moment is the product of the weight and arm of
the load which is added or removed from the aircraft. The symbol will therefore
appear as a + if a load is added or a if a load is removed

Example

Given an aeroplane all up weight of 120,000lb. and CG arm 4ft aft of the
reference datum. Determine how much load must be removed from a cargo hold
33ft aft of the datum in order to move the CG 1ft forward from its original
position

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Repositioning Loads

The position of the C of G is influenced by the relocation of the load. When

dealing with this type of problem it is convenient to use:

The signs to be used in this formula for d and D are + for a rearward
movement of the load and - for a forward movement of the load. The original
formula can still be used to solve a repositioning problem also.

Example

Given an All Up Weight of 60,000kg and a CG 22m aft of the datum, which is the
nose of the aircraft. Determine the change in the position of the CG if 3,000kg of
load is moved from a hold 14m aft of the datum to a hold 29m aft of the datum.

The Mean Aerodynamic Chord

On large transport aircraft the position of the CG is often expressed in relation to

the aircrafts Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC). The MAC is precisely what the
name implies:

Example

The MAC limits of an aircraft are 802.7 inches to 1020.5 inches aft of datum. The
CG is 31% of the MAC. Determine the position of the CG relative to the datum.

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Payloads Numericals

How to approach Payload numericals:

To solve any problem based on payload, as a first step, it is imperative to find the
lowest takeoff weight for a particular flight.

The take-off weight for a particular flight may be the lowest of:

1. MTOW / RTOW
2. MLW + FF
3. MZFW + FOB

From these three the lowest weight can be the TOW for a particular
flight.

Then use the following equation to solve for payload:

TOW = BEW + PL + FOB

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