Ali Mohammed UMB

Biology
End of Year Exam Revision

Topic 1: Respiration and Gas Exchange

Respiration
In order for a living cell to carry out any essential life process it requires energy. It
obtains the energy by breaking down food molecules, releasing the chemical energy.
This process is called (cellular or tissue) respiration. Respiration involves the
controlled release of energy; some as heat (which is why our bodies feel warm), but
most is trapped as chemical energy in other molecules.
The chemical energy can be used for a variety of purposes, such as:
In all living organisms Energy is needed for growth, cell division, building
large molecules form smaller ones (e.g. proteins from amino acids) and
transporting chemicals (active transport).
In animals Energy is needed to keep warm, for muscle contraction and
sending nervous impulses along nerve fibres.
In plants Energy is used to take mineral ions from the soil and the opening
and closing of the stomata.

Respiration is the process of releasing energy from glucose, which happens

constantly in every living cell.

Aerobic respiration involves the use of oxygen. Molecules, derived from our food,
are oxidised to give carbon dioxide and water and energy is transferred.
The main molecule oxidised is glucose (a simple sugar).
Aerobic respiration is the most efficient eat to release energy from glucose. It is how
we obtain energy.
The formula for it is:
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
C6H12O6 + 6O6 6CO2 + 6H2O + (ATP)

We have to release the energy gradually or we would just burn ourselves.

Aerobic respiration is taken place in cell organelles called mitochondria. The more
metabolically active a cell, the more mitochondria will be found. Over 40C,
respiration slows down because the mitochondria wont be able to function because
it denaturises.
The mitochondria generate a molecule called ATP that is used by a cell as the source
of energy to drive other chemical reactions in the cytoplasm and nucleus.

In respiration, oxygen is used up and carbon dioxide is produced as well as energy.

If you look at the chemical reaction for aerobic respiration, you can see that a cell or
organism that is respiring should be using up food, using up oxygen, giving off carbon
dioxide, giving off water and releasing energy for other metabolic processes.

Biology
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Ali Mohammed UMB

If we wish to test whether aerobic respiration is taking place, we can test if oxygen is
being used up, if carbon dioxide is being given off and if energy is being released.
There are experiments demonstrating oxygen being used up and production of
carbon dioxide and energy

Anaerobic respiration is how we obtain energy when no more oxygen can be

obtained to meet the oxygen required (when oxygen demand exceeds oxygen
available). Anaerobic respiration can also be known as fermentation. It takes on
different forms according to the type of organism respiring.

One way of releasing energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen is to convert the
glucose into alcohol (ethanol). It is called alcoholic fermentation.
The formula for it is:
Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + CO2 + (ATP)
Far less energy is released to the cell in this way. A lot of energy remains locked up in
the ethanol.
Yeast cells (a unicellular fungus) and plant cells produce alcohol anaerobically. The
processes of brewing (fermenting grape juice to make wine hops and barley to make
beer) and bread making (the release of CO 2 to make the dough rise) rely upon
anaerobic respiration in yeast.

Another form of anaerobic respiration is called lactic acid fermentation.

The formula for it is:
Glucose Lactic acid + Energy
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + (ATP)
In animal cells, the first stages of respiration in muscle cells are anaerobic and
produce pyruvic acid. Only later in the process is the pyruvic acid fully oxidised to
CO2 and H2O. During exercise, the rate of pyruvic acid accumulation can occur faster
than it can be oxidised. In this case it is converted to lactic acid (C 3H6O3 a metabolic
poison) and removed from the bloodstream to the liver. Here, some of the lactic acid
will be oxidised into CO2 and H2O (using up O2). The lactic acid also builds up in the
muscles, making it painful and leads to cramp. After exercise has stopped, a lot of
lactic acid remains, which must be broken down. That requires a lot of extra O2, so
the athlete will continue panting/breathing heavily (accompanied by a lot of
sweating and a red face). The volume of extra O 2 required to oxidise this lactic acid is
known as the oxygen debt.

As temperature increases, particles gain more kinetic energy, causing them to move
faster and colliding with each other and react more together, causing more aerobic
respiration.

Diffusion
Diffusion is the (net) movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration until the particles are evenly distributed. Distance,
temperature, pressure, concentration gradient and size of particle are all factors that
affect the rate of diffusion.

Biology
End of Year Exam Revision
Ali Mohammed UMB

The rate of diffusion decreases as the distance increases. This is because the
molecules and particles of the ammonia do not have to move far to reach 10cm,
meaning many particles will be there. At 60cm, the particles have a larger distance to
move, meaning fewer particles will be there and the rate of diffusion consequently
decreases the further the distance from the ammonia.

The rate of diffusion increases as acid concentration increases. This is because there
is more concentrated acid and it can cover more area and diffuse at a quicker rate.
This can be explained by collision theory, stating that because there are more
particles, there is more of a chance that one will have the correct orientation and
enough energy for it to react more quickly and decolourise the ajar jelly.
The bigger the difference in concentration of a substance one either side of a
membrane the faster it will tend to diffuse. This difference between either sides of
the membrane is called the concentration gradient.

The rate of diffusion increases as the surface area increases. This is because that
more surface area allows more substances, in this case acid, to enter the ajar jelly.
More acid is being able to neutralise the alkaline jelly, increasing the rate of
diffusion.

Substances like O2 enter cells across the surface of their membrane by diffusion.
Thus surface area determines the rate if supply of this and other raw materials
required by the cell. Supply is proportional to surface area.
The demand for these materials for metabolism e.g. respiration is determined by the
amount of volume of cytoplasm. Demand is proportional to volume.
For a cell to stay alive, supply must at least match demand, if not exceed it.
Supply / Demand = Surface area / Volume = 1
Adaptations to increase rate of diffusion:
- Small structures also have a very large surface area over which they can take
up oxygen in comparison to the volume of the cytoplasm.
- A flattened shape means a larger surface area for oxygen to diffuse.
- Tentacles provide a larger surface area for more oxygen to collide and
diffuse.
- Filaments that go up in water provide a larger surface area for diffusion to
take place.

Gas exchange
The lung is made up of a vast number of tiny folded alveoli (air sacs) with a huge
total surface area of between 50-90m2 in humans equivalent to two tennis courts.
This is an impressive gas exchange surface, providing an excellent opportunity to
diffuse.
Blood from the rest of the body passes next to the alveoli, containing lots of carbon
dioxide and very little oxygen. Oxygen diffuses out of the alveolus (high
concentration) into the blood (low concentration). Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the
blood (high concentration) into the alveolus (low concentration) to be breathed out.

Biology
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The red blood cells squeeze through capillaries right next to the alveolar lining so
that oxygen can be easily absorbed by haemoglobin and transported away. This
helps to keep the gradient steep.
Both the alveolar lining and capillary are only one cell in thickness they are also
very thin flattened cells so that the distance which gases have to diffuse is kept to a
minimum.
When the blood reaches body cells, oxygen is released from the red blood cells (high
concentration) and diffuses into body cells (low concentration). While carbon
dioxide diffuses out of the body cells (high concentration) into the blood (low
concentration). Its then carried back to the lungs.
Body cells produce waste
water/carbon dioxide in Stale carbon dioxide Fresh oxygen
the process of respiration. breathed out. breathed in.
This is carried in blood to
the lungs. Low O2 High O2 Body cells use up the
High CO2 Low CO2 oxygen in respiration
Blood without oxygen
(deoxygenated). With CO2 Blood with oxygen
from respiration. (oxygenated)

Oxygen laden red blood

Carbon dioxide cells are rapidly carried
diffuses into the away so keeping the
alveoli and is diffusion gradient steep.
breathed out.
Oxygen at high
concentration diffuses
down the cell wall.
Red blood cells are packed with an iron
containing protein called haemoglobin.
This binds strongly with oxygen.

Adaptations of the alveoli for gas exchange:

1) The alveoli lining is very thin (thin walls), which are one cell in thickness to
reduce the distance that gases have to diffuse across.
2) There are lots of microscopic alveoli in the lungs, increasing the surface area,
so more gases can diffuse.
3) The flow of blood in the capillaries is very quick to keep the concentration
gradient steep.
4) The walls are permeable to allow gases to diffuse across easily.
5) The alveoli wall is folded many times to increase the surface area which gases
diffuse across.

Lungs
Larynx Voice box.
Lining The lining of the lungs are moistened with mucus and swept clean by cilia.
Bronchus A large tube that carries air to each lung. It is supported by cartilage.
Heart pumps oxygenated blood around the body.
Diaphragm A muscular sheet that moves up and down during breathing.
Bronchioles Tiny tubes carrying air to the alveoli.
Alveoli These allow gas exchange between the lungs and the blood. Each is
surrounded by a network of capillaries.
Intercostal muscles (between ribs) Move the ribs up and down during breathing.

Biology
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 Ali Mohammed UMB

Ribs Protect heart and lungs from damage.

Rings of cartilage Keep the trachea open and allow movement of the neck.
Trachea Windpipe that carries air down to the lungs.
Plural membranes Contain a fluid to cushion the lungs.
Larynx
Trachea
Rings of cartilage
Intercostal muscles Left lung

Bronchus Bronchus
Lining
Ribs
Bronchioles
Heart
Alveoli Plural membranes
Right lung Diaphragm

The lungs are in the thorax. Air enters the body through the mouth, goes down the
trachea, the bronchi, the bronchioles and arrives at the alveoli, where gas exchange
takes place.

Breathing (ventilation)
Inhalation:
1) The intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribcage upwards. The chest
increases in volume.
2) The diaphragm contracts, which make it, flatten out. This further increases
the volume of the thorax.
3) The increase in volume of the thorax results in a decrease in air pressure
within the lungs
4) When the pressure falls below that of the atmosphere, air is drawn into your
lungs you inhale.

1
3

Biology
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Ali Mohammed UMB

Exhalation:
1) The intercostal muscles relax, allowing gravity to lower the ribcage. The chest
decreases in volume.
2) The diaphragm relaxes and it bulges upwards (pushed by the liver). This
further decreases the volume of the thorax.
3) The decrease in volume of the thorax results in an increase in air pressure
within the lungs.
4) When the pressure is above that of the atmosphere, air is forced out of your
lungs you exhale.

1
3

Gas Inhaled air Exhaled air Reasons for changes

Nitrogen 79% 79% Nitrogen is not used up in respiration
and not a product of respiration.
Oxygen 20% 16% Oxygen is used up in respiration, for
oxidizing glucose.
Carbon 0.02% 4% Carbon dioxide is produced in
dioxide respiration.
Water Variable Variable but more Water is needed for hydration. Water
is produced in respiration.

Effect of exercise on breathing:

Breathing rate increases as we do exercise as more exercise means more muscular
work, meaning more energy is required, meaning more respiration. More oxygen is
required and so breathing rate increases.

At rest, we carry out aerobic respiration because there is a lot of activity happening
in the body that requires energy performed by respiration. At rest, we only take
oxygen by breathing using the diaphragm. This is because we dont require much
oxygen.

Biology
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When we start exercising, we require more oxygen, meaning a higher depth of

breathing and a higher frequency of breathing. We still use aerobic respiration but
use our diaphragm and our intercostal muscles. When we reach a certain point
(certain amount of exercise), we cannot increase the depth of breathing and
frequency of breathing because our lungs have a limited capacity. This means we
have to use anaerobic respiration in order to provide energy. Anaerobic respiration
is glucose turning into energy and lactic acid (C6H12O6 2C2H6O3 + Energy). Lactic
acid causes protein to stiffen up from a flexible state, in turn causing cramp. Lactic
acid is taken away to the liver to be stored. When we stop exercise, we continue to
breathe heavily in order to turn the lactic acids in our body to glucose.

Smoking
Smoking can severely affect your lungs and circulatory system.
1) Smoking damages the walls inside the alveoli, reducing the surface area for
gas exchange and leading to diseases like emphysema.
2) The tar in cigarettes damages the cilia (little hairs) in your lungs and trachea.
These hairs, along with mucus, catch a load of dust and bacteria before they
reach the lungs. The cilia also help to keep the trachea clear by sweeping
mucus back towards the mouth. When these cilia are damaged, chest
infections are more likely.
3) Tar also irritates the bronchi and bronchioles, encouraging mucus to be
produces which cant be cleared very well by damaged cilia this causes
smokers cough and chronic bronchitis.
4) The carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke reduces the amount of oxygen the
blood can carry. To make up for this, heart rate increases which leads to an
increase in blood pressure. High blood pressure damages the artery walls,
making the formation of blood clots more likely. This increases the risk of
coronary heart disease (e.g. heart attacks).
5) Tobacco smoke also contains carcinogens chemicals that can lead to
cancer.

Topic 2: Blood
Functions of the blood
Human beings are made up of billions of cells, most of them a very long way from a
direct source of oxygen. A transport system is absolutely vital to supply the needs of
the body cells and to remove the waste material they produce.
Blood has four main components:
- Plasma
- Platelets
- Red blood cells
- White blood cells

Functions of the blood:

- Transport of gases:
- Oxygen
- Carbon dioxide

Biology
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- Transport of nutrients:
- Water (major constituent of all cells)
- Glucose (needed for respiration)
- Amino acids (form many structures of cells, building protein)
- Lipids (form cell membranes)
- Vitamins (to maintain healthy tissues)
- Minerals (build muscles)
- Transport of wastes:
- Carbon dioxide
- Urea (excess salts and water)
- Distribution of heat and hormones (chemical messages)
- Defence against disease

Composition of blood:
- Plasma: The liquid part, 55% by volume, made up of water (90%) plus 10%
dissolved substances:
- Dissolved substances (nutrients):
- Minerals (salts)
- Calcium
- Phosphate
- Glucose
- Amino acids
- Carbon dioxide
- Lipids
- Vitamins
- Dissolved substances (wastes):
- Urea (from the liver to the kidneys)
- Some carbon dioxide (from body cells to lungs)
- Salts
- Dissolved substances (proteins):
- Blood clotting
- Antibodies
- Dissolved substances (hormones):
- E.g. insulin
- E.g. adrenalin
- Dissolved substances (energy):
- E.g. Heat energy
- Cells: The solid part, 45% by volume, made up of:
- Red blood cells, 5,000,000,000/cm3:
- Carry oxygen and carbon dioxide
- White blood cells, 70,000,000/cm 3:
- Platelets
- Cell fragments
- Blood clotting

Red blood cells

There are 5,000,000,000 red blood cells per cm3 of blood.

Biology
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You are approximately 5 litres of blood, so there are about 2.5 1013 red blood cells
in your body.
- Each erythrocyte (red blood cell) is packed with millions of molecules of a
protein called haemoglobin.
- This molecule contains iron, which gives blood its red colour.
- This iron enables haemoglobin to attract and bind to oxygen to become
oxyhaemoglobin a scarlet red molecule.
- It is formed when the blood passes through the lungs where it travels close to
oxygen rich air in the alveoli.
- When the blood passes through capillaries in the body tissues, haemoglobin
gives up its oxygen becoming deoxyhaemoglobin.
- The body cells which use oxygen in respiration.
- The haemoglobin then picks up most of the waste carbon dioxide to carry it
back to the lungs.
Lungs
Hb(O2)4 High oxygen Hb(O2)4
Haemoglobin Oxyhaemoglobin
Respiring tissues
Low oxygen
Red blood cells have lost their nuclei.
This gives them a squashy donut shape (biconcave disc), giving a larger surface
area.
This gives them two possible advantages:
- It allows them to squeeze through narrow capillaries without getting stuck.
- It gives extra space for more haemoglobin.

White blood cells

White blood cells have a prominent nucleus and a clear cytoplasm. Pathogens are
microorganisms that cause disease. It is the job of the immune system and white
blood cells to destroy them. There are two types:
- Lymphocytes
These produce specific proteins called antibodies
These molecules recognise foreign cells e.g. bacteria or the molecules they
produce (called antigens) and destroy them.

They can also neutralise toxins:

Biology
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Antitoxins

Pathogen
Lymphocyte
Toxin
When lymphocytes come across a foreign antigen, they will start to produce
proteins called antibodies locking onto the invading pathogens and mark
them out for destruction by other white blood cells. The antibodies are
specific to that type of antigen.
Some lymphocytes stay around in the blood as memory cells after the
original infection has been destroyed. They can reproduce very fast if the
same antigen enters the body a second time.
- Phagocytes
These cells engulf foreign cells like bacteria in a process called phagocytosis.
They have a strange shaped nucleus with many lobes and can change shape
by cytoplasmic streaming.
This enables them to move and engulf bacteria.
In phagocytosis, phagocytes detect foreign cells, such as pathogens. The
phagocyte attaches onto the foreign cell, helped by antibodies. The
phagocyte then engulfs the foreign cell into a vacuole called a phagosome.
Next, cell organelles called lysosomes fuse with the phagosome to form a
phagolysosome, releasing digestive enzymes to destroy the foreign cell.
After phagocytosis, phagocytes stimulate lymphocytes to continually produce
certain antibodies.
Phagocytes are non-specific, meaning they attack any foreign cell.

Platelets and blood clotting

1) Platelets collet around broken vessels and release clotting factors.
2) Clotting factors released by platelets cause the soluble plasma protein
fibrinogen to change into insoluble fibrin which forms a fibrous network.
3) The mesh of fibrin traps red blood cells, which forms a clot, plugging the
wound.
4) Some bacteria may have entered the body before the clot has formed.
5) Phagocytes squeeze out of the capillaries and migrate towards the wound.
6) When they encounter invading bacteria, the phagocytes engulf them.

Biology
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Blood vessels
There are three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries.
Arteries Veins Capillaries

Thick walls Relatively

thin walls Very thin
Thick layer of Often have vessel with
muscle and valves narrow
elastic fibres lumen
Walls a single
Small lumen Large lumen cell thick

Carry blood away form the Carry blood from the Carry blood through the
heart at high pressure to tissues back to the heart tissues to every cell in the
the body. at low pressure. body.
Oxygenated blood flows Deoxygenated blood flows The blood through them
through them at high through them at low very slowly to allow
speed. speed. exchange of materials to
take place by diffusion.
The walls are thick and The veins are wider in Capillaries are
muscular to withstand and diameter and have thin microscopically small and
maintain the pressure. The walls. This allows then to have walls that are only
elastic tissue allows them be squashed when the one cell thick. This reduces
to expand when the heart skeletal muscles contract, the distance over which
contracts. They then recoil so helping to squeeze the diffusion has to take place.
to squeeze the blood blood on its way back to
onward to the tissues. the heart.
Blood flows down a The direction of blood Tissue fluid is forced out
pressure gradient so there flow is controlled by by high pressure through
is no need for valves. valves. leeky walls at the arterial
end and drawn back in by
osmosis and the venous
end.
Arteries have elastic walls to keep the blood flowing.
The ventricles contract during systole to force blood into the arteries at high
pressure. This causes the elastic walled artery to expand.
When the ventricles relax during diastole the elastic walled arteries recoil causing
the valve to close to prevent backflow of blood, forcing the blood forward.

Valves control the direction of blood flow in veins:

- Blood out: The valve opens to allow blood to flow to the heart.
- Blood not back in: if blood tries to flow back into the tissues, the valve flaps
are pushed together to a close.

Biology
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Skeletal muscles help force the blood through the veins:

The bottom valve is closed by low blood pressure.

Skeletal muscles contract and squeeze the blood out of this section of the vein.
The top valve is opened by high blood pressure.

Biology
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Ali Mohammed UMB

Blood circulation

- The highest pressure blood Aorta

- The lowest pressure blood Vena cava
- The most carbon dioxide Pulmonary artery
- The highest concentration of glucose Hepatic portal vein
- The lowest concentration of urea Renal vein
- The highest concentration of urea Hepatic vein
- The artery that carries deoxygenated blood Pulmonary artery
- The vein that carries oxygenated blood Pulmonary vein
- The reason that blood leaving tissues is deoxygenated Tissue cells use up
oxygen for respiration
Arteries that split into capillaries are called arterioles.
Veins that split into capillaries are called venules.

The body has a double circulation because the blood makes two journeys through
the heart for each time it passes round the body.
It is pumped out of the left side of the heart, around the body, then returns back to
the heart on the right side. Before going round the body again, it is pumped from the
right side to the lungs to pick up oxygen, then goes back to the heart to be pumped
round the body.
Pulmonary
circulation

Right Left

Systemic
circulation

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Heart
Diastole When the heart muscles relax
Both sides fill up with blood from the veins. The semi-lunar valves close to prevent
blood from flowing back into the ventricles from the arteries.

Systole First the atria contract

The veins first constrict at the base where they join the atria. The atria contract to
force blood through the bi-cuspid and tri-cuspid valves into the ventricles.

Systole Now the ventricles contract

The thick, powerful muscles of the ventricles contract, raising the pressure of the

blood, forcing the blood past the semi-lunar valves into the arteries.
The flow of blood back into the atria is prevented by the closure of the bi-cuspid and
tri-cuspid valves. The heart-string stop the flaps of the valves inverting.

Heartbeat:
When you listen to your heartbeat with a stethoscope, you will hear two
characteristic sounds, LUB-DUP.
This sound is actually the noise made by the valves closing: first the bi-cuspid and tri-
cuspid valves close LUB (at the start of diastole), then the semi-lunar valves close

Biology
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DUP (at the start of systole). Doctors are trained to recognize different sounds
which help to diagnose valve defects.

Pulse:
When the ventricles contract, blood is forced out in the arteries under high pressure.
This causes the elastic walled arteries to stretch during systole. You feel this as your
pulse. During diastole, the stretched walls of the arteries recoil, pushing the blood
back, this causes the semi-lunar valves to close and forces the blood to flow onward
through the artery, even when the heart muscle is relaxed.

Pulse is when the arteries expand because of the presence of blood when the
ventricles contract.

You can detect it by touching the artery on the thumb side of your wrist.

Effect of exercise on pulse rate:

More exercise more work more energy needed more respiration more
glucose and oxygen needed and more waste carbon dioxide, lactic acid and heat
more blood pump faster higher pulse rate.

After exercise, our pulse rate is higher than our resting pulse as we need to respire
more, so the heart has to pump quicker. It gradually lowers to resting pulse rate as
the body could be recovering from oxygen debt. Sometimes, the pulse after exercise
drops below the resting pulse rate. This is due to the heat over compensating. Also,
more vigorous exercise requires more respiration, causing an increase in pulse rate.

As we increase the level of exercise, our body needs more energy, meaning more
respiration has to be carried out and meaning the heart needs to pump oxygenated
blood around the body, leading to a higher pulse rate.
When collecting a set of results of a group of people of the effect of exercise,
average percentage increase in pulse rate should be calculated as resting pulse
differs from everyone, so this is how we avoid this problem.

Topic 3: Enzymes
Enzymes are unique to living organisms.
They act as biological catalysts.
A catalyst is a substance which increases the speed of a reaction, without being
changed or used up in the reaction.
They change a substrate to products (substrate product).
- AB
- AB+C
- A+BC

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- A+BC+D
- e.g. Glucose (C6H12O6) + O2 (sunlight) CO2 + H2O Respiration (break down
reaction)
- e.g. CO2 + H2O Glucose (C6H12O6) + O2 Photosynthesis (synthetic
reaction)
- e.g. Amino acids Proteins - Ribosome
Breakdown reactions are sometimes called catabolic reactions.
Synthetic reactions are sometimes called anabolic reactions.
Catabolic and anabolic come under the title of metabolic.

Enzymes are all proteins and all proteins are made up of chains of amino acids.
These chains are folded into unique shapes, which enzymes need to do their jobs,
meaning shape is all-important. Enzymes are very specific.

Chemical reactions usually involve things either being split up or joined together.
Enzymes get involved in the reaction binding occurs between the active site and
the substrate (molecule that is changed in the reaction). This forms a bond which
enables the reaction to take place. At the end of the reaction, the products are
released and the enzymes can be used again and again.
The reaction needs enough energy and needs to happen in the correct orientation
for it to take place. Catalysts (enzymes) make sure the particles collide with the
correct orientation.

Activist shape fits with complimentary shape with lower energy requirements
(requires less activation energy).
For an enzyme to work, a substrate has to be the correct shape to fit in the active
site (called a lock and key model).

Changing the temperature changes the rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction.

A higher temperature increases the rate at first. This is because more heat means
the enzymes and the substrate particles have more energy. This makes the enzymes
and the substrate particles move about more, so theyre more likely to collide
(increased collision frequency).
Low temperature has the opposite effect, theres a lower collision frequency and a
slower reaction.
If it gets too hot (above 40C), some of the bonds holding the enzyme together will
break.
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This makes the enzyme lose its shape its active site doesnt fit the shape of the
substrate any more. This means it cant catalyse the reaction and the reaction stops
the enzyme doesnt function.
The enzyme is now denaturised. Its change in shape is irreversible the enzyme
cant function.
Each enzyme has its own optimum temperature when the reaction goes fastest. This
is the temperature just before it gets too hot and starts to denature. The optimum
temperature for the most important human enzymes is about 37C (approximately
40C) the same temperature as our bodies.

Changing the pH changes the rat of an enzyme-catalysed reaction. If its too high or
too low, the pH interfered with the bonds holding the enzyme together. This
changes the shape of the active site and denatures the enzyme.
All enzymes have an optimum pH that they work best at. Its often neutral pH 7, but
not always e.g. pepsin is an enzyme used to break down proteins in the stomach. It
works best at pH 2, meaning its well suited to acidic conditions.
Different enzymes work best at different pHs. Enzymes work best at their particular
pH.
Pepsin (a protease) Amylase
Enzyme in stomach Enzyme in mouth
and pancreas

Rate of
reaction

pH

Enzymes speed up the digestion of food.

There are three main types o digestive enzymes:
1) Amylases break down starch (into maltose).
2) Lipases break down lipids (into fatty acids and glycerol).
3) Proteases break down proteins (into amino acids).

In summary, enzymes:
- Speed up reactions.
- Are specific.
- Work best at about 40C (more precisely 37C).
- Are made of protein.
- Work best at a particular pH.

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- Are not used up in a reaction.

- Most names end in ase.

You can investigate the effect of temperature in enzyme activity (rate of reaction).
The enzyme catalase catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into water and
oxygen. We can see how measure the oxygen produced per minute by the reaction
between hydrogen peroxide and a potato (source of catalase), placing the reaction in
a water bath, varying the temperature in order to see the effect.

We can also investigate the effect of concentration of substrate on rate of reaction.

This is by carrying out a similar experiment, but instead changing the concentration
of hydrogen peroxide. The results show that as concentration of hydrogen peroxide
increases, rate of reaction increases. This is because of collision theory and that
there will be a higher collision frequency as there are more particles that can collide.

Topic 4: Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process that produces glucose (food in plants).
Photosynthesis takes part in the chloroplasts, which are found in leaf cells.
Chloroplasts contain a pigment called chlorophyll, which absorbs sunlight, and uses
its energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose. Oxygen is also
produced.
Carbon dioxide + Water (Sunlight/Chlorophyll) Glucose + Oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

Leaf structure

Cross section of a leaf

1) Leaves are thin to maximise diffusion of gases and gas exchange as there is a
shorter distance to diffuse across (efficient gas exchange).
2) Leaves are broad so there is a large surface area exposed to light. More light
can be absorbed by palisade cells and for gas exchange by diffusion.
3) The waxy cuticle helps to reduce water loss by evaporation and acts as a
protective layer.
4) The waxy cuticle and the upper epidermis are transparent in order to allow
light to be pass through to the palisade layer, where the chlorophyll absorbs
it.

Biology
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Ali Mohammed UMB

5) The palisade cells are closely packed together to maximise light absorption.
The chloroplasts contain a pigment called chlorophyll, that absorb light,
which carry out photosynthesis.
6) Air spaces provide an easy passage for gases to and from the palisade cells
(efficient gas exchange system via the stomata).
7) The stomata are the site of gas exchange during photosynthesis, allowing
carbon dioxide to diffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out.
8) The vascular tissues (bundles) are transport vessels called the xylem and
phloem. The xylem has the function of carrying water to all parts of the leaf,
or else with less water the plant will droop. The phloem carrying food
(glucose) away.

Testing a leaf for starch

1) Take a leaf and use forceps hold it for 30 seconds in boiling water, killing the
leaf and removing the waxy cuticle.
2) Turn off the Bunsen burner, as ethanol is flammable and is dangerous. Place
the lead in a test tube, cover with ethanol and stand the test tube in the hot
water until the leaf appears white/bleached, decolourising the leaf by
removing the chlorophyll, which is necessary to see the colour change when
iodine is added to the leaf.
3) Remove the leaf with forceps and wash off the ethanol (dip the leaf back in
boiled water.
4) Place the leaf flat on a white tile and cover the iodine. Leave for a few
minutes. A blue-black colourisation shows the presence of starch.
Before, the experiment a plant is destarched, meaning it is kept in the dark for 48
hours before being placed back in the light and set up for the experiment. This is to
see the effects of the experiment, and getting rid of any previous starch on the plant.

Experiments:
1) A normal leaf (control):
When covered with iodine, the whole leaf will turn blue-black, showing that
there arent other factors affecting the production of starch (photosynthesis).

2) A leaf covered with a piece of black paper (remove before testing):

The areas covered the black paper dont turn blue-black with iodine, whereas
the remaining areas do turn blue-black. The iodine indicates the presence of
starch, which is produced during photosynthesis. The areas that dont receive
light didnt contain starch; meaning light is required for photosynthesis.

3) A leaf that has been kept in an environment with soda lime (which absorbs
carbon dioxide):
The leaf placed with the soda lime, which absorbs carbon dioxide, does not
turn blue-black with iodine, whereas the leaf the sodium hydrogen-carbonate
solution, which produces carbon dioxide, turned blue-black. The starch shows
the process of photosynthesis and starch was only present when carbon
dioxide was present, meaning carbon dioxide is required for respiration.

Biology
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Ali Mohammed UMB

4) A variegated leaf (record the Patten of colourisation of the leaf before

testing):
Only the areas that were originally turned blue-black with iodine. The areas
that were green before contained chlorophyll, and only these areas had
starch present, which is produced during photosynthesis. This means
chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis.

These experiments show that chlorophyll is necessary to carry out the process of
photosynthesis, as well as light (which the chlorophyll absorbs) and carbon dioxide.
Without any of these starch cant be produced and photosynthesis cant take place.

Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is found in any above ground part of a plant that is green in colour.
Chlorophyll is found bound to membranes in chloroplasts. Chloroplasts arte found in
highest densities in the palisade mesophyll cells, but are also in the spongy
mesophyll cell and guard cells.

Being green in colour, chlorophyll reflects the green wavelengths of light. A plant can
therefore not be using green wavelengths to produce glucose. The fraction of light
used by green plants are the orange and blue wavelengths.

Plants with foliage that is not green in colour (e.g. copper beach trees)
photosynthesis as they are covered with accessory pigments that are able to absorb
some other light and then pass the energy onto the chlorophyll. These accessory
pigments broaden the range of colours of light that a plant can use for
photosynthesis. These accessory pigments include carotenoids, which are red-
orange in colour.

Limiting factors
The rate of photosynthesis varies on these three main factors:
1) Light
2) Carbon dioxide
3) Temperature

A limiting factor is any factor that restricts the rate of reaction while all other factors
are in abundance. There are three factors that limit the rate of photosynthesis (this
ignores the need for water without water the plant will probably die anyway).

1) As light intensity increases, the rate of

photosynthesis also increases. The limiting factor
as the graph is increasing, is light as it affects the
rate of photosynthesis. However, then the graph
plateaus, meaning the limiting factor is no longer
light, but either temperature or carbon dioxide.

Biology
End of Year Exam Revision
Ali Mohammed UMB

2) As carbon dioxide concentration increases, the

rate of photosynthesis also increases. The limiting
factor as the graph is increasing, is carbon dioxide
as it affects the rate of photosynthesis. However,
then the graph plateaus, meaning the limiting
factor is no longer carbon dioxide, but either
temperature or light.

3) As temperature increases, the rate of

photosynthesis also increases, as the particles
gain more kinetic energy and move faster,
meaning a quicker reaction, until the
proteins/enzymes denaturise at about 40C. This
means the active site of the enzyme deforms in
some way and can no longer fit the substrate. At
this point, photosynthesis stops. The limiting
factor as the graph is increasing, is temperature.

Experiment on effect of light intensity:

Glucose
In plants, glucose is used for:
1) Respiration Releasing energy for life processes.
2) Starch Converted to starch and other substance for storage for a later time.
3) Chemicals Making new chemicals such as proteins, sugars and fats required
for plants to function properly.

Plants need certain elements so they can produce important compounds.

They get these elements from mineral ions in the soil.
If there arent enough of these mineral ions in the soil, plants suffer deficiency
symptoms.

Mineral requirements:
Element Taken in as Needed for Effect of deficiency
Nitrogen Nitrate - Combining with - No proteins and
(from the sugar molecules to no new cells
soil by the make proteins and - Stunted growth
roots) amino acids

Biology
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Ali Mohammed UMB

- Cell growth - Older leaves turn

- Chlorophyll yellow
- DNA and RNA
Phosphorus Phosphate - DNA - Poor root growth
- Cell membranes - Excessive
- Respiration and greening
growth (making - Younger leaves
ATP) turn purple
Potassium Potassium - For enzymes - Poor flower and
needed for fruit growth
respiration and - Discoloured
photosynthesis leaves
- Enables transfer of - Leaves turn
mineral salts yellow with dead
across cell spots
membranes
Magnesium Magnesium - Part of chlorophyll - Yellow leaves
molecule (making (veins look green)
chlorophyll)
- Component
Iron Iron salts - Component in the - Yellow patches of
enzyme tat makes upper leaves
chlorophyll - Tips of leaves may
look scorched
Calcium Calcium - Cell wall formation - Leaves curl and
salts roll
- Edges of leaves
wither and
blacken
Sulphur Sulphates - Making proteins - Stems thin
for healthy root - Yellow, light-
growth green leaves

Biology
End of Year Exam Revision