An Introduction to

Problem-based Learning
A User Guide

Coventry University
Maggi Savin-Baden, Learning Innovation
Introduction

Problem-based learning is an approach to learning that has grown in breadth and

depth across the world since the 1970s, yet the bulk of the literature concentrates on
practical applications of problem-based learning in particular settings rather than on
the examination of the complexities and challenges involved in its application.

Yet there is a confusion about the difference between problem-based learning and
problem-solving learning. Problem-solving learning is the type of teaching many staff
have been using for years and the focus is upon giving students a lecture or an article
to read and then a set of questions based upon the information given. Students are
expected to find the solutions to these answers and bring them to a seminar as a focus
for discussion. Problem scenarios here are set within and bounded by a discrete
subject or disciplinary area. In some curricula students are given specific training in
problem-solving techniques, but in many cases they are not. The focus in this kind of
learning is largely upon acquiring the answers expected by the lecturer, answers that
are rooted in the information supplied in some way to the students. Thus the solutions
are always linked to a specific curricula content which is seen as vital for students to
cover in order for them to be competent and effective practitioners. The solutions are
therefore bounded by the content and students are expected to explore little extra
material other than that provided, in order to discover the solutions.

Problem-based learning is different. The focus here is in organizing the curricular

content around problem scenarios rather than subjects or disciplines. Students work in
groups or teams to solve or manage these situations but they are not expected to
acquire a predetermined series of right answers. Instead they are expected to engage
with the complex situation presented to them and decide what information they need
to learn and what skills they need to gain in order to manage the situation effectively.
There are many different ways of implementing problem-based learning but the
underlying philosophies associated with it as an approach are broadly more student-
centred than those underpinning problem-solving learning. This is because students
are offered opportunities, through problem-based learning, to explore a wide range of
information, to link the learning with their own needs as learners and to develop
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independence in inquiry. Problem-based learning is thus an approach to learning that
is characterized by flexibility and diversity in the sense that it can be implemented in a
variety of ways in and across different subjects and disciplines in diverse contexts. As
such it can therefore look very different to different people at different moments in
time depending on the staff and students involved in the programmes utilizing it.
However what will be similar will be the focus of learning around problem scenarios
rather than discrete subjects.

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Understanding Problem-based Learning

Problem-based learning is an approach to learning where the curricula are designed

with the problem scenarios as central to student learning in each component of the
curriculum (modules/units), as in Figure 1. The lectures, seminars, workshops or
laboratories support the inquiry process rather than transmitting subject-based
knowledge. Whether it is a module or a whole programme that is being designed the
starting point should be a set of problem scenarios that enable students to become
independent inquirers and help them to see learning and knowledge as flexible
entities.

Problem-based philosophy

Assessment

Problem-
based
scenario and
intentions of
learning

Figure 1: Problem-based curricula are suffused with an explicit educational philosophy

and designed with problem scenarios central to student learning and to each component of
the curriculum. Teaching and assessment methods support and inform student inquiry.

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This Booklet Provides

Models and perspectives on Problem-based Learning

Models of PBL
Curriculum modes in Problem-based Learning
What is a problem?
Problem design
Scenario writing
Tutor guide
Assessment possibilities with Problem-Based Learning
References

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Models and Perspectives on PBL

In this early version of problem-based learning certain key characteristics were

essential. Students in small teams would explore a problem situation and through this
exploration were expected to examine the gaps in their own knowledge and skills in
order to decide what information they needed to acquire in order to resolve or manage
the situation with which they were presented. Thus, early definitions of problem-
based learning identify the classic model as one that has the following characteristics
(Barrows and Tamblyn, 1980):

Complex, real world situations that have no one right answer are the
organising focus for learning.
Students work in teams to confront the problem, to identify learning gaps, and
to develop viable solutions.
Students gain new information though self-directed learning.
Staff acts as facilitators.
Problems lead to the development of clinical problem-solving capabilities.

Problem-based learning has expanded world-wide since the 1960s, and as it has
spread the concepts associated with it have changed and become more flexible and
fluid than in former years. In an attempt to move beyond narrow and prescriptive
definitions Boud (1985) and Barrows (1986), two of the stronger proponents of the
approach, have outlined broader characteristics of problem-based learning. Both have
argued that problem-based learning is not to be seen as a particular way or method of
learning; rather it is to be seen as learning that has a number of differing forms.

Soon after McMaster began its problem-based learning curriculum two other new
medical schools, at the University of Limburg at Maastricht in the Netherlands and at
the University of Newcastle in Australia, adapted the McMaster model of problem-
based learning and in so doing developed their own spheres of influence. The then
University of Limburg, now Maastricht, began a new medical school in 1975, which
saw problem-based learning as the primary strategy for the first four study years.

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Maastricht: Seven Steps to Problem-based Learning

1. Clarify and agree working definitions, unclear terms and concepts

2. Define the problem and agree which phenomena require
explanation
3. Analyse the problems (brainstorm)
4. Arrange explanations into a tentative solution
5. Generate and prioritise learning objectives
6. Research the objectives through private study
7. Report back, synthesize explanations and apply new information to
the original problems

Boud (1985) outlined eight characteristics of many PBL courses including student-
centredness:
1. An acknowledgement of the base of experience of learners.
2. An emphasis on students taking responsibility for their own learning.
3. A crossing of boundaries between disciplines.
4. An intertwining of theory and practice.
5. A focus on the processes of knowledge acquisition rather than the products
6. A change in staff role from that of instructor to that of facilitator.
7. A change in focus from staff assessment of outcomes of learning to student
self and peer assessment.
8. A focus on communication and interpersonal skills so students understand that
in order to relate their knowledge, they require skills to communicate with
others, skills which go beyond their area of technical expertise.

Barrows has suggested that the combination of design variables for problem-based
learning, when linked to the educational objectives, is endless. He concluded that the
term PBL must be considered a genus from which there are many species and
subspecies.
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As such, all types of PBL must be evaluated in terms of issues such as the type of
scenarios, assessment methods, learners autonomy and the way in which teaching
and learning occurs.

Barrows (1986) proposed a taxonomy of PBL methods that explain differing

meanings and uses of problem-based learning.

1. Lecture-based cases - here students are presented with information through

lectures and then case material is used to demonstrate that information.
2. Case-based lectures - in this instance students are presented with case histories
or vignettes before a lecture that then covers relevant material.
3. Case method - students are given a complete case study that must be
researched and prepared for discussion in the next class.
4. Modified case-based - here students are presented with some information and
are asked to decide on the forms of action and decisions they may make.
Following their conclusions, they are provided with more information about
the case.
5. Problem-based - in this instance students meet with a client in some form of
simulated format that allows for free inquiry to take place.
6. Closed-loop problem-based - this is an extension of the problem-based
method, where students are asked to consider the resources they used in the
process of problem-solving in order to evaluate how they may have reasoned
through the problem more effectively.

Margetson (1991) suggested that PBL should be seen as more than just a different
method of learning, but rather as a specific stance towards both knowledge and the
position of the student in the learning process. PBL may be seen as:

A conception of knowledge, understanding, and education profoundly

different from the more usual conception underlying subject-based
learning
(Margetson, 1991: 43-44).

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Walton and Matthews (1989) have argued that PBL is to be understood as a general
educational strategy rather than merely a teaching approach. They have argued that
for PBL to be present, three components must be able to be differentiated:

1. Essential characteristics of PBL that comprised curricula organization around

problems rather than disciplines, an integrated curriculum and an emphasis on
cognitive skills.
2. Conditions that facilitated PBL such as small groups, tutorial instruction and
active learning.
3. Outcomes that were facilitated by PBL such as the development of skills and
motivation, together with the development of the ability to be life-long
learners.

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Models of PBL
(Savin-Baden, 2000)

Model I Problem-based learning for epistemological competence

Model I is characterized by a view of knowledge that is essentially propositional, with
students being expected to become competent in applying knowledge in the context of
solving, and possibly managing, problems.

Model II Problem-based learning for professional action

This model of problem-based learning has, as its overarching concept, the notion of
know-how. Action is seen here as the defining principle of the curriculum whereby
learning is both around what it will enable students to be able to do, and around
mechanisms that are perceived to enable students to become competent to practice.

Model III Problem-based learning for interdisciplinary understanding

In this model of problem-based learning there is a shift away from a demand for mere
know-how and propositional knowledge. Instead, problem-based learning becomes a
vehicle to bridge the gap between the know-how and know-that and between the
different forms of disciplinary knowledge in the curriculum. In practice what occurs is
an attempt by staff to develop in their students a form of understanding that is
interdisciplinary, both across forms of propositional knowledge and in the sense of
using meta-skills across the boundaries of the world of work and the academic
context.

Model IV Problem-based learning for transdisciplinary learning

In this model problem-based learning operates in a way that enables the students to
recognize that disciplinary boundaries exist but that they are also somewhat illusory,
that they have been erected. The student might transcend boundaries but he is not
likely to challenge the frameworks into which disciplinary knowledge is placed.

Model V Problem-based learning for critical contestability

This form of problem-based learning is one that seeks to provide for the students a
kind of higher education which offers, within the curriculum, multiple models of

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action, knowledge, reasoning and reflection, along with opportunities for the students
to challenge, evaluate and interrogate them. Students will therefore examine the
underlying structures and belief systems implicit within a discipline or profession
itself; in order to not only understand the disciplinary area but also its credence. They
will transcend and interrogate disciplinary boundaries through a commitment to
exploring the subtext of those disciplines. Thus students are encouraged to challenge
borders, create new borders, live and work in the border country and, at the same
time, begin to know how to live in that country (Giroux, 1992).

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Curriculum Modes in Problem-based Learning
From Savin-Baden and Major (2004)

Mode 1 Single Module Approach

This is where problem-based learning is implemented in one module (possibly two) in
the third year of a programme.

Mode 2 Problem-based Learning on a shoestring

This tends to be implemented in modules run by staff interested in it and avoided by
those who disagree with it. The result is that problem-based learning may be used in
many modules throughout the curriculum (see Table 1) but there is little real rationale
for its implementation in particular areas. Thus the problems used tend to be subject
based and rarely transcend disciplinary boundaries. The module may have several
problems occurring concurrently and staff may use lectures to guide the learning.

Year 1 PBL Lecture-based Lecture-based PBL PBL

Year 2 PBL PBL Lecture-based PBL Lecture-based

Year 3 Lecture-based PBL Lecture-based PBL PBL

Table 1: Mode 2 Problem-based learning on a shoestring

Mode 3 The Funnel Approach

In this mode the decision has been to design the curriculum in a way that enables
students to be funnelled from a lecture-based approach, that may be more familiar to
them than problem-based learning, move on to problem-solving learning in the second
year and then problem-based learning in the final year.

Year 1 Lecture-based learning

Year 2 Problem-solving learning
Year 3 Problem-based learning
Table 2: Mode 3 The Funnel Approach

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Mode 4 The Foundational Approach
Here the assumption that some knowledge is necessarily foundational to another and
therefore it need to be taught to the students before they can begin to solve problems.
Thus in the first year of the programme the focus is on providing students with
lectures, tutorial and laboratory time that will enable them to understand the required
knowledge and concepts. In the second and third year students then utilise problem-
based learning. One of the underlying principles of this in many curricula is the
assumption is that if basic concepts are taught first then the knowledge will be
decontextualised and will therefore be available in the students memory for use in
solving new problems.

Year 1 Lecture-based learning

Year 2 Problem-based learning
Year 3 Problem-based learning
Table 3: Mode 3 The Foundational Approach

Mode 5 The Two-Strand Approach

In the two-strand approach problem-based learning is seen to be a vital component of
the curriculum that has been designed to maximise the use of both problem-based
learning and other learning methods simultaneously. This approach also tends to be
adopted in universities where staff might want to implement problem-based learning
wholesale across the curriculum but who are prevented from doing so because the
curriculum is serviced by other disciplines.

In the two strand approach the curriculum is seen to have clear strands running
alongside one another. The problem-based modules are designed to build on each
other but also to draw from the modules in the mixed approach strand. What tends to
happen is that modules in each strand are designed with interlocking themes so that
the knowledge and capabilities in the mixed approach feed in to support problem-
based learning rather than working against it.

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Year 1
Problem-based learning modules

Mixed approach modules

Year 2
Problem-based learning modules

Mixed approach modules

Year 3
Problem-based learning modules

Mixed approach modules

Table 4: Mode 5 The Two Strand Approach

Mode 6 Patchwork Problem-based Learning

The patchwork approach is a complex mode that is often experienced as difficult and
confusing for students. Here the whole curriculum is designed using problem-based
learning but due to intuitional requirement the modules so not run consecutively but
concurrently. The result can be seen in Table 4.5 where students undertake 2 or 3
problems simultaneously in different but not necessarily related subject areas.
Furthermore modules are unlikely to be the same length so that students may do one
problem over a period of 4 weeks, another over two weeks and another within a week.

Year 1

Problem-based learning modules throughout but

Year 2 with little overall coherence

Year 3

Table 5: Mode 6 Patchwork Problem-Based Learning

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Mode 7 The Integrated Approach
The integrated is based on the principle that problem-based learning is not merely a
strategy but as a curriculum philosophy. The curriculum is designed in an integrated
fashion so that all the problems are sequential, are linked both to one another and
across discipline boundaries. Students are equipped for the programme through
explanations of the approach and team building activities.

Year 1
Problem 1 Problem 2 Problem 3
Year 2
Problem 4 Problem 5 Problem 6
Year 3
Problem 7 Problem 8 Problem 9 Problem 10

Table 6: Mode 7 The Integrated approach

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What is a problem?

To date much of the discussion in the field of problem-based learning about the nature
of problems has centred on literature in cognitive psychology.

Are we asking them to solve a closed problem by using linear problems-solving

techniques?

Or are we asking them to do something very different, such as using their experiential
and propositional knowledge to manage a problem situation.

These are two very different activities and if students do not understand what it is that
is expected of them you get the kind of scenario below:

It is Monday morning, 8.45, and the door of the design studio bursts open. Tim and
Bill rush over to Jack to tell him that they have cracked the problem scenario. The
group have been working on the problem all weekend but struggled, until now, to
figure it out. The two who have found a way of managing the problem scenario share
their views with the others. The group is oblivious to the tutor until he comes over to
tell them that they have got the wrong answer. They are defeated, deflated and
distraught that they have worked so hard for no result. Tim remains unconvinced that
they are wrong and while the tutor gives the class a mini lecture he sits and works it
all out again. At the end of the session, the group argue with the tutor who discovers,
through this group, that there are in fact several ways to solve this particular
problem.

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 If there were only one way to solve a problem, it might indeed be
possible to identify the relevant content, devise a test to measure it,
then correlate it with the appropriate measure of problem-solving.
Unfortunately for this purpose, there are many ways to solve a
problem, ranging from a detailed analysis of the aspects of the content
of the problem to a simple recognition that the problem has been
encountered before.
(Eva et al, 1998: S1)

They suggest that it important to recognise that there are three dimensions to a
problem.

1. The context: the physical context of the problem and the implied task
2. The content: the semantic domain such as the disciplinary areas of knowledge
and surface elements such as the clients details
3. The schema or deep structure: the underlying principle of the problem

Eva et al suggest that transfer of knowledge between problems of the same domain
(such as chest pain) is much more likely than when the context has changed. This
means that we should give students the opportunity to practice solving similar
problems in the classroom; in this case an example would be different clients with
various types of chest pain.

In order to improve transfer Eva et al suggest that it is important to:

Teach problem recognition so that students can see the similarities between
problems of different domains
Provide immediate feedback and guidance
Emphasise the importance of problem-solving as a valuable learning tool
Provide numerous examples so that students are able to understand abstract
principles

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Example of the PBL Process for one problem over 3 seminars

Seminar 1 Identify Learning needs

1) Study the scenario; asking what are the problems or issues?
2) Identify what you need to know to solve the problem
- What do I need to know to solve the problems or issues?
- Where can I find information to help me solve the problems or issues?
3) Set an overall goal
4) Identify corporate learning needs
5) Allocate learning needs

Seminar 2 Peer Teaching

1) Peer teaching of researched knowledge
2) Reassessment of overall goals in light of learning

Seminar 3 Synthesis
Formulation of an action plan for resolving or managing the problem which may be in
the form of, for example:
- A proposal - A script
- A pamphlet - A care plan
- A fact sheet - A learning package
- A business plan - An oral and/or written presentation

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 Introductory Intermediate Advanced
Educational Goals Goals are clearly Goals are Goals are not
stated relating to identified and identified in the
specific student relate to suggested problem.
actions. approaches for
learning.
Background Draws on one Draws on two or Draws on many
Information source of data. more sources of sources of data
data from current
practice
Setting Complete Most information Information
information provided with provided with key
provided without some details details omitted
any details omitted omitted
Problem Clearly identifies States the problem Does not clearly
and summaries the and places it in a state the problem
problem wider context and emphasizes
the wider context
Content The content is The content is The content covers
sharply focused, structured with a a number of areas
supported with a clear focus and and is supported
variety of supported by with a few general
significant details relevant details examples
Resources Includes self- Includes list of Includes
contained bibliographic vocabulary and
independent references key concepts
materials like
handouts and
worksheets
Presentation Tightly written Clearly written Fluid writing style
with with a range of using extensive
limited specialist vocabulary used specialized
vocabulary vocabulary

Table 7: Criteria for motivational problems

Mauffette,Y., Kandlinder. P. and Soucisse. A. (2004) The problem in problem-based

learning is the problems: but do they motivate students? In M. Savin-Baden and K.
Wilkie (2000). Challenging Research in Problem-based learning. Buckingham:
SRHE/Open University Press.

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Problem design

If we help students to see that they are to use critical thinking in year one then it will
help them to see engaging with the problem not as narrowly defined problem solving
skill with a right answer but instead as a means of developing understand of the
subject. Barnett has argued for three levels of criticality, as follows:

Critical thinking
Cognitive acts undertaken by the individual. Students engaged in critical thinking may
do so in the company of other students and their critical thinking may be enhanced
through that interchange; but the emphasis in the term critical thinking is on the
character of the individuals cognitive acts.

Critical thought
This a wider focus than just the individuals thought processes. Critical thought is
collaborative and takes place within the discipline of study. For example individuals
might be doing some hard critical thinking but critical thought develops and takes off
through sustained interchange around collective perspectives. Critical thought
necessarily contains a social component and thus can only be developed
collaboratively.

Critique
Critique is a form of criticism about the discipline itself and seeks to set the discipline
in a wider context than internal debates within the discipline. In critique different
views of an issue or situation may be proffered as alternative perspectives are taken
on board. This is real cognitive and personal challenge, and it may open up the way to
a transformation of the individual student.

By using Barnett's levels of critical thought we can design problems for the first year
that help develop critical thinking, in the second year critical thought and thence in the
third year, critique. We would argue these could be transposed into the curriculum as
follows:

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 Level of Criticality Features
Type of problem

Development of autonomy Task focussed, but

Year 1 Critical thinking enable students to
Use reasoning, analysis develop personal
and synthesis autonomy but also
work collaboratively
Moral problems that
Year 2 Critical thought Collective learning and demand learning with
action a through the team:
dialogic learning
Critical dialogue
Problems of
Year 3 Critique Criticism of the discipline complexity that
encourage students to
Taking a stance towards critique the knowledge
knowledge of the discipline and
contest the discipline
itself

This will then enable students to develop their critical capabilities as well as their skills
and knowledge.

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Scenario Writing

Things to include in the presentation of the problem situation:

Discipline knowledge
Process skills...such as problem-solving, group dynamics, clinical reasoning
Attitudinal behaviours, such as values, ethics, professional conduct
Learning how to learn

Try to start students off with a problem scenario which is fun, humorous and non
technical in which they do not feel too threatened and in which you can focus on
something other than just solving the problem- such as the development of group
skills or a consideration of what learning means in this kind of context.

Heinz 57 - a few of the types on offer

Variety 1
Cases which tell a story about a patient/client/business/performance. The story is
revealed through a set of progressively distributed pages. For example in the first
tutorial the students are only given a brief description which includes the key issues.
The students work out a learning agenda and then the tutor distributes the subsequent
case parts.

Variety 2
Mini cases of between one and three paragraphs with an encounter with a
client/business/teaching environment as part of this.

Variety 3
Video trigger (i.e. clip - topical debate/Flintstones/Educating Rita/Ballet)

Variety 4
Use of a number of different types of trigger related to one particular topic area - for
example a discipline-based scenario. Thus you could include a work book, video,

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computer simulation and a card game which all related to something as specific as a
Road Traffic Accident scene or Court scene.

Variety 5
Use of simulated patients/clients/business/setting

Variety 6
Use of card games in which students are given the simulated people in card format

Variety 7
The House of cards

Variety 8
Picture/story board

Variety 9
Answer phone message

Variety 10
Excerpt from radio e.g. issues/discussion form Woman's Hour/Radio 4

Variety 11
Design brief

Variety 12
Set of lab notes/blood results/audit sheets/music score

Variety 13
Script

Variety 14
Directors notes

Variety 15
Computer aided/assisted triggers
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Other issues to consider

1) At what point are learning objectives distributed... before scenario, after

students have decided learning needs?
2) What are the resources to which students will have access - experts,
references, X Rays, audio tapes, videotapes....?
3) Are tutors to receive Tutor guides for each case?
4) How do you select the appropriate information for the students from the
complex data available in real life?
5) To what extent will you include red herrings (red herrings do happen a lot in
real life!)?
6) To what extent do you use real versus hypothetical data?

Suggestions

1) Cases should have a central topic or general theme

2) Cases should have a puzzle, mystery or some drama so that it is not clear from
the start what is going on
3) Review your cases carefully with your curriculum design team

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Tutor Guides

A tutor guide is a summary of the writers perception of the areas in the case and used
by the tutors to guide their teaching, but it is not given to the students.

It may include any or all of the following:

1) The key features of the case

2) Suggestions for pacing the case throughout the allotted tutorial time
3) A brief update on related research
4) A brief update on related clinical practice
5) A series of questions which might prompt students thinking
6) A list of suggestions about the types of learning need students should address

Part of the tutor guide process and development can also include a presentation of the
case form by the author on the content and objectives of the case.

Use and abuse of tutor guides

1) Decide as a staff team the ground rules for their use

2) Use them to guide rather than direct
3) Be aware that in using tutor guides you may
a) become more dogmatic
b) move towards guided discovery rather than PBL
4) Remember that without them you risk
a) Giving students across the cohort mixed messages
b) Misunderstanding in the tutor group about the purpose of the scenario
5) Make sure that tutor guides are clearly written and guide the facilitator
towards understanding rather than confusion.

These guides will also ensure that your scenarios are also well written!

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Assessment Possibilities with Problem-based Learning

1) Multiple-choice Questions (MCQs): Need for Testing Knowledge

Acquisition

I do not believe that there is any real evidence to support the claim for
problem-solving skills independent of knowledge. [The] evidence from the
last two decades of research overwhelmingly argues against this premise
(Norman, 1997). Norman (1997) argues that the design construction of the
MCQ test instrument includes a rich clinical stem, [that]...involve higher
order skills, and hence more discriminating. MCQs offer the advantage of
high consistency and reliability as it allows for sampling of broad content
areas, as well as high validity if appropriately constructed.

2) The Progress Test

The primary objective of a progress test is to overcome the potential negative
steering effect often associated with summative examinations. It consists of
items drawn from all areas of the course and is administered several times in a
year. Several authors suggest it does not have a negative steering effect on
student (Blake, et al., 1996; Norman, 1997). It is also seen to have reliability in
terms of testing clinical skills in medicine and can be used for both formative
and summative assessments.

3) Process-oriented Test Strategies

The acquisition of process skills by students is also an important educational
objective in PBL. Several strategies have been used to assess one or more
process skills. Yet on psychometric grounds, these are generally considered to
be less rigorous than the more outcome-oriented tests and not recommended
for use in isolation for summative decision-making. An example that might
work at OUBS could be:

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 Four Step Assessment Test (4 SAT)
The 4 SAT, recently implemented by the University of Queensland, consists
of:

a. Solving a case scenario individually and in writing through identifying

key features, generating hypotheses, explaining symptoms, defining
hypotheses from requested additional data, and formulating learning
issues;

b. Repeating the above processes at the group level with presentation of

new information (with observers assessing the tutorial process);

c. Undertaking a period of self-directed learning; and

d. Taking a written exam testing content knowledge and based on the

top 10 learning issues identified by all groups.

The 4 SAT is aimed at assessing individual knowledge, clinical reasoning

and group process skills. Inter-rater agreement was found to be greater
than 80% with good correlation (r = 0.49) between 4 SAT scores and those
from other objective test instruments (Zimitat & Alexander, 1998).

4) Group presentation
This models the process but is difficult to mark and you have decide whether
you are marking content, process, presentation or all of theses. It has to be
adapted according at each level of the course.

5) Individual presentation
This has some of the problems of the above and if the students just present the
component they have researched there is little synthesis over all with problem
situation. This is also difficult with large cohorts.

6) Combined group and individual presentation

This can work well in a number of forms and seem to promote equity, but can
be difficult with large cohorts

7) Tripartite assessment

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 This has three components:
a. The group submits a report for which they receive a mark
b. The individual submits the piece of work they researched
c. The individual writes an account of the group process that is linked to
theory of group work

These three components are added together to form the overall individual
mark.

8) Case-based individual essay

This links well with PBL but still trend to focus largely on cognitive abilities
(unless students are allowed use narrative style essays)

9) Case-based care plan based in clinical practice/client-led project

(E.g. coconuts, cracks in railway lines). These are very effective but must be
criterion referenced and therefore are disliked by some staff and external
examiners if the criteria are perceived to be too broad.

10) Portfolio
Often lacks a requirement to create an overall synthesis. They can be unwieldy
if not managed well and difficult to mark. They are fine if they are well-
designed.

11) Triple jump

(Painvin et al, 1979; Powles et al, 1981). Here individual students are
presented with a problem and expected to discuss the problem and their
learning needs with an oral examiner. Students then locate relevant material
and later discuss their findings with the examiner and are rated on problem-
solving skills, self-directed learning skills and on their knowledge of the
problem area.

12) Self-assessment
This works well with problem-based learning, but students must be equipped
to undertake it. Self-assessment allows students to think more carefully about
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 what they do and do not know, and what they additionally need to know to
accomplish certain tasks. Confusion arises in many courses in understanding
the difference between self, peer and collaborative assessment (but we discuss
this below). It involves students judging their own work. It may include
essays, presentations, reports and reflective diaries. One of the difficulties with
self-assessment is the tendency to make judgments about what the students
meant rather than what they actually achieved. Boud has defined self-
assessment as:

The involvement of students in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to

their work and making judgments about the extent to which they have met
these criteria and standards
(Boud, 1986: 12)

13) Collaborative assessment

The student assesses her/himself in light of the criteria agreed with the tutor.
The tutor assesses the student using the same criteria and they negotiate a final
grade.

14) Peer assessment

A good fit with problem-based learning. It involves students making
judgments about other students work, either by using their own assessment
criteria or that provided by tutors, which can sometimes better. This kind of
assessment also emphasizes the co-operative nature of the problem-based
learning environment. It is generally used for presentations and practical
examinations but it can also be used for essays and exam scripts. Using peer
assessment with essays is really useful with problem-based learning and also
highly informative for student and tutor. It can be carried out in a variety of
ways including:

anonymously with assessors randomly chosen

openly but with several assessors used to assess each element of the work

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 Inter-peer assessment
This is where students from one problem-based learning team assess the work
of another team.

Intra-peer assessment
Students assess the product of what they themselves have produced as a team.

15) Viva voce examinations

These were used very effectively before problem-based learning was widely in
use and have since been adopted by several curriculum designers for use with
problem-based learning. However, they are best done in practice situations and
although very effective, can be costly, time consuming and extremely stressful
for the student

16) Reflective (online) journals

These have worked well in engineering and health. Students hand them in each
week and receive a mark at the end of each term/semester. Students tend to be
more open and honest about their learning than one would expect and these
can be criterion-referenced.

17) Reports
Written communication is another skill important for students. Requiring
written reports allows students to practice this form of communication,
particular if the word allowance is short and it is used in the third year as it can
promote succinct, critical pieces of work.

18) Patchwork text

This is a way of getting students to present their work in written form.
Students build up text in a course work over a number of weeks. Each
component of work is shared with other students and they are expected to use
different styles. For example a commentary on a lecture, a personal account, a
book review. This kind of assessment fits well with PBL because of its
emphasis on critique and self-questioning.

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19) Blogs
(Weblogs) can be used for assessment and students can add in links and
reflections. These are obviously going to be complex to mark, but possibly
interesting too, and will necessary require sound assessment criteria.

20) Web essays

Students can choose their own topic related to the module of study, design
their own questions and write is as a web essay with the relevant hyper links.
This offers a creative option for students and also opportunities to design their
own assessment criteria.

21) Group Wikis

These are an interesting form of assessment for PBL and can enhance group
collaboration. A whole group mark is required for this but it difficult to know
who has contributed what to the wiki. However, levels of understanding,
synthesis and criticality become apparent in this activity.

22) Second Life games

There are a few games that can be adapted for use in Second Life and some
that are currently specifically designed for use with PBL and come with their
own specific assessment criteria in built.

31
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