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12225 2015;17:25763
The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist
Review
http://onlinetog.org
Vaccination in pregnancy
a, b a
P S Arunakumari MBBS MD FRCOG MFFP, * Sujatha Kalburgi MBBS, Amita Sahare MD MRCOG
a
Consultant Obstetrician and Gynaecologist, Basildon and Thurrock University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Nethermayne, Basildon SS16
5NL, UK
b
Specialty Trainee in Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Basildon and Thurrock University Hospitals NHS Foundation, Nethermayne, Basildon SS16
5NL, UK
*Correspondence: P S Arunakumari. Email: ps.arunakumari@btuh.nhs.uk
Please cite this paper as: Arunakumari PS, Kalburgi S, Sahare A. Vaccination in pregnancy. The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist 2015;17:25763.
Attenuated Dead
pathogen pathogen
Attenuation Inactivation
Pathogen
Cloning Fractionation
DNA vaccine
Subunit vaccine
pregnancy (first, second or third trimesters), ideally before known to be pregnant because of the possible risk of
influenza viruses start to circulate. Influenza vaccination is teratogenic effects of the vaccine on the fetus.11 Women
usually carried out between October and January, however should be counselled to avoid becoming pregnant for 28
clinical judgement should be used to assess whether a days after vaccination with MMR. However, the UK
pregnant woman should be vaccinated after this period, Department of Health does not recommend termination
taking into account factors including the level and severity of should the MMR vaccine be inadvertently given to a
influenza-like illness in the community and the availability of pregnant woman as studies have failed to demonstrate a
inactivated influenza vaccine. The influenza vaccine can be link between rubella immunisation in early pregnancy and
given at the same time as the pertussis vaccine but the fetal damage.12
influenza vaccination should not be delayed in order to offer
the vaccines at the same time.8 Rubella
Where the woman is known to be rubella-susceptible, the
vaccine should be given in the postpartum period.11 A single
Clinical classication of vaccines
dose of the MMR vaccine will suffice. Vaccinated women are
In the clinical context, vaccines can be broadly classified then advised to avoid conception for 28 days after
as those contraindicated in pregnancy, those specially administration. The vaccine can also be given safely to
indicated in pregnancy and those generally safe in postpartum women who are breastfeeding. Although the
pregnancy (Box 1).9 rubella virus is excreted in breast milk, only seroconversion
without serious infection has been reported in breastfeeding
infants.11 The children of pregnant women can be vaccinated
Use of specic vaccines in pregnancy
without risk to the mother or the fetus since the infection is
Bacillus CalmetteGuerin (BCG) not transmitted from recently immunised individuals.
Although no harmful effects of the Bacillus CalmetteGuerin
(BCG) vaccination on the fetus have been observed, BCG Varicella
vaccination should not be given during pregnancy due to Pregnant women should not be vaccinated against Varicella
theoretical concerns associated with a live vaccine.10 zoster (chicken pox) because of the known adverse effects of
the varicella virus on the fetus.7,13 Where nonpregnant
Measles, mumps and rubella women are vaccinated they should be advised to avoid
The measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine and its becoming pregnant for 4 weeks after completing the two dose
component vaccines should not be administered to women vaccine schedule.
Box 1. Clinical classications of vaccines.
Human papillomavirus
Vaccines contraindicated in pregnancy Human papillomavirus type 6, 11, 16, 18 virus-like particles
BCG vaccine
are not recommended for use during pregnancy as their
Measles vaccine safety has not been evaluated in pregnant women.14,15 If a
Mumps vaccine woman is found to be pregnant after initiating the
Rubella vaccine vaccination series, the remainder of the three dose regimen
Varicella vaccine
Vaccinia vaccine
should be delayed until completion of the pregnancy.10
Human papillomavirus vaccine
vaccination programme in the UK.19 The purpose of the women who work in settings that place them at risk of
programme is to passively protect the infant in the first few contact with body fluids, such as nurses, doctors, dentists
months of life, before they reach the age of routine infant and lab staff.
vaccination at about 8 weeks.20 This is achieved by
vaccinating pregnant women between 28 and 38 weeks of
Meningococcal vaccine
gestation, in order to maximise the trans-placental transfer of
There is no evidence that either vaccine, the conjugated or
pertussis antibodies.21
the quadrivalent vaccine, is unsafe.29 The usual advice is to
avoid vaccination unless the mother is at high risk of
Diphteria, Tetanus, Poliomyelitis
disease.30 Women considered to be at high risk of
In the UK, Repevax (diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis/
meningococcal disease are those:
inactivated polio vaccine [DTap]) was the recommended
vaccine for this programme. Although the optimal timing with functional and anatomical asplenia
for the DTaP vaccine administration is between 28 weeks with immunosuppression
and 38 weeks of gestation, this can be given at any time with complement deficiency
during the pregnancy. In July 2014 Repevax was replaced by who travel to high-risk endemic areas
Boostrix IPV the 4 in 1 vaccine containing diphtheria who have contact with infected individuals
toxoid, tetanus toxoid, acellular pertussis and inactivated who are university students under the age of 25 years.
polio vaccine.8
The vaccines are safe to give to women who are
breastfeeding. The two available vaccines are Meningococcal
Hepatitis A
Group C conjugated vaccine (MenC) and quadrivalent
Formalin inactivated Hepatitis A is recommended if another
(ACW135Y) polysaccharide vaccine. The UK Department of
high risk condition or indication is present.22 High-risk
Health recommends that the conjugated vaccine be used in
factors for Hepatitis A23 include:
preference to the polysaccharide vaccine because it provides
long-term liver disease better and longer lasting protection.30
haemophilia
intravenous illegal drugs Pneumococcal conjugated vaccine
working with or near sewage The use of the pneumococcal conjugated vaccine is limited
working in institutions where levels of personal hygiene among women of child bearing age.31 Ideally the vaccine
may be poor should be given prior to conception but the indication for
working with primates (monkeys, apes, chimps administration (patients with functional or anatomical
and gorillas).24 asplenia, sickle cell disease, splenectomy or patients with
HIV) are not altered by pregnancy.32
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B infection in pregnancy may result in severe
Typhoid
Pregnant women should be advised to avoid travel to typhoid
hepatic disease for the mother and chronic infection for the
endemic areas but may be immunised with the inactive
baby. Hence, if a pregnant woman is in a high-risk category,
parenteral vaccine if such exposure is unavoidable.33
Hepatitis B vaccination should not be withheld.25 As this is
an inactivated subunit vaccine, the risks to the unborn baby
are negligible.26
Rabies
Rabies is virtually always fatal. Given the potentially
Women considered to be at risk of Hepatitis B27 and
disastrous consequences of inadequately managed rabies
would therefore benefit from vaccination28 are:
exposure to both mother and baby and the fact that it is an
women who inject drugs or have a partner who inactivated viral vaccine, pregnancy is not considered a
injects drugs contraindication to postexposure prophylaxis.34,35 Pre-
women with multiple sexual partners exposure prophylaxis against rabies may be justified during
women who are close family and sexual partners of a pregnancy, where the risk of exposure to rabies is substantial.
patient with Hepatitis B
women who receive regular blood transfusions or Yellow fever
blood products Yellow fever is associated with a high case fatality rate. If
women with liver disease or chronic kidney disease travel is unavoidable and the risk of yellow fever is high,
women travelling to high risk countries immunisation with live attenuated viral vaccine may be
female sex workers considered after discussion with an infectious disease
specialist.36 Pregnancy is a precaution for yellow fever vaccine individual is believed to outweigh the risk of harm to the
administration, compared with other live vaccines which are patients and the general population.
contraindicated in pregnancy.
Conclusion
Breastfeeding and vaccination
The exceptional public health impact of vaccination is
Viral vaccines (both inactivated and live) administered to a indisputable. As the primary clinicians responsible for the
lactating woman do not affect the safety of breastfeeding care of pregnant women, midwives and obstetricians are
for women or their infants. Although there is a risk of uniquely placed to improve the health outcomes related to
replication of the vaccine strain with live viral vaccines, the vaccine preventable diseases in the pregnant population and
majority of live viruses in vaccines have not been in the neonate. There is an urgent, pressing need for
demonstrated in human breast milk. Rubella vaccine consolidated and robust national guidance on vaccination
virus has been isolated in human milk, although the in pregnancy to guide healthcare professionals to provide
virus does not usually affect the infant. Even if infection comprehensive, holistic antenatal care to pregnant women.
does occur, it is well tolerated because the virus
is attenuated. Disclosure of interests:
For mothers who are breastfeeding their infants, The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
inactivated, recombinant, subunit, polysaccharide,
conjugated vaccines and toxoids pose no risk. Contribution of authorship:
Breastfeeding women should be advised to avoid yellow PSA is the main author responsible for conception and
fever vaccine. However, where the risk of acquisition of design, drafting the article and final approval. SK and AS
yellow fever is high, as in nursing mothers who cannot avoid revised the article and are responsible for the final version.
or postpone travel to areas endemic for yellow fever,
vaccination should not be withheld.
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