Imperial College of Science Technology & Medicine

Department of Mechanical Engineering

2M SOLID MECHANICS

Lecture notes on
Properties of Engineering Materials

October 2001
 2M Solid Mechanics, Properties of Engineering Materials
CONTENTS
Page
1. Course Introduction... 1
2. Syllabus 2
3. Recommended Textbooks 3
4. Topic 1: Material Selection... 4
4.1 Main Classes of Engineering Materials.. 4
4.2 Use of Ashby Maps in Material Selection..... 11
5. Topic 2: Yielding. 17
5.1 Yielding under Uniaxial Loading.. 17
Tutorial sheet 1, Material selection and yield under uniaxial loading.. 25
5.2 Yielding under Multiaxial Conditions 26
Tutorial sheet 2, Multiaxial stresses and yielding... 31
6. Topic 3: Failure by Fatigue ... 33
6.1 Introduction . 33
6.2 Micromechanisms of Fatigue... 33
6.3 Design Approach to HCFthe S-N Approach.... 35
6.4 Low Cycle Fatigue ... 46
Tutorial sheet 3, Fatigue I... 48
Tutorial sheet 4, Fatigue II... 49
7. Topic 4: Failure by Fracture. 51
7.1 Introduction... 51
7.2 Application of Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) .... 51
7.3 The Stress Intensity Factor, K ... ... 51
7.4 Energy Release Rate ..... 55
Tutorial sheet 5, Fracture I.. 57
8. Topic 5: Application of LEFM to Fatigue... 58
8.1 Introduction.... 58
8.2 Micromechanisms of Crack Growth in Fatigue..... 58
8.3 Paris Law for Fatigue Crack Growth..... 58
8.4 Low Cycle Fatigue..... 61
8.5 Designing against Fatigue Failure..... 61

i
Tutorial sheet 6, LEFM approach to Fatigue. . 63
9. Review Topic: Properties of Steels.... 64
9.1 Structure of Steel.... 64
9.2 Heat Treatment of Steels..... 67
9.3. Alloying of Steels...... 67
9.4 Martensitic Steels...... 68
10. Topic 5 continued: Failure by Fracture.. 69
10.1 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness, KIC... 69
10.2 Modes of Fracture: Brittle vs Ductile Fracture.... 72
10.3 The Ductile-Brittle Transition in Steels.... 73
10.4 Brittle Failure in Components... 76
10.5 Welding and its Effect on Strength and Toughness...... 79
Tutorial sheet 7, Fracture II... 82
11. Topic 6: Failure by Creep.. 83
11.1 Introduction.... 83
11.2 Diffusion and Ficks law... 83
11.3 Mechanisms of Creep .. 85
11.4 Engineering Approach to Creep Deformation.... 91
11.5 Creep Strength and Rupture Strength.. 93
11.6 Extrapolation of Creep Data (Creep Correlation) .... 94
11.7 Failure Mechanisms in Creep .. 98
11.8 Materials Selection Criteria for Creep .... 98
Tutorial sheet 8, Creep.... 101
12. Topic 7: Oxidation and Corrosion... 103
12.1 Introduction... 103
12.2 Oxidation reaction. 103
12.3 Material Criteria for Oxidation.. 105
12.4 Wet Corrosion... 106
12.5 Corrosion Protection.... 109
12.5 Stress Corrosion Cracking.... 109
Tutorial sheet 9, Corrosion... 112
13. Appendices.... 113
13.1 Appendix A: List of important equations for Engineering Materials.. 113
13.2 Appendix B: Case Studies in Material Failure.. 115

ii
 2M Solid Mechanics, Properties of Engineering Materials, 1999-00
1. Course Introduction

In the first year Materials lecture course, the behaviour of materials has been explained in
terms of their fundamental structure. The response of a given material to an externally applied
load can be rationalised to a large extent simply by consideration of the atomic structure of
that material. While this degree of understanding is often adequate for a physicist, who can
consider the intellectual problem solved, the engineer needs to be able to predict with a greater
accuracy how a given material will react to any given combination of imposed conditions.
Without this ability the engineer cannot begin to design any component in an economic
manner.

1.1 Failure modes

This course seeks to build on what you have learnt in the first year by considering the various
common failure modes (the effects), the reasons for their occurrence (the causes) and how we
seek to avoid failure by design (the solutions).

Examples of failure modes for typical engineering components or structures are:

Overloadfailure as a result of an applied load in excess of that which can be borne

elastically. Does not necessarily imply breaking or physical separation of a component
or structurepermanent distortion due to plastic deformation often renders engineering
components unsuitable for further use, e.g. a bent drive shaft or crankshaft.
Fracturefailure of a material by physical separation. May be classified as ductile or
brittle. Often associated with pre-existing defects in a material. These defects can grow
during service (fatigue) so defects that were safe at start of life can eventually lead to
failure.
Fatiguefailure as a result of an applied load that varies with time. Invariably
associated with the initiation and growth of a crack in the material. One objective of
engineering is to be able to predict the rate of cracking and hence prevent total loss by
replacing or repairing components before they fail completely.
Creepfailure due to continuous time dependent deformation of a material held at
elevated temperature under the action of an applied load or displacement.

Corrosiontime and environment sensitive failure. Corrosion is one of the most

insidious and costly failure mechanisms and is generally not well understood by
engineers or designers.
Stress Corrosiontime dependent cracking in a material, which occurs due to the
synergistic action of an applied (static) load in the presence of a specific environment.
The applied load or environment would not necessarily cause problems if applied
separately. It is invariably associated with initiation and growth of cracks and gross
corrosion is often absent.
The above list is not exhaustive and other failure modes exist for specific materials and/or
loading conditions and environments. It should also be noted that the description of each mode
is general and is not an exact definition of the processes involved.

1
1.2 Engineering design

One of the major objectives of this course is to describe the mechanisms involved in each of
these failure modes, and to show how an engineer can design to avoid failures by these modes.
Without some understanding of the how materials fail and the methods used to predict this
failure it is not possible to design or analyse any engineering situation.

During this course, each failure mode is discussed in terms of the fundamental mechanisms
involved and the methods used to predict the likely onset of failure. Each topic is treated as a
separate entity although it should always be remembered that interactions can and do occur.
e.g. fatigue crack growth and stress corrosion crack growth is often cut short by fracture
fatigue cracks often grow from corrosion pits
fatigue and creep can occur simultaneously
localised overload can lead to the initiation of fatigue cracks

2. Syllabus

The topics listed below will be discussed (not necessarily in the order or relation in which they
are given here.)
2.1 Selection for Strength
Classes of materialsmetals, ceramics, polymers, composites (short revision of 1M topic)
leading into material selection. Uniaxial tensile behaviour, yield stress, proof stress, tensile
strength, upper and lower yield point, Luders bands, strain ageing, maximum load/necking
(revision/extension of 1M topic). Effect of temperature and strain rate on tensile properties.
Multi-axial stress states, concept of hydrostatic and deviatoric components of stress. Criteria of
yieldingvon Mises, Tresca. Concept of isotropic and kinematic work hardening and
Bauschinger effect. Concept of development of triaxial stresses (constraint) around notches.
Concept of designing against yield. Definition of stress concentration; plane stress and plane
strain.
2.2 Fatigue
High cycle fatigue. Nature of fatigue initiation (intrusions, extrusions, Stage I and Stage II
cracking). S-N approach to fatigue; equations for effect of mean stress, multiaxial stresses
(equivalent stress), stress concentration, cumulative damage and Miners equation. Use of
linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) in fatigue. Fatigue crack propagation method using
Paris equation for crack growth rate. Brief description of low cycle fatigue. Overall
philosophy of designing against fatigue failure.
2.3 Fracture
Concepts of ductile fracture. Description of brittle fracture by LEFM in terms of K; fracture
toughness Kc (KIC for Mode I plane strain). Relationship between stress intensity factor, K,
and energy release rate, G. Effect of specimen thickness on mode of fracture; flat (Mode I
fracture in plane-strain) and oblique fracture. Effects of temperature and strain rate on fracture
behaviour of BCC metals; mode of fracture on the micro scale by microvoid formation and
coalescence (ductile) or cleavage (brittle). The ductile to brittle transition. Thermo-mechanical
treatments for grain size control. Cracking in welds.
2.4 Creep
Uniaxial creep behaviour of metals and ceramics; concepts of primary, secondary, tertiary

2
creep (revision of 1M concepts). Relation of creep to composition and microstructure;
concept of diffusion, homologous temperature; equation for strain rate in secondary creep;
concept of creep rupture. Equation for stress, time and temperature dependence of creep in
metals and ceramics. Diagram for creep data in terms of stress, strain rate, temperature, time:
Larsson-Miller and Sherby-Dorn parameters. Use of nickel alloys in high temperature
applications.
2.4 Corrosion
Principles of dry oxidation and wet corrosion. Anodic-cathodic reactions. Rusting of iron and
the use of weathering steels. Inhibition by coating and alloying. Galvanic corrosion.
Sensitisation of stainless steels. Corrosion protection. Stress corrosion cracking.
3. Recommended Textbooks

The syllabus is not built around any particular book. To assist background reading and revision
of particular topics some specific references are given below. The depth of treatment varies
from topic to topic and reference to reference and in some cases the approach is different to
that given in the course. The references given cover all the topics listed to a sufficient or in
some cases to an excessive depth but for further background reading there are many specialist
books on fatigue, creep etc. which deal with each topic far more extensively than is required
for this course. Reference is made to the textbooks throughout the course notes. These
references are to give background and supplementary information to what is provided in the
notes and are not required reading.

Ashby and Jones: Engineering Materials 1 and 2. These are useful background reading for
the course and cover some aspects of the course at the right depth but
are short on detail for the fatigue and fracture methodologies and on
mechanistic detail for corrosion processes.

Dowling: Mechanical Behaviour of Materials. Covers most of the material on the

course and in considerably more detail than Ashby and Jones.
Information on corrosion and oxidation is limited. Relevant chapters are
19, 11, 1415.5. (chapter references are to 2nd edition)

Dieter: Mechanical Metallurgy. This book is a good reference but contains

somewhat more mathematical detail than is required in places. Relevant
chapters are 3, (up to section 3.7), 6, 7, 8, 1114 (chapter references are
to 1988 edition (SI metric edition)). Only deals with metals (hence the
title).

Hertzberg: Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials. A useful

textbook covering all aspects of material behaviour with an emphasis on
fracture. Treatment is somewhat too advanced for 2M in places. Most
relevant chapters are 1, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13 and 14 (case studies).
(Chapter references are to 4th edition)

3
 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Part of 2M Solid Mechanics Course

Lecturer: Dr. Noel ODowd

2 associated laboratory experiments:

1. Examination of manufactured articles

2. Toughness of steel, aluminium alloy and zinc

Exam is part of Solid Mechanics exam

(Paper 1 and 2)
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Course introduction/syllabus, page 13 in handout

Topics Covered:

Selection of Materials

Failure modes: Yielding

Fatigue

Fracture

Creep

Corrosion

Textbooks:

Ashby and Jones: Engineering Materials 1, 2 (and 3)

Dowling: Mechanical Behaviour of Materials.

Dieter: Mechanical Metallurgy.

Hertzberg: Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of

Engineering Materials
 2M SOLID MECHANICS
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

4. Topic 1: Material Selection

4.1 Main classes of engineering materials:

Metals, Ceramics, Polymers and Composites

First discuss basic properties:

Youngs Modulus (Stiffness)

Yield Stress (Strength)

 Youngs Modulus

Youngs modulus is the slope of the stress-

strain curve in a materials linear region

Related to the strength of the atomic bond

joining the atoms

Yield Strength

When the applied stress reaches the yield

strength the material no longer behaves in a
linear fashion
 Youngs Modulus

Relationship works for polymers only below the

glass transition temperature
4
Yield Strength
Movement of Dislocations

Carpet Analogy

Dislocation movement
4.1.5 Metals

Bound together primarily by metallic bonds

In their simplest form are single-phase materials,

e.g. Fe, Mg, Al, Ti etc. (Steel is an alloy of Fe and C)

positive ions
electron cloud
+ +
+ + + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ +
+ + + +

Stiff (High Youngs modulus, E)

Strong (High yield strength)
Ductile (High fracture toughness)

6
 Atoms pack together to form uniform structures
crystals

FCC
e.g. Stainless Steels,
Aluminium, Copper, Nickel

BCC
e.g. Iron, Ferritic steels

HCP
e.g. Titanium, Zinc

6
 Most cast metals are polycrystalline made up of
many crystals or grains.

Single Crystal: anisotropic

~ 0.1mm
Polycrystal: overall response is
isotropic

7
4.1.5.2 Alloying of metals

Pure Al low strengthalloying with Cu or Mg

increases yield strength

Fe + Carbon gives steel higher yield strength but

less ductile

Heat treatments can also improve properties

8
 Typical properties of metals:

Mild Steel: (0.2% C)

E = 210 GPa, TS ~ 430 MPa, FT ~ 140 MPa m1/2

Al +4% Cu alloy:
E = 71 GPa, TS ~ 400 MPa, FT ~ 30 MPa m1/2

7
4.1.6 Ceramics

May be ionic or covalent

Ionic: (Metal + Non-metal) typically oxides: Al2O3,

ZrO3

Covalent: (Non-metal + Non-metal) SiC, Diamond

Very stiff
Very Strong
Low toughness

Also form crystalline structures and grains

Covalent ceramics are stiffest and strongest.

Typical properties of ceramics:

Al2O3: E = 390 GPa, FT ~ 5 MPa m1/2

SiC: E = 450 GPa, FT ~ 3 MPa m1/2

8
4.1.7 Polymers
Organic materials (based on carbon).
e.g. Polyethylene, PE

H H H

C C C

H H H

Long chain molecules with strong covalent bonds

(primary bonds)

Chains bonded together by weaker hydrogen or Van

der Waal bonds (secondary bonds), or chemical cross
links

Visco-elastic (time dependent) behaviour due to

chains sliding

8
 Thermoplastics: No chemical cross links, e.g. PE,
PMMA

Thermosets: Chemical cross links, e.g.,Epoxy,

Polyester

Elastomers: Fewer cross-links than thermosets,

e.g. Rubber

Typical properties of polymers:

PE: E ~ 1 GPa, TS ~ 40 MPa, FT ~ 5 MPa m1/2

Epoxies: E ~ 5 GPa, TS ~60 MPa, FT ~ 1 MPa m1/2

Elastomers: E ~ 0.1 GPa, TS ~ 10 MPa

9
4.1.8 Composites

Composite differs from an alloy in that the

components (usually two) remain as separate phases

Fibre compositesdirectional (i.e. anisotropic)

unless multi-ply

Particulate compositesisotropic.

Polymer-matrix composites

Polymer: light, ductile, cheap

Ceramic/Metal: stiff, strong

e.g. CFRP, Carbon fibre reinforced epoxy (58% C)

E ~ 189 GPa, TS ~ 1000 MPa, FT ~ 32 MPa m1/2

9
 Metal-matrix composites
e.g. Al or Ti alloys with SiC particles: light, stiff,
ductile automotive and aeronautical applications.
4.1.4 Strain hardening

After first yield materials strain hardensstress

increases with increasing strain

This occurs because dislocation movement is

impeded by obstacles, other dislocations, grain
boundaries, precipitates etc.

Therefore a higher stress is needed to cause further

deformation
G/2

Dislocation density

6
10
Engineering Materials

Topic 1 continued, Materials Selection

4.2 Use of Ashby Maps in Material Selection

Difficult to consider all the properties of each

competing material at the same time.
Ashby maps can be used to compare key property
parameters such as:

Modulus/density
Strength/density
Fracture toughness/strength etc.

4.2.2: Tensile tie rod for an aeronautical application

4.2.3: Bending beam in an aeronautical application

11
4.2.4 Material Selection

E/ E1/2/
Aluminium alloy 25 3.0
High strength steel 27 1.8
GFRP 50% uniaxial glass /polyester 24 3.5
CFRP 58% C in epoxy 126 9
KFRP 60% uniaxial kevlar /epoxy 54 6.2
4.2.5 Accounting for cost of material

Cost of material is an important factor

To remove the influence of inflation and currency

units, define relative cost CR:

Cost per kg of the material

CR =
Cost per kg of mild steel rod

An Ashby map using relative cost is then relevant for

any period, provided that cost of different materials
increase at the same rate

4.2.5.1 Example: Minimise cost of a tensile component

Cost of the rod (divided by cost of a steel rod)

= CR Mass
 4.2.6 Example: Lightweight pressure vessel

Design to avoid yield

4.2.7 Example: Pressure vessel designed for high safety
to yield before break

Design so that general yield occurs at a pressure too

low to propagate a crack (see also later notes on
fracture toughness)

Maximise Fracture toughness /Yield strength, Kc /Y

Aluminium alloys, copper alloys or steels have

maximum Kc /Y from Ashby chart for fracture

toughness against yield strength.

Some polymers also have high Kc /Y.

The pressure which the vessel can hold depends also

on the magnitude of Y itself.

For this reason most large pressure vessels are made

of steel.
5. Topic 2: Yielding
X

Y
B C

LOAD F
A

DISPLACEMENT

Typical load displacement curve for a ductile metal

A, linear elastic behaviour

B, strain hardening region
C, necking

Y, yield load
X, maximum load
F, fracture load

17
5.1.1 Elastic Behaviour

Most metals behave linearly under low loads

Polymers generally display time dependent

elasticitylinear viscoelasticity

Most metals are nearly isotropic and although four

elastic constants (Youngs Modulus, E, Poissons
ratio, , Shear Modulus, G and Bulk Modulus, K) are
commonly quoted, only two are independent

Elastic deformation implies a small change in

volume as well as a change of shape

Poissons Ratio 0.3 for most metals when

deformed elastically
5.1.2 Plastic Behaviour

When load exceeds yield load, behaviour becomes

non-linear

Behaviour is not reversiblepermanent changes in

shape occur

Metalssliding of a layer of atoms relative to the

next layer in the crystal structure (dislocation motion)

Polymerssliding of polymer chains

Volume remains constant in plastic deformation

Poissons ratio, must be 0.5

Typical load displacement curve for crystalline
polymers
5.1.3 Yield point, Proof Stress, UYP and LYP

Yield is defined as a marked non-linearity in the load-

displacement curve

Load displacement curve is not a material property

and must be converted to a stress-strain curve

As discussed later we can define true stress and true

strain or engineering stress and engineering strain

Both are almost equal except as we approach

maximum load and necking

The elastic limit (end of truly linear region) is not

always well defined and may occur at quite a low
stress

Yield may be sharp (e.g. steel) or gradual (e.g. many

aluminium alloys though not all)
 Steels often have an upper and lower yield point

The lower yield point is followed by discontinuous

deformation with Lders band formation

Region H is the work hardening region: stress starts

to increase with strain once yield has spread along the
whole test piece

UYP S
L
H

LYP

STRESS

X% Offset

STRAIN STRAIN

Proof stress S is associated with a particular strain

level. Yield can be defined by e.g., the 0.2 % proof
stress
5.1.3.1 Reason for upper and lower yield point

Sharp yield and upper and lower yield point due to

impurities e.g. C or N which pin the dislocations.

Energy has to be provided to start movement of

dislocations

Once the energy barrier has been overcome the slip

can take place easily so the load drops

18
 Lders band formationyield occurs first at a weak
point or stress concentration in the specimen

An initial band of plasticity forms at approximately

45o to the tensile axis

Bands propagate throughout the specimen with no

significant increase in load

Stress

Strain

Unyielded
material

Once the Lders bands cover the length of the

specimen then the stress increases again due to strain
hardening
5.1.4 Strain Hardening

The increase in strength with plastic deformation is

caused by features that obstruct the movement of
dislocations, e.g. grain boundaries, other dislocations,
foreign atoms, precipitates, etc.

These resistances can be considered to exert a stress

often called the back stress which acts to prevent the
strain increasing

For continued deformation the applied stress must

overcome this back stress
 5.1.5 Unloading, reloading, Strain ageing

Unloading occurs parallel to the original loading line

since the modulus (recoverable elastic straining of the
bonds) is not altered.

Reloading also elastic, although a slight hysteresis

loop may be caused by small amounts of plastic flow

Plastic flow occurs again at about the stress at which

unloading occurred

(a) (b)

STRESS Hysteresis
See Detail

Plastic strain STRAIN

 For metals which exhibit an upper and lower yield the
upper yield point is not seen on immediate reloading
after yielding and unloading

Strain
ageing
STRESS

Plastic strain STRAIN

However if the material is held before reloading (e.g.

50 hrs at R.T. or 20 mins at 150 C) the upper yield
point reappears

This phenomenon is known as strain ageing

The atoms which initially pinned the dislocations

have been pulled away from the dislocations during
the primary yielding

The subsequent hold-time allows these atoms to

diffuse through the lattice and repin the dislocations
5.1.5.1 Dynamic strain ageing

In the range 100-450 C discontinuous or serrated

yielding may occur

stress

strain

Increased temperature allows the pinning atoms to

diffuse more quickly

Dislocation are being caught and then pulled away

from the pinning atoms resulting in a rapid change in
the yield stress
 Occurrence of strain ageing and associated
phenomena is becoming less common due to better
steel making practices.

Reducing the amount of impurities by adding

elements which take them out of solution, e.g. Al, or
titanium giving stable nitrides and carbides instead of
N and C
5.1.6 Definition of true stress and strain

Engineering stress and strain:

F
= ; = ,
A0 L

More correct definition of stress is applied force

divided by current area

F
T =
A

Define the true strain as the sum of all strain

increments (based on the current length)

l
T = ,
l

T = ln (1 + )

Can also show that

T = (1 + )
 Below 10% strain (a very large strain by engineering
standards) true stress and strain and engineering
stresss and strain do not differ much
5.1.7 Maximum load and necking

Neglecting elastic strains, the stress/strain

characteristic of a metal is often represented by

t = Atn

n is the work hardening exponent

n = 1 (linear)

0.2
stress steels
0.1

n = 0 (no work hardening)

strain

For work hardening material, 0 < n <1

For n 0, hardening continues indefinitely but at an

ever decreasing rate

dt/dt is positive but decreases as strain increases

gives rise to load drop and necking behaviour

21
5.1.8 Superplasticity

Necking is an example of a plastic instability

Stable behaviour can be restored in certain

circumstances so that the neck spreads along the
entire specimen giving rise to superplasticity

Polymersplasticity is by stretching of chains

In the neck polymer chains become orientated axially

and the material is stronger there

=> Strain-hardening rate offsets reduction in cross-

sectional area

=> the neck is stronger than the un-necked part so

that the neck spreads to the un-necked region

22
 Stable neck formation can also be caused by strain
rate effects in metals so that very large extensions
(100%-1000%) may occur before fracture.

For metals this superplasticity effect can be utilised in

the forming of thin sheet metal components which
would tear if formed using conventional techniques.

Example of super-plastic deformation (from notes, P. 77 on

creep)

22
5.1.9 Effect of temperature and strain rate

In general:

Yield strength of FCC/HCP materials insensitive

to temperature change, e.g. Aluminium

BCC, e.g., sensitive to temperature change, e.g.

Ferritic steels
 FCC and HCP materials have closed packed planes

lattice friction is low

resistance to dislocation motion comes from

long range obstacles

BCC materials no close packed planes

lattice friction is larger

strengthening mainly from short range

obstacles, e.g. pinning of dislocations
 Resistance due to short range obstacles varies with
temperature

Therefore BCC metals are distinctly temperature and

strain rate sensitive while FCC and HCP metals are
not

For low temperature applications (down to ~ 180 C)

Al-Mg alloys, 18-8 austenitic stainless steels are used

Some alloy steels are available (e.g. 9% Ni steels)

which are suitable for use down to 80 C

Nearly all C-Mn structural steels show brittle

behaviour at ambient or sub-ambient temperatures,
particularly under impact loading
5.1.10 Material Ductility

Yield stress and UTS provide information about

strength of the material but not toughness

Toughness is the amount of energy the material can

absorb before failing

Will discuss later in the course fracture toughness of

materials

Qualitative measure is the material ductility

Strain to failure in a tension test, or

Area under the tensile stress strain curve

Energy absorbed
(a) during tensile test

(b)

Energy absorbed
during tensile test

f
f

23
5.2 Yielding under Multiaxial Conditions

A tensile test is carried out under uniaxial conditions

i.e. xx = , yy = zz = 0

and all shear stresses are zero

In service many components will be subjected to a

complex or multiaxial state of stress

The yield stress or failure stress determined from a

tensile test must be generalised to cope with this
situation

This is the motivation for yield surfaces which are

discussed in detail in the stress analysis part of the
course
5.2.1 Yield Criteria

5.2.1.1 Definition of equivalent stress

An equivalent way of invoking yield criteria is to

define an equivalent stress (denoted by v or

sometimes )

Yield occurs when the equivalent stress reaches the

same value as the uniaxial yield stress

For Tresca the equivalent stress is:

v = (1 2) or (1 3) or (2 3)

and yield occurs when v = Y.

Clearly in a unixaxial test, v = 1

 For Von Mises the equivalent stress is:

v =1/ 2 [(1 2)2 + (1 3)2 + (2 3)2]1/2

and failure occurs when v = Y

Again for a uniaxial tension test, where

2 = 3= 0, then v = 1 = Y

The Von Mises equivalent stress in 2 dimensions

reduces to:

v = (12 + 22 12)1/2
5.2.3 General Components of Stress System
Hydrostatic and Deviatoric stress

Any stress system can be considered in terms of the

component which causes shape change and the
component causing (reversible) volume change

Yielding is controlled by the shear stress, (maximum

shear stress (Tresca) or shear strain energy (Mises))

Any stress state can be split up into a deviatoric (or

shear) component which causes distortion and
yielding and a hydrostatic stress state which causes
volume change only and does not affect yielding
 26

A hydrostatic stress is a stress which is the same in all

directions and is often given the symbol, P, i.e.

1 = 2 = 3 = P

It is clear that adding a hydrostatic stress will not

affect the Tresca yield condition since

v = (1 2 ) or (1 3 ) or ( 2 3 )

will remain unchanged

It can also be shown that the Von Mises stress is

unchanged by the addition of a hydrostatic stress
 Therefore we can superimpose any hydrostatic stress
on a body and it will not change the yield condition
or cause an increase or decrease in plastic strain

A pure hydrostatic stress on its own cannot cause

yielding

26
5.2.3.2 Definition of hydrostatic and deviatoric
components of stress

A given set of principle stresses 1, 2, 3 can be split

up into hydrostatic and deviatoric components as

follows:

1 + 2 + 3
P=
3

1* = 1 P ; 2* = 2 P ; 3* = 3 P

The full stress matrix is represented as:

1 P 1*

2 = P + *2

3 P *
3

Hydrostatic Deviatoric
stress stress

The hydrostatic stress, P, causes volume change and

the deviatoric stress, causes yielding

26
e.g. Tutorial problem, Sheet 2, problem 2

2. .

x = 74 MPa, y = 320 MPa, z = 88 MPa, xy = 0.

Determine the hydrostatic and deviatoric stress for this

stress state.
Effect of stress state on yielding and fracture

By controlling the stress state we can control the

amount of plastic strain

Plastic deformation is controlled by the equivalent

stress v and fracture by the maximum principal

stress 1

v = 0
1 = } 1 / v =

This is called a high triaxiality stress state

High triaxiality favours fracture

Low triaxiality favours yielding

27


v= 2
1 = } / = 0.5
1 v

Figure 5.12 Stress state which promotes yielding

By Tresca, v = 12 = 2

Using Mises equivalent stress

v = (12 + 22 12)1/2 = 3

1 / v = 1/3 = 0.577
 Notched components:

Consider a notched an unnotched component:

B
(a) (b) 1
1 2

yield when 1 = y yield when v = y

Because of the multiaxial stress state, the 1 stress

for yielding for specimen B may be higher than for

specimen A

This effect is known as notch strengthening

Note: because of reduced cross section, at yield

>
5.2.4 Plastic Flow and Strain Hardening

Stress

n
Y

Strain

Figure 5.14, Stress strain behaviour in a tensile test

In a uniaxial test, stress increases with strain

strain hardening

How does strain hardening affect the multiaxial

yield surface?
 Two main types of multiaxial strain hardening

Isotropic hardening

Kinematic hardening

Isotropic hardening:

+ 2
n

- 1 y + 1
n

- 2
ISOTROPIC WORK HARDENING

Yield surface expands uniformly (isotropically)

An initially isotropic material remains isotropic

after yielding
 e.g., if a specimen is loaded in tension followed
by compression, yielding occurs at the same
stress in compression:

n = (y+bn) b
y

Stress

Strain

y
b

n = (y+nb)
 Kinematic hardening:

+ 2
y
b

- 1 y + 1
n

- 2
KINEMATIC WORK HARDENING

Yield surface translates in the direction of the

stress causing the hardening, but does not
increase in size
 If a tensile test is followed by a compression test
the yield strength in compression will decrease

n
b
y

Stress

Strain

(y b)

This difference in tension and compression is

known as the Bauschinger effect
Mechanistic Interpretation

Mechanistically, isotropic hardening may be

explained as being due to non-directional
hardening mechanisms, e.g., dislocation
entanglements etc.

Material hardens equally in all direction and

when load is reversed same resistance must be
overcome
 Kinematic hardening is caused by directional
mechanisms, e.g. obstruction of dislocations by
precipitates

Applied stress must be increased to move

dislocation past precipitate

However, if load is reversed, dislocation moves

more easily

Precipitate
Dislocation
lines
Back stress ,
b, due to
bowing of
dislocation
line

Figure 5.17, Schematic of a dislocation pinned by

two precipitates.
 Many metals show a combination of kinematic
and isotropic hardeningactual cyclic behaviour
can be very complicated

If monotonic loading, i.e. in one direction only,

is being considered then whether hardening is
isotropic or kinematic is irrelevant
 6. TOPIC 3, Failure by Fatigue

Many components fail at stresses levels lower

than the yield stress due to fatigue

Fatigue occurs when fluctuating stresses are

applied. We distinguish between

low cycle fatigue: number of cycles < 104

and
high cycle fatigue: 104 < N <

In this course we focus on high cycle fatigue

(HCF) though LCF will also be discussed briefly
 Failure by Fatigue

Fatigue situations can arise even when the

applied loading appears to be constant

M M

Rotating shaft in bending

6.2 Micromechanisms of Fatigue

We focus on high cycle fatigue (> 104 cycles)

The gross stress is elastic, plasticity is localised

Fatigue often starts at a stress concentration

where stress is a maximum and almost always at
a free surface

Intense local slip occurs leading to the

formation of slip bands, known as persistent
slip bands

Intrusions
~ 1 m

At the surface of the component these slip

bands are seen as extrusions and intrusions
 After many cycles a microcrack forms which
grows very slowly leading to a macro-crack and
final failure if the crack is not detected in time

As well as the incubation period three failure

stages of a fatigue test are defined
 A typical fatigue failure surface shows a
pattern of smooth striations representing the
position of the advancing crack

Fatigue crack 1

Fast fracture

Fatigue crack 2

Fig. 6.3 Example of fatigue crack growth in a shaft

6.3 Design approach to HCFthe S-N approach

S = amplitude of fluctuating stress

N = number of cycles

Widely used in the automotive industry

An initially defect free component is assumed

The only information required is the

magnitude of the applied cyclic stress on the
component

In its simplest form the S-N approach is based

on uniaxial stress and zero mean stress
 The S-N curve is determined in the lab from
smooth specimens and gives the maximum stress
range that a material can sustain for a given
number of cycles
Fatigue Strength

Fatigue Limit/
Endurance Limit

S
 Fatigue Strength

Fatigue Limit/
Endurance Limit

Typical S-N curve (plotted on log-log axes)

Note that the fatigue strength is not a single

number but a curve

If a fatigue strength value is quoted it should

always be for a particular number of cycles
6.3.1 Basquin Law for HCF

Empirical curve which is found to give good

agreement with many fatigue data

S = C a
N

a and C are material constants

This gives a straight line on a log-log plot of S

vs N
 6.3.2 Fatigue Limit

Some materials show a fatigue limit or

endurance limit

Fatigue Strength

Fatigue Limit/
Endurance Limit

The fatigue limit is the stress below which

fatigue failure will never occur

Steels and titanium alloys demonstrate a fatigue

limit while aluminium alloys generally do not

The existence of a fatigue limit is generally

associated with the same mechanism as strain
ageing
 Over long periods of time the pinning
interstitial atoms prevent the formation of
persistent bands and the initiation of crack
growth

Effect of alloying elements on fatigue behaviour

A: Pure metal

B: Addition of solid solution elements

C: Addition of interstitials (strain ageing)

For materials without a fatigue limit, the

fatigue strength at a particular number of cycles,
e.g. 108 may be specified
6.3.2.1 Estimation of Fatigue Limit

There is a good correlation between tensile

strength and fatigue limit for most steels

Fig. 6.6, Fatigue limit vs UTS for a range of steels

For steels estimate of fatigue limit is given by:

UTS < 1000 MPa: Fatigue Limit = 0.5UTS;

UTS > 1000 MPa: Fatigue Limit =500 MPa

For Aluminium alloys, Fatigue strength at 107

cycles is about 1/3 UTS
 6.3.3 Factors which affect Fatigue Strength

Surface finish: microcracks can form at

surface irregularities

Surface factor for modification of fatigue life (for steels)

 Environment/corrosion; e.g. moisture
reduces FS of steels by promoting corrosion

Temperature: increased temperature

decreases UTS with corresponding decrease in
fatigue life

Residual stresses: compressive residual

stresses can increase fatigue life, many surface
treatments are based on introduction of residual
stress

Stress concentration: Fatigue often starts at a

local stress concentration since the stress is a
maximum there,
local = kt applied
6.3.3.1 Subtopic:Definition of stress concentration

A stress concentration is a site on the surface

or in a material where the stress is locally greater
than the nominal gross stress.

Where the lines of force bunch together is an

area of high stress

Any change of geometry in a body has an

associated stress gradient at the change of
section which is a stress concentration
6.3.3.1.1 Definition of stress concentration factor

The severity of a particular stress

concentration is a function of the geometry and
the type of loading.

Stress concentration factor is the ratio of local

elastic stress to the nominal gross elastic stress,

i.e. concentration factor, kt = loc/nom.



h
a
W
 In design, stress concentrators are avoided as
much as possible by e.g. avoiding abrupt
changes of cross section and sharp corners

In addition if a component contains stress

concentrations then materials which are sensitive
to stress concentrations, e.g. ceramics should be
avoided
Effect of Stress Concentration on Fatigue Strength

Typical S-N curves for a notched and

unnotched specimen are shown below

Unnotched
S
Sa
Notched

Sb
N

If a component with stress concentration kt is

tested, we might expect it to fail at an applied
FS
stress of k t

Sa
i.e. would expect Sb = k
t

38
Effect of Stress Concentration on Fatigue Strength

However the reduction in fatigue strength

depends on the material. Some are more notch
sensitive than others
6.3.3.2.1 Definition of fatigue strength reduction
factor

The fatigue strength reduction factor, kf, is

defined as

kf =Sa /Sb

kf depends on the material and also the type of

stress concentration

It is the factor kf that is used in design rather

than the kt factor

We can determine kt from handbooks, (e.g.

Peterson)
6.3.3.2.2 Definition of notch sensitivity index

Define a notch sensitivity index, q

k f 1
q=
kt 1

q is a good measure of the notch fatigue

resistance of a material

q ranges between 0 and 1

q = 0 => kf = 1 regardless of kt

no effect of the notch (Sb = Sa) so material is

notch insensitive

q = 1 => kf = kt

Material is very notch sensitive and sees the

full effect of the stress concentration

39
6.3.3 Factors that affect fatigue strength
(continued)

Surface treatments, e.g. shot peening,

nitriding etc. can increase fatigue strength

6.3.3.3.1 Case hardening

6.3.3.3.2 Mechanical surface treatments

Welding: reduces fatigue life by introducing

small defects and residual stresses

Fretting: a phenomenon closely related to

fatiguevery small relative movements between
clamped or bolted joints tend to cause fretting,
local removal of material, from which fatigue
cracks propagate
6.3.3 Factors that affect fatigue strength
(continued)

Mean Stress: Most fatigue tests are carried

out under fully reversed loading which implies a
zero mean stress

However, in service, the mean stress may be

non-zero and this must be accounted for
 6.3.3.4.1 Definition of mean and alternating
stress

max + min
Mean stress , m =
2

max min
Alternating stress, a =
2

a = 10 MPa, m = 0, a = 10 MPa, m = 5 MPa

Emperical curves have been developed by

Goodman, Soderberg and Berger
 Goodman and Sorderberg lines are the more
commonly used as they are more conservative

Gerber Parabola

FS
Goodman line

a Soderberg line

Y UTS
m

The curves give the maximum value of mean

stress m corresponding to a given value of a
(or vice versa)

The approach is similar to the yield surface in

plasticity:

If the point (m, a) is underneath the particular

line the component is safe

41
Effect of Mean Stress in Fatigue

FS
Goodman line

a Soderberg line

Y UTS
m

The Goodman line sets the maximum mean

stress (when a = 0) to be the UTS

The Soderberg line sets it to be the Yield

Strength

The value to be used for the Fatigue Strength

(FS) will depend on the number of cycles

For infinite life it will be the fatigue limit

 The Goodman line can be represented by an
equation:

a m
+ =1
FS UTS

so if a or m is known, or the relationship

between them, the greatest allowable stress
values can be found

For the Soderberg line, UTS is replaced by

yield stress
a m
+ =1
FS YS
6.3.4 Multiaxial Loading

Previous analyses were all for uniaxial cyclic

loading

For multiaxial loading, use equivalent stress

concept

Tresca,
v = Max{|1 2 |, |1 3 |, | 2 3 |}

Mises (in 2-D), v = 1 + 2 1 2

2 2

Where 1, 2 and 3 are the alternating principal

stresses
 There is no generally accepted method for the
case when multiaxial mean and alternating
stresses are present

Commonly used approach is Sines law, which

can be stated in its simplest form in terms of
equivalent stresses so

a =
v
( ) + ( )
a 2
1
a 2
2 1a a2

m = 1m + 2m + m3
v

Then use Soderberg or Goodman law with these

equivalent stresses

va vm
+ =1
FS UTS
6.3.5 Cumulative damage

A component may be subjected to a number of

different cycles, stress, 1 for 105 cycles;
followed by 2 for 104 cycles etc.

Each of these stress cycles alone may not be

sufficient to cause failure but their cumulative
effect may be
6.3.3.4 Miners Law for cumulative damage

To account for multiple cycles use Miners

linear cumulative damage rule

1
2
3

1 2 3

For each applied stress, i with ni cycles,

determine number of cycles to failure, Ni.

Component is safe if
k
ni

i =1 N i
1

Miners law will generally give a good order of

magnitude result for fatigue life
6.4 Low Cycle Fatigue

The S-N approach is used for high-cycle

fatigueglobal stress below yield, resulting in
many cycles to failure

For low cycle fatiguefatigue under stresses

exceeding Y an alternative approach is used

In this case fatigue failure is controlled by the

plastic strain range in a cycle
Fig. 6.16 Low cycle fatigue data for stainless steel

6.4.1 Coffin-Manson Relation

LCF behaviour is described by the Coffin-

Manson relation (analogous to the Basquin
relation in HCF)

C
p = 2 b
N

C2 and b are material constants

p is the plastic strain range

 Figure 6.17 Definition of plastic strain range, p

The plastic strain range is the total strain range

minus the elastic strain range and is given by the
width of the hysteresis loop

Note that plastic strains must be generated for

LCF to occur

It should also be noted that for some materials,

for a fixed applied strain range, the plastic strain
range will change
 Cyclic softening is the most severe as it leads to
an increase in the width of the hysteresis loop,
therefore an increase in p for a fixed total
strain range

strain strain
6.4.2 Shakedown

Under certain situations, elastic shakedown can

occur

This means that even though the first cycle is

plastic subsequent cycles are elastic

This would be seen for example in an isotropic

hardening material under constant stress
amplitude

Under these circumstances LCF cannot occur

Cyclic plastic strains must be generated in order

for LCF to occur
 7. Topic 4: Failure by Fracture (LEFM)

We have already discussed the strength of

perfect materials, and we have seen that the ideal
strength is on the order of E/10

Due to dislocations permanent deformation can

occur at stresses significantly below this value
the yield strength

Liberty Ship, 1941

 Failure load is further reduced by the existence
of flaws in the material

Flaws can occur in a structure due to

inherent defects in the material:

cracked inclusions in a metal
debonded region in a composite

defects introduced during fabrication:

weld defects

damage incurred during service life:

impacts

fatigue cracking
corrosion

Due to the existence of cracks, the stresses local

to the crack may exceed the theoretical strength
of the material and thus fracture can occur
 Design using fracture mechanics assumes that a
crack exists in the material

If a crack cannot be detected, that is because the

resolution device is not sensitive enough

7.2 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)

LEFM assumes that the body deforms as a linear

elastic material except in a small region near the
crack tip

Global stresses are below the yield stress

Applied stress < 0.8Y for LEFM

 7.3 The stress intensity factor K

K
=
2r

Consider a small crack in a large body subjected

to a remote stress

The crack acts as a stress concentration

Theoretically the stress trends to infinity as we

approach the crack tip

The stress distribution is called the square root

singularity
 The variation of stress with distance from the
crack tip is given by

K
=
2r

r measures distance from the crack tip.

K is called the stress intensity factor

The stress intensity factor has many similarities

to the stress concentration factor

Its value is tabulated in stress handbooks for a

range of geometries and loadings
7.3.1 Full Description of Crack Tip Fields

x r

crack

K K
xx = f ( ); yy = g ( );
2r 2r
K
xy = h( )
2r

3
f ( ) = cos 1 sin sin
2 2 2

3
g ( ) = cos 1 + sin sin
2 2 2

3
h( ) = sin cos cos
2 2 2
 y

x r

crack

K
yy = g( )
2r
K
xy = h( )
2r

When = 0, f() = = 1; h() = 0

K

xx = ; xy = 0
2r

The important point is that the stresses near the

crack are determined by the stress intensity
factor, K
7.3.2 Mode I loading

The symbol KI is often used rather than K

The subscript I emphasises that the crack

loading is Mode I or tension

If the applied loading is shearMode II, a

similar parameter KII is used to describe the
stress field

We shall only examine Mode I loading here and

shall use K rather than KI for convenience

K has dimensions stress length , in SI units

this is MPa
m or MN
m-3/2

Care should be taken in evaluating K. If stress is

in MPa then crack length must be in m
7.3.3 Stress Intensity Factor, K for Different
Geometries

K is the factor that distinguishes one crack

problem from another

Any fracture mechanics problem can be

described in terms of K

The value of K has been determined for many

simple geometries

A small center-crack of length 2a in an infinite

plate under tension, it can be shown that

K = a

2a
2W

 In general for a crack of length 2a in a plate of
width 2W

K = Y (a / W ) a

Y is called the LEFM shape factor.

For a << W, Y =

Rather than tabulate K, it is Y that is tabulated

and K can be evaluated via the above and similar
equations

For small cracks Y = is often a good

approximation
 Small edge crack of length a:

K = 1.12 a

(Y = 1.12 2)
7.3.3.1 K for an edge crack in bending

My
b =
I
a
W M

For a plane bar, I = bW3/12

at the surface, y = W/2 = 6M/bW2

Then, K = Y a with the bending stress

For a << W, Y = 1.1 2

Fig. 7.5 Geometry factor Y for centre and edge 48
crack plate, (from Hertzberg)
7.3.4 Failure due to fracture

Consider an elastic (non-yielding) material with

a crack

K
stress, =
2r

distance, r

Crack tip

Due to the square root singularity, as we

approach the crack tip, the stress become very
large

Theoretically, fracture will occur at any K value

since if we get close enough to the crack tip,

r 0 so
 In practice we require a large stress over a
physically reasonable distance, e.g. a few
microns (10-6 m) for fracture to occur

The value of K at which this condition is

satisfied is known as the fracture toughness Kc
7.3.5 Fracture toughness Kc and the fracture
toughness test

The engineer is interested in what value of the

parameter K will cause fracture.

W
a

This value of K is known as the fracture

toughness, Kc and is a material property

To obtain Kc a standard fracture toughness test

with a specimen of known geometry factor, Y, is
carried out

A crack of length a is inserted into the specimen

and the load is increased until fracture occurs
 A common specimen used is the single edge
notch bend specimen (sometimes called the three
point bend specimen)

W
a

K = Y a

Y is obtained from a fracture handbook and

depends on a/W

For the three point bend geometry, is the

bending stress
6M
=
bW 2

b is the plate thickness and M is the central

bending moment = PS/4 so
 3 PS
K =Y a
2bW 2

and
3 Pc S
Kc = Y a
2bW 2

where Pc is the load at fracture

Kc is the fracture toughness, a material property

For ductile materials Kc depends on the thickness

of the specimen tested, as we will discuss later
7.3.6 Application of Fracture Mechanics

If we are examining the safety of a component,

we determine the applied stress intensity factor,
K, and compare it with the fracture toughness, Kc

This is analogous to determining the applied

stress, , and comparing with yield stress, Y.

Strength applies to yielding, toughness applies to

fracture

If the component in question has a simple

geometry, K can be obtained very easily

Otherwise may have to resort to numerical

methods to determine K (or Y)
7.3.7 Typical values of Kc (from Ashby and Jones)

Cast Iron: 20 MPa m Epoxy: 0.5

MPa m

Steels: 50-210 Boron- 45

MPa m fibre MPa m
epoxy:

Aluminium 20-45 Silicon 3 MPa m

alloys: MPa m Carbide:

The high fracture toughness of metals is due to

their ability to deform plasticity which reduces
the intensity of the stress at the crack tip
7.4 Energy release rate

The energy based approach provides further

insight into fracture mechanisms and is still used
though mainly for brittle materials

In the energy based approach, the energy release

rate G and the critical energy release rate Gc
which are equivalent to K and Kc are used

K2
G=
E

K c2
Gc =
E

E plane stress

E = E
1 2 plane strain
8. Topic 5: Application of LEFM to Fatigue

8.1 Introduction

S-N approach to fatigue:

looked at the magnitude of the alternating stress to

determine the number of cycles to failure

da/dN approach:

look at the alternating part of the stress intensity

factor K and determine the rate of growth of the
crack

When the crack has grown to a length at which the

component breaks then the life is used up and
fatigue failure occurs
 This may occur when:

(i) the crack has grown to a length when K = KIC

(ii) the crack has grown all the way though the
component thickness
8.2 Micromechanisms of crack growth in fatigue

The schematic representation of a fatigue test is

shown below

Note that even though the stress range () remains

constant the range of K (K) increases

As the crack grows a increases

since K = Y a K increases

Can design specimens so that as crack grows K

remains constant
8.2 Micromechanisms of crack growth in fatigue

When K is positive the crack opens creating new free

surface

The compressive cycle then closes the crack pushing

forward the new surface to create an increment of
crack growth

The amount of crack growth per cycle, da/dN is then

approximately equal to , the crack opening

displacement
8.3 Paris Law for fatigue crack growth

It has been shown that for a large proportion of the

fatigue crack growth history, there is a relationship
between crack growth da/dN and K

This is known as the Paris law

da
= C( K )
n

dN

C and n are material constants

Typical values of n are 3 or 4

C ranges from ~10-10 for aluminium to ~10-12

for steel (when stress is in MPa and crack
length in m)
 The Paris law is a straight line on a log-log plot as
shown
 Note also the existence of a threshold value of K,

Kth, below which no crack growth occurs

 This is similar to the concept of a fatigue limit in the
S-N approach

Note from data that the aluminium alloys show no

threshold K limit, though titanium and steel do

8.3.1 Integration of Paris Law

We can integrate the Paris law to get (for n 2)

2 1 1 n
= C (Y ) N
2 n a nf / 21 ain / 21

Y is the LEFM shape factor

ai is the initial crack length

af is the crack length after N cycles

This equation allows us to

(i) calculate the number of cycles until the

crack grows to a particular length, e.g. the
thickness of the component, or until K = KIC
or

(ii) calculate the amount of crack growth during

a fixed number of cycles
8.3.2 Factors which affect fatigue crack growth

All the factors which we discussed in the section on

S-N curves are also relevant in the da/dN approach

Values of C and n will change depending on the

environment, temperature, stress concentrations will
effect the value of K etc.

Effect of cumulative damage:

This is accounted for in a very straightforward

fashion

The effect of individual stress cycle are assumed to

be independent and the total a for each loading

gives the initial crack length for the next cycle
Effect of mean stress:

This is dealt with using the loading ratio

R = Kmin/Kmax

For fully reversed loading, R = 1 and for Kmin = 0,

R=0

Various laws are used to account for the effect of R

on fatigue crack growth rate

Walker equation:

K
K eff = ,
(1 R )1
Plot of fatigue crack growth against effective K for an
alloy steel

Note that for R < 0, = 0 =>

K
K eff = = K max
1 R
 This implies that negative K does not contribute to
crack growth

Compare S-N approach where compressive stress

does affect fatigue life

8.4 Low cycle fatigue

The use of the da/dN approach in low cycle fatigue is

not very well established

It requires the use of elastic-plastic fracture

mechanics, which is beyond the scope of this course
8.5 Designing against Fatigue Failure

There are a number of approaches to designing

against fatigue failure

da/dN approach gives the most information and most

accurate results but requires material data which are
not always available.

The choice of a particular method depends on:

Consequences of component/structure failure

Safety factor required, i.e. tolerance for over-

conservative design etc.

Type of loading, i.e. high cycle, low cycle,

presence of environmental effects etc.

Type of component, e.g. machined, welded,

cast etc.

Cost of analysis, some fatigue design methods

require large amounts of experimental data
 The cost of acquiring the input data can often
determine the choice of method, since if the produce
is a one-off there is little justification for an
extremely accurate but costly analysissimpler to
build in a large safety factor.

8.5.1 Infinite-Life Design

This is the oldest and still most commonly used

criterion. The basis of the method is to design the
component such that the applied fatigue loading is
below the endurance limit

A safety factor is also applied to take account of

uncertainty of the loading cycle, environmental
effects etc.

Can only be used with the S-N approach and is used

when N is high and component weight not overly
important.
8.5.2 Safe-Life Design

Similar to infinite life but aim for specific N on S-N

curve.

Same limitations as above so large safety factors are

included

Generally used for components where it is known

that only a certain number of cycles will ever be
encountered, e.g. reverse gear in a car

Pressure vessels in quasi-continuous service.

Typically, safety factors of 2 on stress and 10 on life
are used
8.5.3 Fail-safe design

Structure is designed so that even if a crack initiates

and causes failure of an individual member, there is
still sufficient redundancy in the structure to ensure
that catastrophic failure does not occur

Related idea is leak before break design in pressure

vessels

In LBB design goal is to ensure that the vessel will

always leak and crack is detected before it breaks, i.e.
complete failure of the vessel occurs
8.5.3 Damage Tolerance Design

This is an extension of the fail safe philosophy

Flaw size is determined by regular non-destructive

examination (NDE) of the component

Fracture mechanics is then used to estimate the rate

of growth of the crack and its allowable size before
failure

Typically, detectable crack size 5 mm.

Inspection interval should be short enough so that a

crack of (slightly less than) 5 mm will not grow
unstable between inspections

Therefore all cracks will eventually be detected and

the component replaced or repaired
8. Topic 5: Application of LEFM to Fatigue

8.1 Introduction

S-N approach to fatigue:

looked at the magnitude of the alternating stress to

determine the number of cycles to failure

da/dN approach:

look at the alternating part of the stress intensity

factor K and determine the rate of growth of the
crack

When the crack has grown to a length at which the

component breaks then the life is used up and
fatigue failure occurs
 This may occur when:

(i) the crack has grown to a length when K = KIC

(ii) the crack has grown all the way though the
component thickness
8.2 Micromechanisms of crack growth in fatigue

The schematic representation of a fatigue test is

shown below

Note that even though the stress range () remains

constant the range of K (K) increases

As the crack grows a increases

since K = Y a K increases

Can design specimens so that as crack grows K

remains constant
8.2 Micromechanisms of crack growth in fatigue

When K is positive the crack opens creating new free

surface

The compressive cycle then closes the crack pushing

forward the new surface to create an increment of
crack growth

The amount of crack growth per cycle, da/dN is then

approximately equal to , the crack opening

displacement
8.3 Paris Law for fatigue crack growth

It has been shown that for a large proportion of the

fatigue crack growth history, there is a relationship
between crack growth da/dN and K

This is known as the Paris law

da
= C( K )
n

dN

C and n are material constants

Typical values of n are 3 or 4

C ranges from ~10-10 for aluminium to ~10-12

for steel (when stress is in MPa and crack
length in m)
 The Paris law is a straight line on a log-log plot as
shown
 Note also the existence of a threshold value of K,

Kth, below which no crack growth occurs

 This is similar to the concept of a fatigue limit in the
S-N approach

Note from data that the aluminium alloys show no

threshold K limit, though titanium and steel do

8.3.1 Integration of Paris Law

We can integrate the Paris law to get (for n 2)

2 1 1 n
= C (Y ) N
2 n a nf / 21 ain / 21

Y is the LEFM shape factor

ai is the initial crack length

af is the crack length after N cycles

This equation allows us to

(i) calculate the number of cycles until the

crack grows to a particular length, e.g. the
thickness of the component, or until K = KIC
or

(ii) calculate the amount of crack growth during

a fixed number of cycles
8.3.2 Factors which affect fatigue crack growth

All the factors which we discussed in the section on

S-N curves are also relevant in the da/dN approach

Values of C and n will change depending on the

environment, temperature, stress concentrations will
effect the value of K etc.

Effect of cumulative damage:

This is accounted for in a very straightforward

fashion

The effect of individual stress cycle are assumed to

be independent and the total a for each loading

gives the initial crack length for the next cycle
Effect of mean stress:

This is dealt with using the loading ratio

R = Kmin/Kmax

For fully reversed loading, R = 1 and for Kmin = 0,

R=0

Various laws are used to account for the effect of R

on fatigue crack growth rate

Walker equation:

K
K eff = ,
(1 R )1
Plot of fatigue crack growth against effective K for an
alloy steel

Note that for R < 0, = 0 =>

K
K eff = = K max
1 R
 This implies that negative K does not contribute to
crack growth

Compare S-N approach where compressive stress

does affect fatigue life

8.4 Low cycle fatigue

The use of the da/dN approach in low cycle fatigue is

not very well established

It requires the use of elastic-plastic fracture

mechanics, which is beyond the scope of this course
8.5 Designing against Fatigue Failure

There are a number of approaches to designing

against fatigue failure

da/dN approach gives the most information and most

accurate results but requires material data which are
not always available.

The choice of a particular method depends on:

Consequences of component/structure failure

Safety factor required, i.e. tolerance for over-

conservative design etc.

Type of loading, i.e. high cycle, low cycle,

presence of environmental effects etc.

Type of component, e.g. machined, welded,

cast etc.

Cost of analysis, some fatigue design methods

require large amounts of experimental data
 The cost of acquiring the input data can often
determine the choice of method, since if the produce
is a one-off there is little justification for an
extremely accurate but costly analysissimpler to
build in a large safety factor.

8.5.1 Infinite-Life Design

This is the oldest and still most commonly used

criterion. The basis of the method is to design the
component such that the applied fatigue loading is
below the endurance limit

A safety factor is also applied to take account of

uncertainty of the loading cycle, environmental
effects etc.

Can only be used with the S-N approach and is used

when N is high and component weight not overly
important.
8.5.2 Safe-Life Design

Similar to infinite life but aim for specific N on S-N

curve.

Same limitations as above so large safety factors are

included

Generally used for components where it is known

that only a certain number of cycles will ever be
encountered, e.g. reverse gear in a car

Pressure vessels in quasi-continuous service.

Typically, safety factors of 2 on stress and 10 on life
are used
8.5.3 Fail-safe design

Structure is designed so that even if a crack initiates

and causes failure of an individual member, there is
still sufficient redundancy in the structure to ensure
that catastrophic failure does not occur

Related idea is leak before break design in pressure

vessels

In LBB design goal is to ensure that the vessel will

always leak and crack is detected before it breaks, i.e.
complete failure of the vessel occurs
8.5.3 Damage Tolerance Design

This is an extension of the fail safe philosophy

Flaw size is determined by regular non-destructive

examination (NDE) of the component

Fracture mechanics is then used to estimate the rate

of growth of the crack and its allowable size before
failure

Typically, detectable crack size 5 mm.

Inspection interval should be short enough so that a

crack of (slightly less than) 5 mm will not grow
unstable between inspections

Therefore all cracks will eventually be detected and

the component replaced or repaired
10.5 Welding and its effect on strength and toughness

In fusion welding, the fusion zone of the weld is

taken above its melting point and molten filler
material added to fill the join gap

e.g. butt weld

10.5.1 Structure of a weld

Bulk metal

fine grains of ferrite and pearlite

Fusion zone solidifies as a casting

Large columnar grains

 Grain structure in a weld

10.5.2 Failure in welds

Weld material has low strength, low DBTT

Long grain boundaries produces planes of weakness

and on cooling cracking can occur

This is called hot-cracking

For large sections, can use multi-pass welding

10.5.2.1 Gas Pickup

During welding gases can dissolve in the molten

metal, O2, water vapour

During cooldown this leads to porosity in the weld

Dissolved water vapour also gives H2 which leads to

embrittlement and cold cracking

Slag entrapments: e.g. Mn silicates/oxides brittle sites

for cleavage initiation

10.5.2.2 Slag entrapment

Waste products (slag) can be trapped in the weld

giving rise to inclusions, Mn oxides and silicates

These acts as sites for fracture during cooldown (hot

cracking) or on subsequent loading
10.5.3 The heat affected zone (HAZ)

Close to the fusion zone is the Heat Affected Zone

(HAZ)

During welding the HAZ undergoes a heat

treatmentrapid heating and cooling

Structure of HAZ:

(i) Grain growth region: next to fusion zone where

weld metal has been heated into the phase
fieldregion has low strength and high DBTT

(ii) Grain refined regionthis effect is beneficial

(iii) Partially transformed regionslight

coarsening of the microstructure
10.5.5 Weldability

As the carbon content increases welding becomes

more difficult

This is due to formation of Martensite in the HAZ

Recall, that increase in C content reduces the cooling

rate required for martensite transformationcold
cracking

Presence of H2 makes things worseHydrogen

embrittlement

Similarly alloying elements which are added to aid in

production of Martensite of Q-T steels make welding
more difficult:

Weldabilty as Hardenability
 Pre-heating can reduce the chance of Martensite
formation (since cooling rate is then reduced)

10.5.5 Post weld heat treatment (PWHT)

PWHT can relieve residual stresses due to cooling

and helps hydrogen diffusion

Component held at ~600 C for a few hours

11. Topic 6: Failure by Creep

Creep occurs when a component is held under stress over

long times and/or high temperatures

In creep, permanent strains are seen at stresses well below

the macroscopic yield stress of the material.

Room temperature creep

Deformation of rock, ice (creep of glaciers),

Sagging of lead pipes due to self weight

At higher temperatures, creep becomes significant in

structural materialssteel, ceramics, polymers
 Creep:

Time dependent process

Results in permanent (non-recoverable) deformation

May ultimately lead to failure (creep rupture).

Creep is particularly important in chemical process plant,

electrical power generation equipment and aircraft gas
turbine engines.

Often creep strain is the predominant design parameter in

these casesgas turbine blades may come into contact with
the turbine casing if creep strains are too high.

Time/temperature will depend on the application:

Aircraft components: time scales: 103 hours

Power plants creep lives are typically 105 hours

Non-metals such as polymers and ceramics also exhibit

creep

Polymerscreep due to sliding of polymer chains.

Metals/Ceramicsdiffusion controlled creep

11.2 Diffusion and Ficks law

In metals and ceramics, creep deformation is closely related

to diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of atoms in a solid, liquid or gas

Diffusion in brass: Alloy of copper and zinc

Zn
Cu

Atoms diffuse from regions of high concentration to

regions of low concentration
Ficks first law of diffusion:

dc
J = D
dx
J: The flux in number of atoms (or molecules) which
diffuse through a unit area per second

dc
dx : concentration gradient

D: diffusivity, which depends on temperature and the

materials in question
 When an atom diffuses it moves from one stable
equilibrium position to another (A B)

In order for an atom to move from A to the lower energy

position B, it must overcome an energy barrier, Q

It can be shown that the diffusion coefficient, D, in Ficks

law is given by

D = D0 e Q / RT

D0 has units m2/s and is a constant for a particular class of

materials, e.g.

FCC metals: D0 = 5105 m2/s

BCC metals: D0 = 2104 m2/s

11.2.1 Mechanisms of Diffusion

11.2.1.1 Bulk Diffusion

Bulk/lattice diffusion: occurs in the bulk of the crystal

Fe Zn
Cu
C

Interstitial diffusion Vacancy (self) diffusion

The constant D0 is lower for vacancy diffusion

vacancy diffusion: atom must wait for a vacant

site to become available

interstitial diffusion : vacant interstitial site is

much more likely to be available.
11.2.1.2 High-Diffusivity paths:

Diffusion along favoured pathways

e.g. Free surface; Grain boundaries; Dislocation cores

Grain boundary
channel

Dislocation
core

More open structure speeds up diffusion

 Recall D = D0e-Q/RT

The diffusivity of each path is different

D0s > D0b > D0dl > D0l

Free surface Lattice (bulk)

Grain Dislocation
boundary core

Area of grain boundaries is generally much larger than the

free surface area => contribution from grain boundaries
generally much higher

Rate of diffusion can be as much as 106 times higher along

grain boundaries than in the bulk lattice

Contribution of each term will also depend on temperature

since the activation energy is temperature dependent
11.3 Mechanisms of Creep

Low temperature: plastic deformation is primarily by

dislocation glide (slip)

High temperature: diffusion creep and dislocation creep

11.3.1 Diffusion creep

Occurs at low stresses, controlled by vacancy diffusion

Vacancy Diffusion
Atomic Diffusion

Vacancies diffuse from grain boundaries under tension to

those under compression

Atoms move in the opposite direction

11.3.1 Diffusion creep

The diffusion is a stress activated process

Higher stress more diffusion more creep strain

Diffusion creep is described by the Nabarro-Herring law

7Dl b3
D =
kTd 2

Dl : lattice (bulk) diffusivity,

b: atomic spacing
k: Boltzmann constant
d: grain diameter

Stress dependence is linearlinear viscous law

The creep rate depends strongly on grain size, as the grain

boundaries are the source of the vacancies
 As grain size decreases the area of the grain boundaries
increases, so the creep rate increases.

Fine grained: large area of Coarse grained: smaller area of

grain boundary available for grain boundary available for
diffusion creep diffusion creep

Thus fine grained materials will have higher creep strain

Contrast low temperature behaviour where smaller grains

give a higher yield stress and therefore a lower strain at a
given stress level
 At lower temperatures, grain boundary diffusion dominates
and the Coble law for creep is used.

50Dbb 4
D =
kTd 3

vacancies

Even stronger dependence on grain size, 1/d3 and again

linear dependence on stress
11.3.2 Dislocation Creep

At higher stresses, dislocation creep becomes important

Associated with climb of dislocations away from barriers

and occurs only at high temperatures

Glide force Reaction b

climb
force, f0 f0 force,
btan

Dislocation climb by diffusion:

 This type of creep gives rise to a power law dependence on
stress

AD Gb n
D =
kT G

D: diffusivity

G : shear modulus

Typically n for dislocation creep ranges between 3 and 8

with 5 the most common value

T > 0.3Tm climb occurs readily

0.3Tm < 0.5Tm : core diffusion

T > 0.5Tm : bulk diffusion.
 Creep Laws

7Dl b3
D = : Nabarro Herring creep: bulk diffusion
kTd 2

50Dbb 4
 = : Coble creep: grain boundary diffusion
kTd 3

AD Gb n
D =
kT G : Dislocation creep: climb of dislocations
High T: bulk diffusion

Low T: core diffusion

In all the creep equations, a diffusivity term appears.

If this term is replaced by the diffusion relation,

D = D0e-Q/RT

The Arrhenius type law is obtainedstrong temperature

dependence
11.3.3 Superplasticity at High Temperatures

Fine grained materials are to be avoided in high-

temperature components as fine grains lead to accelerated
Nabarro-Herring and Coble creep and associated grain
boundary sliding

However, in certain situations, such as in hot metal forming

operations, large deformations are desirable

Superplasticity is the ability of a material to withstand very

large deformations in tension, without necking, c.f. tensile
behaviour of materials.

Superplasticity is promoted by fine grained structures and

associated high strain rate sensitivity
Deformation Mechanism Diagrams

Tm = melting temperature

Silver : FCC metal

Germanium: covalent bonded cubic structure
Pure Ni, two grain sizes.
11.4 Engineering approach to creep deformation

For a metal or ceramic at room temperature the stress and

strain are related by

= f ( )

Strain depends only on the stress

There will be weak dependence on temperature and time

but these can generally be neglected

At higher temperatures the relationship becomes

= f ( , t , T )

Strain depends strongly on time and on temperature.

Definition of high/low temperature depends on the

material.

Tungsten, (light bulbs) operates at about 2000o C

 Metals: diffusion and therefore creep is significant at
temperatures more than about 0.3 Tm (the melting point).

Ceramics: Minimum temperature for creep is about 0.4 Tm.

Polymers: the important temperature is the glass transition

temperatures, Tgthe temperature at which polymer
changes from glassy to rubbery behaviour.

Typical melting point temperatures:

SiC: 2837 oC, Tungsten: 3407 oC, Nickel: 1453 oC,

Steel: 900 oC, Lead: 327 oC

 11.4.1 Creep Testing

failure Force Furnace

x
Secondary creep

strain
D ss
Tertiary
1 creep

Primary
elastic creep
strain
Force
time

Specimen held under constant load at high temperatures

A creep curve is a plot of stain versus time

Similar curves are seen for metals, ceramics and polymers

The magnitudes of the strains and the relative sizes of the

regions indicated will differ.

For metals a creep test can last months or even years.

 failure
x
Secondary creep

strain
D ss
Tertiary
1 creep

Primary
elastic creep
strain

time

In the primary creep regime the strain rate, D , is initially

high but decreases with time

In the secondary creep regime strain rate is constant.

The strain rate in the secondary creep region, Dss :

steady state strain rate

secondary strain rate

minimum strain rate

 failure
x
Secondary creep

strain
D ss
Tertiary
1 creep

Primary
elastic creep
strain

time

For most materials it is the secondary creep regime which

is of most importance since the component will spend the
largest portion of its life in this region.

Most creep design is based on the secondary creep strain

rate

Tertiary creep is the precursor to final failure and the large

strain rate is associated with localised necking, microvoid
formation and coalescence.
 In the tertiary region the stress is no longer constant as the
specimen cross-sectional area starts to decrease due to
necking

Constant load

strain
Constant stress

time

However, if a creep test is carried out at constant stress

rather than constant load the onset of tertiary creep is
somewhat delayed.
11.4.2 Dependence of steady state strain rate on stress

The magnitude of Dss depends on stress and temperature

and therefore is not a material property.

If creep tests at different stresses but fixed temperature are

carried out

Plotting log secondary creep rate against log stress gives:

Power Law Slope

Creep n 3-8

.
log ss
Experimental data

n 1

log

The form of the experimental data implies that we can

write, at constant temperature
  = B
ss
n

B and n are material properties.

 = B
ss
n

n : creep exponent 3 10.

This behaviour is power law creep (dislocation creep)

Analogous to power law plasticity when stress and strain

are related by

= A n

Law is sometimes called the Norton law for creep.

At low stress levels the slope of the curve 1linear

viscous creep (diffusion creep)
11.4.3 Dependence of steady state strain rate on temperature

If tests at constant stress but varying temperature are

carried out

Slope
-Q/R
.
ln ss

T in Kelvin

1/T

Again obtain a linear curve. The slope is written as Q/R

where R is the universal gas constant, so we can write

Q

D = Ce
ss
RT

Q : Activation energy for creep.

11.4.4 Unified law for creep deformation

Q

D = Ae
ss
RT n

A, n and Q : material constants determined through

testing

11.4.5 Consequences of Power Law Creep

At constant stress or load, the strain accumulates with

time.

At constant displacement or strain, stress relaxes with

time.

The latter is important in pretensioned bolts as the stress

can relax at high temperatures so the bolts must be
retightened periodically.
 i
Stress relaxation :

Consider a bolt, at high temperature, stressed between two

rigid flanges to some initial value, i.

Flanges are rigid => total displacement / strain constant.

The total strain in the system is given by:

= +
Total elastic creep

and

=
elastic E

At constant temperature

. n
creep = B
 As time passes, creep strain increases and elastic strain
decreases resulting in a drop in the stress.

= +
Total elastic creep

Differentiate

. . .
= + =0
Total elastic creep

.
+ n = 0
E

1 d = B n
E dt

Integrating this expression from = i at t = 0 to = f at

t = tf gives

1
= 1 + ( n 1)BEt f
nf 1 n 1
i
 Using this expression the time taken for the stress in the

bolt to relax to some predetermined value can be calculated.

Relaxation time: time taken for the stress to reach half its
initial value.

Obtain directly by putting f = i/2 and

2 n 1 1
tr =
( n 1) BE in 1
 Overtightening the bolt gives little benefit since the rate of
stress relaxation is greatest at the highest initial stress and
decreases as the stress drops.

11.5 Creep Strength and Rupture Strength

Three independent variables :

time, temperature and stress

Creep strength is generally defined as

(i) The stress at a given temperature to produce a given

steady state creep strain rate:

110-5 %/hr or 110-3 %/hr

or

(ii) The stress to cause a specific strain, e.g. 1%, at a

given temperature over a given time.

e.g. Type 316 stainless steel, creep strength at 800oC based

on 1% extension in 1000 hr is 210 MPa
 The rupture strength is the stress required to cause failure
at a given temperature, in a given time e.g., 103, 104 or 105
hours.

Type 316 stainless steel :

1100oF 600 oC

60 kpsi 400 MPa

11.6 Extrapolation of Creep Data (Creep Correlation)

Generally it is too expensive or will take to long to test

under the full range of time and temperatures

In particular, often need to extrapolate long term data from

shorter term tests

This is done through a combination of empirical and

theoretical approaches.

Testing is carried out at higher temperatures than are

required in service and results are correlated for longer
time at lower temperature.
11.6.1 The Sherby-Dorn Parameter

Arrhenius equation for secondary creep strain rate at

constant stress,

Dss = Ce Q / RT

Introduced temperature compensated time

Q / RT
 = Ce

= tCe Q / RT

= C

where

= te Q / RT

t is the time

also has units of time as Q/RT is dimensionless

Q : J/mol
R: J/mol/K
T: K
 Plotting creep strain, , versus at different temperatures
but the same stress gives a single curve as shown.

Different
Temps

Creep
Strain

hrs

Thus the use of temperature compensated time allows us to

interpolate between different temperatures and times (at the
same stress level).
 For example, say we wish to determine creep strain for 105
hours at 700 K.

To determine the time for an equivalent test at 900 K we

simply equate the value of for the two cases,

2 = 1

t 2 e (Q / RT2 ) =t1e (Q / RT1 )

t 2 e (Q / 900 R ) = 105 e (Q / 700 R )

Q 1 1

t 2 = 105 e R 700 900

R = 8.3 J/mol/K;

Example, if Q = 60 kJ/mol

=> t2 = 104 hours

i.e. time reduced by an order of magnitude to 1 year

 The Sherby-Dorn parameter is the value of at rupture, i

PSD = t R e Q / RT

where tR is the time to rupture at time T

If activation energy is independent of stress and failure

strain is independent of temperature

Then the rupture stress depends only on the Sherby-Dorn

parameter, PSD

This reduces the number of independent variables by 1

For a given stress the value of the Sherby-Dorn parameter

at rupture can be calculated and if either time (i.e.
component life) or temperature are known the unknown
value can be determined
11.6.2 Larson-Miller Parameter

The Larson-Miller parameter is also used to correlate stress

rupture data

Consider again the rate equation, using A as the constant

for convenience

 = Ae Q / RT

= Ate Q / RT

1 = Ate Q / RT

where A= A/ .

Taking logs of both sides we get

0 = log A + log t MQ / RT

where M is log e = 0.434 (M = 1 if natural logs are used)

MQ 1
log t = log A' +
R T
MQ 1
= C +
R T

Plotting log rupture time versus 1/T gives a series of

straight lines for different stresses. For many materials the
following curve is obtained:
 1 2 3

+10
3 > 2 > 1
+5

log tr 0
1
T
-5

MQ
-10
R
-15

-20 -C
 1 2 3

+10
3 > 2 > 1
+5

log tr 0
1
T
-5

MQ
-10
R
-15

-20 -C

In the above curves the slope of these lines is MQ/R and the
intercept is C.

Varying slope => Q varies with stress

Single intercept => C is constantLarson-Miller constant.

For most metals C ranges from 15 to 25 but is often taken

to be 20 (46 if natural logs are used).
 The Larson-Miller parameter is obtained by writing,

MQ 1
log t r = C +
R T
MQ
PLM = = T (log t r + C )
R

where PLM = L-M parameter = MQ/R (depends only on

stress)

C = L-M constant 20 for many materials

T = Test Temperature, K

tr = time to rupture in hours (usually)

11.6.2.1 Example of application of SD and LM curves

An engineering component is subject to creep at = 150

MPa. What is the highest allowable temperature for the S-590
alloy if the component must function for 40 days and a factor
of safety of 10 on life is required? (Take R = 8.314 J/mol K)

S-D analysis:

Q = 85,000 cal/mole = 356.15 kJ/mole

t = 400 days = 96 000 hrs.

= 150 MPa => log10(SD) -15

Q / RT
=> SD = t R e = 10 15

Taking natural logs of both sides and solving for T gives

T = 931 K = 658 oC.

L-M analysis:

C = 17 and, as before, t = 96 000 hrs.

= 150 MPa => LM 20 500 =>

P = T ( logt r + C ) = 20 500

Solving for T gives T = 932 K = 659 oC.

Both approaches give almost identical results.

Note that the database used to create the S-D and L-M plots
contains data between 922 and 1005 K and stresses between
100 and 200 MPa (i.e. in the design range).

Hence the results are expected to be reliable.

11.6.3 Extrapolation of creep data

Recall deformation maps: strain-rate lines are discontinuous

across the deformation regions.

If extrapolation of creep data involves crossing a

deformation boundary, may lead to non-conservative results

.
log Power law n

Actual strain rate

Extrapolated strain rate
1

op test

Linear viscous Log

Dowling:

Tests should extend to about 10% of the desired

service life. For 30 year life test for 3 years.

Stresses should not be extrapolated very far beyond

the range of the data
11.7 Failure Mechanisms in Creep

Creep rupture occurs primarily due to microcracking and

void growth along grain boundariesintergranular fracture.

The microcracking is generally associated with grain

boundary sliding
 Final failure is then associated with linking up of
microcracks or voids along grain boundaries
11.8 Material Selection Criteria for Creep

Aim for a material with

High melting point, Tm

Large lattice resistance to oppose dislocation motion,

covalent if possible such as oxides, carbides, Si3N4, SiC.

Precipitates, solid solution, to obstruct dislocations

Coarse grain materialssingle crystals

11.8.1 Typical Creep Resistant Materials

High alloy stainless steels, e.g. 316, good to 600o C.

Ni, Cr solid solution

Carbides precipitates

FCC structure to resist diffusional creep

Nickel base superalloys: a wide range of nickel alloys

containing solid solution and precipitates, good to 950o C
and beyond

Ceramics: Alumina, Silicon Nitride which have high lattice

resistance
11.8.2 Example of Creep Material: Turbine Blades
 In gas turbines, efficiency is closely related to temperature
of operation.

Cooling channels lower the blade temperature. The

technology of blade cooling is now tending to reach a
limitany further cooling will result in a reduction in
thermal efficiency.

Strong incentive to develop materials which will perform

well at high temperaturesin excess of 1000o C.

Additional requirement: low density

weight considerations for aero engines.

minimise centrifugal stress due to blade rotation.

 Currently, most popular materials are the nickel-base
superalloys

Intermetallics such as TiAl and ceramics are also increasing

in popularity

A typical Ni superalloy:

7% Cr, 6% W, 6% Al, 1% Ti balance: Ni.

W and Cr : dissolve in the Ni in solid solution

Al, Ti : form hard precipitates like Ni3Al and Ni3Ti.

Cr: forms Cr2O3 reduces oxidation and corrosion.

 Microstructuretwo phase - alloy

= Nickel solid solution

= Ni3Al

Volume fraction of ~70%.

Precipitates prevent the movement of the dislocations

leading to a very strong structure.

precipitate

A typical blade can cost about 200 and a turbine disk with
100 blades is then about 20K.

Major expense is the casting of the blade

 The resultant grain size of these blades may be small which
leads to diffusional creep at high temperatures.

Increase the grain size through heat treatments

or

Use special casting techniques to produce directionally

solidified, DS, or single crystals, (SX)

Conventional casting Directionally solidified Single Crystal

The use of DS and single crystal alloys can lead to an

increase in the blade temperature of about 50o C.
 DS: grain boundaries are orientated so they are parallel to
the maximum principal stress

Low driving force for grain boundary diffusion

Long grain boundaries inhibit diffusion because of the large

distance the atoms have to travel

No stress perpendicular to the grain boundaries to drive

voids and cracks.

In single crystal materials, there are no grain boundaries,

therefore no grain boundary diffusion or grain boundary
cracking leading to creep rupture.

Failure in SX materials will be by growth of voids in the

bulk material and subsequent microcracking.
 Topic 7: OXIDATION AND CORROSION

12.1 Introduction

In nature most metals occur as chemical compounds

Iron ore: taconite, limonite, principally iron oxide

Aluminium from bauxite: aluminium oxide

Of the metals, only gold is found in its native form

under normal circumstances.

In service, metals will have a tendency to oxidise, i.e.

react with oxygen.

Undesirable because oxide will usually have grossly

inferior mechanical properties to the base material,
(usually more brittle and/or less creep resistant)
12.2 Oxidation Reaction

Metal + Oxygen + Energy Oxide

If the energy term is negative then the material will

oxidise easily

(from Ashby and Jones)

12.2.1 Oxidation Rate

The energy of formation of the oxide is not sufficient

to tell us the rate at which oxidation will occur

Oxidation rate is controlled mainly by the property of

the oxide layer, which forms on the surface of the
metal

Rate of oxidation measured by the increase in the

mass of the oxidised specimen
O2
Oxidised layer

Metal

Oxygen is being added to form oxide

mass increases with time

 linear oxidation
m

parabolic oxidation

time

Two types of behaviour are usually observed :

Linear oxidation : m = k Lt

Parabolic oxidation: m = k P t

Parabolic oxidation: oxide layer protects the metal

formation of new oxide slowed down

oxidation rate reduced

 Linear oxidation: oxide layer develops micro-cracks

O2

V oxide << V metal

Microcracking

V oxide >> V metal

Spalling

Most metals exhibit parabolic oxidation

Fe (in dry air), Ni, Al etc.

Nb and Ta exhibit linear oxidation rates.

Tungsten and Mo exhibit negative linear oxidation

(oxide evaporates)
12.2.2 Chemical Reaction in Corrosion/Oxidation

We split up into ANODIC and CATHODIC

reaction.

ANODIC REACTION

Metal loses electrons leaving metal ions, which

carry a net positive charge

In general

Metal Metaln+ + ne-

where n is the number of free electrons.

e.g. for Ni, Zn the reaction is:

Ni Ni2+ + 2e-

Electrons leave the metal, i.e. current enters,

The site is an ANODE

 The oxygen undergoes a CATHODIC reaction:

O + 2e- O2-

forming negative ion (anion)

Metal and oxygen ions then combine to form the

oxide:

M2+ + O2- MO
 12.2.2 Influence of diffusion on oxidation rates

Anodic and Cathodic reaction need not occur at the

same point so long as the electrons and ions can
move between the anode and cathode.

MO air

2+ -
M M + 2e
- 2-
2e + O O

metal
Oxide layer

Oxygen ions diffuse through the oxide layer

New oxide deposited at metal-oxide interface

 OR

air MO

- 2-
2+ -
2e + O O
M M + 2e

metal
Oxide layer

Metal ions diffuse through the oxide layer.

New oxide deposited at oxide-air interface

The rate of oxidation is controlled by diffusion

an Arrhenius process.

Which of the two cases above occurs will depend on

the relative diffusivities of the metal and oxygen ions
12.3 Material Criteria for Oxidation

Aim for:

Film which adheres to the substrate

Film with low diffusion coefficients, i.e. high

melting points

Good insulator: restrict flow of electrons

Aluminium and chromium oxide: good adhesion, low

diffusion coefficients and low electrical conductivity

Steels :

> 18% Cr => protective layer of Cr2O3

Reduces oxidation rate by 100 at 900o C.

> 5% Al

Reduces oxidation rate by factor of 30

 Copper:

Alloying with Al gives a range of stainless

copper alloys, called Aluminium Bronzes

Nickel:

~ 9% Chromium to form Cr2O3

For high temperature applications, physical coatings

are increasingly used, Thermal Barrier Coatings
(TBC)
 Typical coating is produced by spraying Al on the
surface of a turbine blade

Coating forms a surface layer of aluminium oxide

and an intermediate NiAl layer, which is itself
resistant to oxidation.

Al2O3
NiAl and other compounds

Ni
12.4 Wet Corrosion

Wet corrosion: corrosion in presence of H2O or

other liquid can dramatically increase the rate of
oxidation

Water provides a medium for the corrosion product

to dissolveno protective oxide layer is formed

Material is continuously lost from the component and

the life can be controlled by wet corrosion.

Annual bill in the UK for replacing, repairing or

protecting corroding material is around, 2000M
12.4.1 Rusting of Steel (Iron)

Aerated water 2Fe(OH)2

- -
2+ - 4e + 2H2O + O2 4OH
2Fe 2Fe + 4e

Fe

Iron immersed in aerated water (contains dissolved

oxygen)

Corrosion product is hydrated iron oxide Fe(OH)2 or

simply FeO + H2O

If it does deposit on the surface, it gives little or no

protection because of the high diffusion rates in the
presence of H2O

The deposited Fe(OH)2 quickly forms Fe(OH)3 Ferric

Hydroxide, or rust
12.4.1.1 Preferential Corrosion

It is important to note that the anodic and cathodic

reaction can occur at different places, e.g. consider a
scratch in the paintwork of a car body.

scratch cathode
paint

Car body metal anodes

High concentration of oxygen at the scratch so the

cathodic reaction takes place here

O2 + 2H2O +4e- 4OH-

Under the paintwork, the anodic reaction takes place

2Fe 2Fe2+ + 4e-

i.e. corrosion takes place.

Fe(OH)2 rust is deposited at the cathode.

 Similar effect is seen in riveted structures in aerated
water.

Aerated water
supply i.e. plenty
of oxygen
--cathodic

Oxygen supply restricted anodic, corrodes

12.4.2 Weathering Steels

The problem of rusting of steel can be reduced by

making the oxide/hydroxide film more adherent

Add alloying elements which combine with the rust

during corrosion,

COR-TEN steel which is a mild steel with

additional Cu, Cr (< 1%) and Si.

Cu, Cr and Si modify the rust layer making it more

adherent and compact.

These steels are called weathering steels

12.4.3 Galvanic Corrosion

Corrosion (material removal) always occurs at the

anode

If two metals are joined together, the material which

has more tendency to form a cation,

i.e. M M2+ + 2e-

will be the one which will preferentially corrode.

e.g., Component made of copper and zincZn is

anodic wrt Cu so the Zn will corrode and the Cu
(cathode) is unattacked.

Most severe when the area of the anodic (corroding)

metal is small compared to the cathodic metal.
12.4.3.1 Protection of steel by galvanising

Consider galvanised steel: steel with a thin surface

layer of zinc

Zinc is anodic with respect to iron

2Zn(OH)2

-
O2 + 2H2O +4e- 4OH
Zinc layer
2Zn 2Zn2+
+ 4e-

anode cathode
steel

If a crack forms it is the zinc layer which corrodes

rather than the steel

Once the zinc layer has corroded then rusting of the

steel occurs and the component will fail.
12.4.4 Sacrificial Protection:

Used, e.g., to protect near surface steel pipelines

damp aerated soil will promote corrosion.

Pipeline is physically connected to a sacrificial

anode a more anodic metal such as Mg or Zn which
will corrode in preference to the steel.

4e -
Anode

Mg 2Mg 2+ + 4e -

Cathode
-
O 2 + 2H 2 O + 4e - 4(OH )

The sacrificial anode must not of course form an

adherent oxide layer as the steel may then start to
corrode in preference.
 Anode must be periodically replaced.

Stainless steel pipes could be used to avoid corrosion,

but this is usually not economically practical for
pipelines

Alternative material is a polymer like polypropylene

which does not suffer this type of corrosion.
12.5 Stress Corrosion Cracking

A metal component which would not normally fail by

fracture may do so in a corrosive environment

When stress is applied to the metal, it can undergo

rapid local corrosion and subcritical (i.e. K < KIc)
crack growth.

This process is known as stress corrosion cracking

and is a major cause of failures

The stress does not necessarily have to be externally

appliedresidual stress from cold working/welding
can be sufficient
12.5.1 SCC Mechanisms

Deformation which locally breaks an otherwise

protective oxide film

Environment Environment
Oxide Oxide
Metal Metal

A pit is then formed in the fresh metal and the base of

the pit becomes anodic and corrodes preferentially.

Environment
Oxide
Metal Cathodic

Anodic
Pit

Corrosion occurs at the base of the pitpit becomes a

crack and propagates
12.5.2 Design against failure by SCC

SCC can be analysed in a somewhat similar fashion to

fatigue crack growth, though the mechanisms are
different.

Consider a test specimen subjected to different initial

K values under a corrosive environment

KI

KIscc

Time to Failure

At high initial K values, (close to KIc) failure occurs

rapidly with the time for failure increasing with
decreasing K.

The K value below which failure does not occur is the

stress corrosion threshold value, KISCC, analogous to
 the threshold stress or threshold K value in fatigue.

KI

KIscc

Time to Failure

Titanium and steels tend to have a well-defined KISCC

value but in aluminium this does not appear to be the
case.

Note that KI is the initial K value applied to the

structure.

Since the crack is growing during the test corrosion

cracking, the final K value will be different to the
initial value (as in fatigue).

At fracture, K is close to KIC

The failure event is simply due to brittle

fracture
 Crack growth data under SCC:

Unstable Fracture

Stage III
Plateau
Log (da/dt) Stage II

Stage I

Threshold

KISCC K KIC

SCC curve has three stages though the form of the

curve is different from the fatigue da/dN curve.

K < KISCC no crack growth

Stage I : slow crack growth

Plateau region (Stage II): Crack growth rate independent

of K.

Unstable Fracture (Stage III): K close to KIC

12.4.1.3 Weld attack of stainless steels

Due to local heating, chromium carbides are formed

preferentially at austenite grain boundaries

Chromium is tied up as carbidesreduces the amount

of chromium in solid solution adjacent to these grain
boundaries

Chromium denuded zones adjacent to the grain

boundaries become anodic with respect to the rest of
component and this leads to intergranular attack
(corrosion) at the austenite grain boundaries
 Stainless steels which exhibit this phenomenon of
excessive Cr carbide precipitation after welding are
said to be sensitised

The problem can be eliminated by additions of Ti or

Nb which are stronger grain boundary carbide
formers than chromium and hence the chromium
remains in solid solution
12.5 Corrosion Protection

Protective coatings can be used to protect against

corrosion and SCC

For polymeric materials, oils and greases can be used

but these are not very effective or long lasting

Paints, varnishes can also be used which are usually

combined with pigments, for decorative purposes,
plus corrosion inhibitors such as phosphates and
chromates

For metals, plating can be used, e.g. Cr, Ni on steel,

Pt on razor blades, Sn on tin cans etc.

Also hot dippinge.g. galvanising Zn and Sn on

steel

Diffusion coatings such as powder Al sprayed on car

 exhausts; Zn coated on steel for thick coatings are
also used

Metals can be clad or skinned with other metals by a

variety of processes. Explosive welding, hot rolling,
diffusion bonding have and are all used to produce
components of two metals

For example pure Al is often clad onto Al alloys to

improve their corrosion resistance

For large ferrous components such as pipelines, ships

hulls, piers, large boilers, jetties and oil rigs a
sacrificial anode may be used as discussed earlier
12.5.2 Inhibitors

In car radiators, boiler systems etc. oxidising agents

such as chromates, phosphates or hydrazine can be
used

Inhibitors:
(i) help to remove oxygen from the water and
thereby slow down the cathodic reaction

(ii) form protective compound deposits on the

metal surface

The protective compound deposits on the metal

surface and reduces film growth and inhibits diffusion