CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Motivation for This Research

In the present world most prominent from of energy is electrical energy. For centuries conventional
energy sources have been used to meet the ever growing demand of electrical energy. But it fails to
provide our increasing demand and thats how renewable energy was brought into the picture in the
early nineteenth century. After studying about the renewable energy it is clear that solar energy is
more preferable since it is more ecofriendly and energy efficient than many others.

1.1.1 Global Crisis and Solar Cells

The current worlds consumption of electric energy is around 12-13 TW and the earth receives
more solar energy in 1 hour than is the energy used in 1 year globally, considering the solar

constant 1.7 105 TW at the top of the earths atmosphere [1]. However the solar energy

incidence around 1kW/m2 is quite dilute and requires vast area of energy converters to meet the
worlds energy consumption. Therefore high efficiency solar energy conversion is crucial. Solar

cells, also called photovoltaic, are devices converting the energy of the sunlight into electricity by

the photovoltaic effect discovered by the French scientist Henri Becquerel in 1839. Electron-hole

pairs are generated by the energy of the incident photons overcoming the energy bandgap of the

photovoltaic material to make a current flow according to the built-in potential slope. Solar cells

have been recognized as an important alternative power source especially since the 1970s oil crises.

Solar cells are also promising as a carbon-free energy source to suppress the global warming.

The energy conversion efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of the electric power
generated by the solar cell to the incident sunlight energy into the solar cell per time. Currently the
highest reported cell efficiencies in laboratories are around 40% while the energy conversion
efficiencies for thermal power generation can exceed 50%. This fact however never means the
superiority of thermal generation since its resources such as fossil fuels are limited while the solar

1
energy is essentially unlimited. The incident energy flux spectrum of sunlight for reported solar cell
efficiencies is standardized as some specifically defined spectra such as Air Mass 0 (AM0), Air
Mass 1.5 Global and Direct (AM1.5G and AM1.5D) [2-4].The solar spectrum widely ranges
through 300 nm to 2000 nm with its peak around at 500-600 nm and a large fraction stems from the
visible range. The dips prominently observed around at 1100 nm, 1400 nm etc. are due to the CO 2
absorption mainly by H2O in the atmosphere.

The energy fraction of the solar spectrum utilized by an ideal single-junction solar cell with an

energy bandgap of 1.4 eV determined by the detailed balance calculation based on

thermodynamics considering recombination loss of carriers (electron-hole pairs) proposed by

Shockley and Queisser [5]. The area ratio of this energy generation spectrum by the solar cell to the

solar irradiation spectrum corresponds to the energy conversion efficiency and is 31% in this case.

Concentration of sunlight into smaller incident area using lenses has two advantages for solar cell
applications. The first is the material cost reduction with smaller area of cells required to generate
the same amount of energy. The second is the efficiency enhancement with the higher open-circuit
voltage determined by the ratio of the photocurrent to the recombination current. However, too
much sunlight concentration would rather reduce the open-circuit voltage with increased
temperature and also induce significant power loss by the series resistance. There is therefore an
optimized 3 concentration factor for each solar cell. Although this thesis will not discuss the detail
of concentrators, details in [6-8].

Solar cells made of III-V semiconductor compounds have been exhibiting the leading energy
conversion efficiencies rather than the other materials represented by silicon [9]. Besides the
potential for high efficiency, III-V semiconductor compound materials have advantages including
the bandgap enability by elemental compositions, higher photon absorption by the direct bandgap
energies, higher resistivity against high-energy rays in space, and smaller efficiency degradation by
heat than Si solar cells. The energy conversion efficiencies of III-V solar cells are steadily increased
year by year and approaching 40% for the laboratory-scale cells [10]. A lot of efforts have been
made to date to improve the cell performance further for the purpose of the development of space
activities and the solution for the upcoming energy crisis and global environmental issues.

1.1.2 Group III-V Semiconductor

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A III-nitride compound semiconductor is formed due to the bonding of one of the group III
elements such as, boron, aluminum, gallium or indium with the group V element, nitrogen. The III-
nitrides and their alloys are direct band gap semiconductors. Their band gap varies from 0.7 eV for
indium nitride (InN), 3.4 eV for gallium nitride (GaN), to 6.2 eV for aluminum nitride (AlN).
Ternary III-nitride alloys like indium gallium nitride (InxGa1xN), indium aluminum nitride (InAlN),
and aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN) offer the tunable band gap which covers the whole visible
spectrum and into the deep ultraviolet (UV) region. So, III-nitride alloys are particularly suitable
for applications in optoelectronic devices for solid state lighting, such as laser diodes (LDs) and
light emitting diodes (LEDs). High electron mobility and saturation velocity, high breakdown field,
and high thermal conductivity are advantages of III-nitrides especially for high power, high-speed
electronics. The developments in the field of IIInitride semiconductors have been spectacular due
to their highly attractive inherent properties. The outstanding achievements in the development of
blue/ultraviolet (UV) LEDs, LDs and high-frequency transistors operating at high powers and
temperatures [13, 14] have proved the remarkable advantages of III-nitride semiconductor systems.
The wide band gap energy range also makes these materials good candidates for absorber layers in
solar cells since the absorption edge [15].

1.1.3 Developments of Multi Junction III-V Semiconductor Compound Solar Cells

One of the major factors of energy loss in a solar cell is the gap between the photon energy and the
bandgap energy of the photovoltaic material. No absorption would occur if the photon energy was
smaller than the bandgap energy and merely the part equal to the bandgap energy out of the photon
energy could be extracted as electric power leaving the other part wasted as heat if larger. Multi
stacking of photovoltaic materials of different bandgap energies is therefore commonly used for
high efficiency III-V solar cells to reduce this energy loss and absorb the photon energy from the
sunlight spectrum more widely and efficiently, taking advantage of the tenability of band gap
energies and lattice constants with the compositions of III-V semiconductor compounds, called
multi-junction or tandem cells. The theoretical efficiency limit based on the detailed balance
calculation estimated by Henry shows that a 36-gap or junction cell ideally could reach 72%
efficiency at a concentration of 1000 suns relative to the 37% for a 1-gap cell [16]. Similar
calculations under different conditions are found in [17-19].

For multi-junction cells, monolithic or two terminal structures are generally favored and used rather
than expensive and impractical three or four terminal structures [20]. Multi-junction solar cells
have been layered by epitaxial growth generally with metal organic chemical vapor deposition

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(MOCVD) requiring lattice matching among the stacked semiconductor materials [21-24]. One of
the most common and highest efficiency two 2J cells consists of a combination of In 0.48Ga0.52P and
GaAs with the same lattice constant of 5.64 A and the bandgap energy of 1.86 eV and 1.42 eV,
respectively [25-27]. This InGaP/GaAs cell has the highest efficiency of 30.3% under AM1.5G
solar spectrum with 1-sun intensity (100 mW cm-2) among monolithic 2J cells [11, 27], while 4
terminal configuration allowed the highest 2J efficiency of 32.6% under AM1.5D spectrum at 100
suns for a lattice mismatched GaAs/GaSb stack (GaSb: 6.09 A, 0.70 eV) [28]. For 3J cells, most
commonly so far, a Ge bottom cell is added to the InGaP/GaAs 2J cell to form an InGaP/GaAs/Ge
structure for Ges lattice constant of 5.66 a nearly equal to that of InGaP/GaAs. This 3J structure is
grown on a Ge substrate and an advantage that Ge is a cheaper and mechanically stronger material
than GaAs relative to cells grown on GaAs substrates. The current formally reported highest
efficiency solar cell is actually an InGaP/GaAs/Ge 3J cell with the efficiency of 40.7% at 240 suns
under AM1.5D [29, 30]. However, it should be noted that the 0.66 eV bandgap energy of Ge is not
optimal as the material for the bottom cell in a 3J cell. This point will be discussed in the following
section.

Specifically for the space use, very thin, light and flexible InGaP/GaAs 2J and InGaP/GaAs/Ge 3J
cells are being developed recently [31-33]. Although the fabrication processes have not been well
disclosed, the photovoltaic layers are attached to metal or polymer supporting films and the parent
substrates for the epitaxial growth are removed somehow. The efficiency of this 6J cell was 23.6%
under AM0 at 1 sun (135 mW cm-2). This efficiency is much lower than the highest efficiency 3J
cell regardless of more number of junctions presumably due to the current-limiting InGaAsN layer
with low quantum efficiency. The open circuit voltage of this 6J cell was however 5.33V,
significantly higher than the 3.09V of the highest efficiency 3J cell, simply because of the series
connection of six semiconductor materials.

1.2 Literature Review

In 1839, physicist Alexander-Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic cell that converts light
energy to electrical energy. It was not until 1883 that the first solar cell was built, using selenium to
form a cell that was about 1% efficient. In 1946 Russell Ohl patented the modern solar cell,
ushering the age of solar power technology [1]. Bell Laboratories continued to improve the cell to
about 6% efficiency. Modern cell design has transitioned too much higher efficiencies. First-
generation solar cells, consisting of a single layer p-n junction, have limited power production due
to only being able to utilize a portion of the input spectrum. Second-generation materials are based

4
on the use of thin-film deposits of semiconductors, such as amorphous silicon or cadmium
telluride. Even though these second-generation thin film cells are typically less efficient than first
generation silicon cells, the lower costs in manufacturing has achieved a lower cost per watt [1].
Multi-junction cells use different materials to vary band gap energies to utilize more of the
spectrum, thus producing more electrical output. The highest triple junction cells in production are
around 28% efficient with Spectrolabs reporting at the 2007 Aerospace Corporation Space Power
Workshop tests for a 30% efficient cell by 2008 [2]. As great improvements in solar cell design
continue to stretch the limits of the materials and designs, the virtual modeling of solar cells is
necessary to continue to improve its power and efficiency. Photovoltaics is, by far, the most active
sector of renewable energies with a worldwide increased by a factor of nearly 68 between 2000 and
2013 [34]. The largest part of photovoltaic modules are made of silicon solar cells. Theoretically,
the maximum conversion efficiency of silicon cells is about 30% under one-sun conditions. This
theoretical limit is, almost, reached with ongoing technology improvements. Indeed, more than
25% efficiency has been achieved by laboratory heterojunction cells [35, 36]. To further increase
this theoretical limit, there are several advanced concepts of solar cells known as next or third
generation photovoltaic cells [37]. Among these concepts, tandem cells made from two or more
sub-cells with different bandgaps, represent the most successful concept until now. III-nitride (GaN,
AlN, InN) semiconductors and their alloys are widely used materials in optoelectronics to fabricate
green, blue and UV LEDs and lasers. Since the main technological difficulties facing this branch of
semiconductor materials have been overcome by several factors (i.e. p type doping [38], Ohmic
contact formation [39] and MOCVD hetero-epitaxy of III-nitrides [40], the development of solar
cells based on these materials is becoming possible. From a photovoltaic point of view, since these
materials have bandgaps ranging from 0.7 eV for InN to 3.4 eV for GaN up to 6.2 eV for AlN [41],
these materials are potential candidates for manufacturing tandem solar cells with high conversion
efficiency. Nevertheless, to our knowledge, few successful research works have been done on
photovoltaic applications of these materials [42].

1.3 Research Objectives

The main purpose of this research is to improve the efficiency of photovoltaic cell. The objectives
of this research are given below

a. Study of Group III-V semiconductor e.g. InGaN.

b. To simulate the multi-junction solar cell using Fresnel equation, boundary conditions and
Empirical relationships in MATLAB.
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 c. Study of different properties of the InGaN like open circuit voltage and short circuit
current, band gap which refers to the energy difference between the top of the valence (outer
electron) band and the bottom of the conduction (free electron flow) band, effective mass
and carrier mobility.

d. To increase the efficiency of the solar cell using multi-junction InGaN.

e. Study the effect of atomic concentration, temperature and band gap over efficiency.

1.4 Research Methodology

This section presents an overview of the materials characteristics and the methods used to
investigate the solar cell using group III-V semiconductor in MATLAB. The following steps were
performed in order to accomplish this research properly.

Firstly semiconductor quantum structure has been studied properly to determine the possibility of
working on InGaN for solar cell.

Secondly the different properties of the InGaN were studied like present state of the art of InGaN
solar cells, photocurrent density, open circuit voltage and short circuit current (which is the
maximum voltage that a solar cell can deliver), band gap (which refers to the energy difference
between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band, effective mass,
depletion width, photon flux density per unit bandwidth and carrier mobility.

Then absorption coefficient, reverse saturation current density, intrinsic carrier concentration and
fill factors has been calculated and analyzed thoroughly.

Finally major characteristics of InGaN has been investigated numerically in different temperature
and simulated by MATLAB. The results of this thesis simulation demonstrate that InGaN is
potentially an excellent semiconductor photovoltaic material.

1.5 Thesis Organization

This thesis is organized with five distinct chapters. Contains of each chapters is as described below

Chapter 1 described a brief background of the topic, motivation for this research, research
objectives and the methodology along with the thesis organization.

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Chapter 2 presents in brief about semiconductor physics, about their models, bonding model,
energy band model, atomic structure, electrons and holes, direct and indirect band gaps, fermi level
of related atom, materials properties, about doping, p-n junction basics. This chapter also contains
basics of solar cell and its operation, photovoltaic effect, band gap, solar cell junctions both single
and multi-junctions. This chapter also includes evolution of InGaN and the advancement of
photovoltaics devices.

Chapter 3 described a brief description of different properties of the InGaN like photocurrent
density, open circuit voltage and short circuit current, band gap, effective mass, depletion width,
photon flux density per unit bandwidth and carrier mobility, absorption coefficient, reverse
saturation current density, intrinsic carrier concentration and fill factors.

Chapter 4 described the final result obtained by mathematical modeling and simulation using
MATLAB. Its also include the discussion about the thesis.

At last a conclusion and the future scope of this field is included.

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 CHAPTER 2

Fundamentals of Solar Cell and its Operation

This chapter presents in brief about semiconductor physics, about their models, bonding model,
energy band model, atomic structure, electrons and holes, direct and indirect band gaps, fermi level
of related atom, materials properties, about doping, p-n junction basics. This chapter also contains
basics of solar cell and its operation, photovoltaic effect, band gap, solar cell junctions both single
and multi-junctions. This chapter also include evolution of InGaN and the advancement of
photovoltaics devices.

2.1 Semiconductor Physics

As the name implies, the semiconductors materials that have physical properties between
conductors and insulators. This middle property has made age possible for the modern computer.
Photovoltaic materials set these properties to generate electricity from photons.

2.1.1 Bohr Model

Bohr model represent the structure of an atom, it shows the relationship of the nucleus of protons
and neutrons surrounded by orbiting electrons. Figure 2.1 describes absorption efficiency of the
different materials of a triple junction solar cell [43]. Three assumptions help to define Bohrs
model.
1. The electrons have certain stable, circular orbits about the nucleus.

8
 Figure 2.1 Absorption efficiency of the different materials of a triple junction solar cell.

2. The electrons can shift to other orbits by gaining or losing energy equal to the difference in
energy levels.
3. The angular momentum of the electron is always and integral multiple of Plancks constant

divided by 2, represented as [44] this angular momentum was coupled directly to

energy.
Assuming the electrons angular momentum is an integer times then the electron binding energy,

Eh for that orbit or shell can be solved by:

m0 q 4
Eh= 2
, n=1,2,3, . (2.1)
2 ( 4 0 n )

Where the mass of a free electron is m0 , q is the magnitude of the electronic charge, n is the

orbit identifier and 0 is the permittivity of free space [44]. The quantized energy transition from

a higher to lower n explains the reason for only certain wavelengths of light are emitted. An easy
way to think of idea of only discreet orbits is to assume that the electron is a wave and only an
integral number of wavelengths can fill a particular orbit. Otherwise, the electron would create self-
interference and be able to maintain the orbit [45]. The importance of the Bohr model is that the
energy of electrons is finite to a limited set of values.

2.1.2 Bonding Model

Going from the single atom of the Bohr model to a physical structure, the bonding model takes into
account the interaction of the weakly bonded, outer shell electrons called valence electrons. Group
I-V elements (Figure2.2 [46] for periodic table of elements), such as Si, have four valence electrons
that can be shared among other atoms to develop a lattice structure.

9
 Figure 2.2 Portion of periodic table of elements.

According to Figure 2.3 missing atoms or defects can be represented with the bonding model as
well as the freeing of an electron from its atom to atom bond [47]. The Bonding Model helps to
visualize the spatial aspects of the electrons but does not adequately address the energy aspects. The
Energy Band Model addresses the various energy levels of the electrons.

Figure 2.3 Using the bond model, visualization of (a) defect or missing atom and (b) an electron
breaking its bond from an atom.

2.1.3 Energy Band Model

Relating back to Bohrs model and the discreet energy levels of electrons, the spread in allowed
energy states leads to a set of energy bands. At the atomic level, the allowed states consist of two
10
bands separated by an intervening energy gap. The valence band represents the lower band of
allowed states. The conduction band represents the higher energy band state [47]. Figure 2.4
represents between these two states is the band gap [44]. With the models established, the question
of current flow can be introduced. Current is the movement of charged carriers. Carriers can be
either electrons for negatively charged particles or holes, which are actually the absence of
electrons within a lattice structure, for positively charged particles. The conduction band uses
electrons as its carriers while the valence band uses holes as its carriers. When an electron receives
enough energy to move from the valence band to the conduction band, it has broken its atomic
bond and is now free to move throughout the material.

Figure 2.4 An orbital model of a Si atom showing the electrons orbiting the nucleus and the first
excitation orbit that would free an electron from its bond.

2.1.4 Atomic Structure

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Since Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor in solar cells today, a brief analysis of this
element is presented. Silicon has 14 protons and 14 neutrons in its nucleus. The 14 electrons are
distributed in three shells. Figure 2.5 shows the arrangement of electrons in a Silicon atom [48].
There are two electrons in the first shell, eight electrons in the second shell and four electrons in the
outer shell. When Silicon atoms are together, the atoms from the outer shells form covalent bonds.
Hence, a Silicon atom forms bonds with four other Silicon atoms.

Figure 2.5 Silicon atomic structure.

As shown in Figure 2.6, the covalent bonds formed by the silicon atoms are represented by the
elliptical dotted lines [49]. In the absence of an electron, the covalent bond ceases to exist. A hole
takes the place of the electron.

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 Figure 2.6 Silicon atom covalent bonds.

Energy bands are a fundamental concept of semiconductor physics. These energy bands are the
valence band, the conduction band, and the forbidden gap or band gap [50]. When an electron is in
the valence band, the covalent bond exists. In order for the electron to move from the valence band
into the conduction band, energy is required to excite the electron. The band gap energy is the
minimum energy required for the electron to make the move from the valence band into the
conduction band.
Figure 2.7 shows the band gap diagrams for conductors, insulators, and semiconductors [49]. This
figure also reinforces the differences among the three types of materials according to their electric
properties. In the case of conductors, the band gap is small or non-existent. By contrast, insulators
have wide band gaps. Therefore, it takes much more energy for the insulator to have electrons in
the conduction band.

Figure 2.7 Band gap diagrams.

Semiconductors have band gaps that are dependent on the material. Because band gap is also
dependent on temperature.

2.1.5 Electrons and Holes

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A semiconductor at absolute zero temperature is unable to conduct heat or electricity [51]. All of
the semiconductors electrons are bonded. The electrons acquire kinetic energy as the temperature
is increased. Some of the electrons are freed and move into the conduction band. These electrons
are able to conduct charge or energy. The areas left by these electrons in the valence band are called
holes. As the temperature of the semiconductor increases, the number of free electrons and holes
increases as well. Therefore, the conductivity of the semiconductor is directly proportional to
temperature increases. The conductivity of the semiconductor can be altered by exposing it to light
or by doping it. Photoconductivity consists of exposing the semiconductor with photon energy
larger than the semiconductors band gap. Doping consists of adding impurities to the
semiconductor material.

Figure 2.8 shows n-type and p-type doping [49]. The atom of the semiconductor is represented by
the blue circle and a +4. For example, a silicon atom has four electrons in its outer shell. When
silicon atoms are n-doped, atoms from group V of the periodic table are added. Each added group V
atom provides an extra electron to donate. When silicon atoms are p-doped, the atoms from group
III of the periodic table are added. Each group III atom has one less electron than silicon.
Therefore, a hole is added. Doping increases the number of carriers in the semiconductor material.

Figure 2.8 Doping: n-type and p-type.

An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor with a negligible amount of impurity atoms

[50]. By definition, the number of electrons and holes in a semiconductor are represented by n and
p.
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 Table 2.1 Definition of n and p.

Charge carrier Definition

n number of electrons
cm 3

p number of holes
cm3

In the case of an intrinsic semiconductor, the following case occurs:

n=p=ni (2.2)

For example purposes, ni is given for GaAs, Si and Ge and room temperature [50]. Data for InN

and GaN are from [52].

Table 2.2 ni for five semiconductors.

Semiconductors Intrinsic carrier concentration

nGaAs
i 2 10 6
cm 3
niSi 1 10
10

3
cm
ni 2 10
13

cm3
niInN 6.2 10 22
3
cm
GaN 22
ni 8.9 10
3
cm

When solar cells utilize semiconductor materials from Table 2.2, the current level is highest for Ge

and lowest for GaAs. The current levels correspond in rank to the ni levels provided in Table

2.2. No data exists for InN or GaN current levels as photovoltaic materials.

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2.1.6 Direct and Indirect Band Gaps

Since the band gap is the minimum energy required to move an electron from the valence band into
the conduction band, it is necessary to distinguish between direct and indirect band gaps. Figure 2.9
shows the concept of direct and indirect band gaps [49]. The blue portion represents the valence
band. The tan portion represents the conduction band.

Figure 2.9 Direct and indirect band gaps.

When the valence band and the conduction band coincide in wave vector k, the semiconductor has
a direct band gap. When the valence band and the conduction band have different wave vector k,
the semiconductor has an indirect band gap. The k vector represents a difference in momentum.
Photons have negligible momentum. In order to excite an electron from the valence band to the
conduction band in an indirect band gap semiconductor, in addition to a photon, a phonon is
required. The phonon is a lattice vibration. The phonon transfers its momentum to the electron at
the time the photon is absorbed. Therefore, a direct band gap semiconductor is generally better for
optoelectronics. Silicon is an example of an indirect band gap semiconductor. Gallium Arsenide
and InGaN are examples of direct band gap semiconductors.

2.1.7 Fermi Level

The Fermi function f(E) specifies how many of the existing states at energy E are filled with an
electron [50]. The Fermi function is a probability distribution function defined as follows:

1
f ( E)= ( E EF )
kT
(2.3)
1+ e

16
Where EF is the Fermi level, k is Boltzmanns constant, and T is the temperature in Kelvin. From
the Fermi function, it can be determined that when E=EF, then f(E)=f(EF)=0.5. Figure 2.10 shows
the Fermi level for an intrinsic semiconductor [50]. Figure 2.11 shows the Fermi level for n-type
semiconductor [50]. Figure 2.12 shows the Fermi level for p-type semiconductor [50]. From these
Figures, it can be deduced that the n-type material has a larger electron carrier distribution and the
p-type material has a larger hole carrier distribution.

Figure 2.10 Fermi level: intrinsic case.

Figure 2.11 Fermi level: n-type case.

Figure 2.12 Fermi level: p-type case.

2.1.8 Material Properties

Basically, there are three electrical material types; insulators, conductors, and semiconductors. In
band gap terms, an insulator has a very wide band gap, thus very few carriers exist inside the
material and is a poor conductor of carriers. A conductor has a very narrow or overlapping band
gap, thus an abundance of carriers are present making it an excellent conductor of carriers. Metals
are great conductors due to their overlapping bands. As its name implies, semiconductors have a
band gap energy in between conductors and insulators. In this thesis, by exciting the electrons in
the valence band to the conduction band with photon stimulation, creates carriers for conduction.
Figure 2.13 for a representation of the differences in materials [47]. The conduction of
semiconductors can be manipulated by the addition of impurities into the lattice structure, called
doping.

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Figure 2.13 Using the band gap model, (a) an insulator, (b) a semiconductor, and (c) a conductor or
metal.

2.1.9 Doping

Doping is the addition of controlled amounts of specific elements with the purpose to increasing
either the electron or hole concentrations [47]. A material that is pure without a dopant is classified
as an intrinsic material. The addition of a dopant creates an extrinsic or doped material. Taking a
look at the Periodic Table in Figure 2.2, common dopants are in the Group III and V elements,
such as B, Ga, or In; or P, As, or Sb respectively. Hole-increasing dopants are called acceptors and
are part of the Group III column. Electron increasing dopants are called donors and are in the
Group V column. Using the bonding model in figure 2.14, a donor has one extra electron after the
establishment of its inter-atomic bonds. Likewise, an acceptor generates a hole in the lattice due to
its lack of an electron for inter-atomic bonding [47]. At thermal equilibrium, the concentration of
2
majority carriers is a constant n=ni , where p is the holes and n is the electrons and ni is

the undoped number of majority carriers. Introducing a dopant into a semiconductor creates
different properties for the material.

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Figure 2.14 Bonding model illustration of (a) donor, P, contributing an electron to the lattice and (b)
acceptor, B, accepting an electron from the lattice forming a hole.

There are two types of doped materials that can result. An n-type material results from a donor
dopant, creating excessive numbers of electrons, while a p-type material is created from excessive
numbers of holes resulting from an acceptor dopant. The excessive carriers are the majority carriers
and can be thought of as analogous to the type of doping. The effect of doping can greatly alter the
electrical properties of a material. Figure 2.15 uses a band diagram to illustrate how a
semiconductor can have more electron or hole conduction based on the doping properties [43].

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 Figure 2.15 Band diagram, density of states, Fermi function, and carrier concentrations for (top)
intrinsic material, (middle) n-type material, and (bottom) p-type material.

2.1.10 P-N Junction

For solar cells the interaction between the p-type and n-type material, when joined, creates a p-n
junction. The p-n junction is the basis for modern electronics and creates the condition for
electronic power generation from light. Figure 2.16 represents the excessive majority carriers
diffuse across the boundary to the other material, creating an area that is devoid of majority carriers
[53]. As diffusion continues, this area develops an electrical potential that will eventually prevent
carriers from crossing the boundary. The space around the boundary is called the depletion region.

Figure 2.16 Formation of the depletion region at a p-n junction (electric field arrows are in terms of
electron flow).

2.2 Solar Cells

After covering the basics of semiconductors, the logical step is to continue with solar cell
fundamentals.

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2.2.1 History of Solar Cells

Solar cell research started when Edmund Bequerel discovered the photovoltaic effect in 1839. He
recorded that an electric current was produced when light was applied to a silver coated platinum
electrode immersed in electrolyte. The next significant step was performed by William Adams and
Richard Day in 1876. They discovered that a photocurrent appeared when selenium was contacted
by two heated platinum contacts. However, current was produced spontaneously by the action of
light. Continuing to build on these efforts, Charles Fritts developed the first large area solar cell in
1894. He pressed a layer of selenium between gold and another metal. Progress continued as the
theory of metal semiconductor barrier layers was established by Walter Schottky and other. In the
1950s, silicon was used for solid state electronics. Silicon p-n junctions were used to improve on
the performance of the Schottky barrier. These silicon junctions had better rectifying action and
photovoltaic behavior. In 1954, Chapin, Fuller and Pearson developed the first silicon solar cell,
with a reported efficiency of 6%. However, the cost per Watt associated with these solar cells made
them prohibitively expensive for terrestrial use. However, locations where power generation was
not feasible (i.e., space) were suitable for solar cells. Satellites were the first clear application for
silicon solar cells. Since that time, solar cells have progressed steadily both in terms of efficiency as
well as materials used their production [51].

2.2.2 The Photovoltaic Effect

The photovoltaic effect is the process by which a solar cell converts the energy from light into
electrical energy. Light is made up of photons. The energy of these photons depends on the color
(wavelength) of light. The material that makes up the solar cell determines the photovoltaic
properties when light is applied [51]. When light is absorbed by matter, such as metal, photons
provide the energy for electrons to move to higher energy states within the material. However, the
excited electrons return to their original energy state. In semiconductor materials, there is a built-in
asymmetry (bandgap). This allows the electrons to be transferred to an external circuit before they
can return to their original energy state. The energy of the excited electrons creates a potential
difference. This electromotive force directs the electrons through a load in the external circuit to
perform electrical work.

2.2.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Light is electromagnetic radiation. The frequency of light determines its color. Figure 2.17 shows
the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum [55]. Visible wavelengths range from 390 nm
(violet) to 780 nm (red).

Figure 2.17 The electromagnetic spectrum.

Table 2.3 shows the approximate wavelength range of visible colors [56].

Table 2.3 Approximate wavelength of various colors in vacuum.

Color Wavelength (nm)

Red 780-622
Orange 622-597
Yellow 597-577
Green 577-492
Blue 492-455
Violet 455-390

The sun emits light from ultraviolet, visible, and infrared wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum. Solar irradiance has the largest magnitude at visible wavelengths, peaking in the blue-
green [51].

2.2.4 Band Gap

22
The band gap of the semiconductor material determines how the solar cell reacts to light. Table 2.4
shows a small sample of semiconductor band gaps [50]. Chapter IV covers the band gaps of InN,
GaN, and InGaN.

Table 2.4 Common semiconductor band gaps.

Material Band gap (eV) at 300 K

Si 1.12
Ge 0.66
GaAs 1.42
InP 1.34

The band gap of the semiconductor material determines the wavelength of light that meet the
requirements to generate electrical energy. The conversion formula between band gap and
wavelength is:
hc
( m ) = (2.4)
E g ( ev )

1.24
( m ) = (2.5)
E g ( ev )

Where is the wavelength in micrometers, h is Plancks constant, c is the speed of light in vacuum,

and Eg is the band gap in eV. One eV is approximately equal to 1.6 10-19 J of energy. In the

case of Gallium Arsenide, the wavelength that corresponds to 1.42 eV is 0.873 m. Figure 2.18
helps visualize the concept of light absorption [57]. When light has energy greater than 1.1 eV, the
silicon solar cell generates electricity. Light with less than 1.1 eV of energy is unused. Similarly,
light with energy greater than 1.43 eV excites the outer shell electrons of the gallium arsenide solar
cell. And finally, light with energy greater than 1.7 eV is useful for aluminum gallium arsenide
photovoltaic material.

23
 Figure 2.18 Effect of light energy on different band gaps.

2.2.5 Solar Cell Junctions

The discussion in the previous section discussed the effect of light energy on different band gaps.
Treated individually, each of the photovoltaic materials from Figure 2.19 would act as a single
junction solar cell. However, to increase the efficiency of the solar cell, multiple junctions can be
created. For example, in Figure 2.19, the top junction would be made up of Aluminum Gallium
Arsenide. This junction would absorb light energy greater than 1.7 eV. Any unused photons would
be filtered through to the next junction. The gallium arsenide junction would then absorb the
photons with energy greater than 1.4 eV. The remaining photons would be absorbed by the silicon
junction.

Although the above paragraph described the basics of a multi-junction solar cell, such device may
not produce the desired results due to lattice mismatch. The next section covers the basics of lattice
matching.

2.2.6 Lattice Matching

Semiconductors are three-dimensional in their cell structure. The simple cubic structure serves to
illustrate the concept of lattice and is presented in Figure 2.19 [58].

Figure 2.19 Simple cubic lattice structure.

Figure 2.19 shows that each side of the cube is represented by the letter a. The separation a is
called the lattice constant. Each semiconductor material has a lattice constant. Therefore, when
creating multi-junction solar cells, the lattices must be matched. Figure 2.20 shows the lattice
24
constants for several semiconductors. An example given by P. Michalopoulos in Figure 2.20 [59]
shows how to lattice match Indium Gallium Phosphide to Gallium Arsenide.

Figure 2.20 Lattice constants.

The alloy InGaP is composed of x parts of Gallium phosphide and 1-x parts of Indium Phosphide.
Therefore, InGaP is represented as In1-xGaxP. GaAs has a lattice constant =5.65 , GaP has
=5.45 and InP has =5.87 . The goal is to create InGaP with a lattice constant that matches that
of GaAs. The formula to find x is given as:
GaAs InP
GaAs= GaP . x + InP . ( 1x ) x= (2.6)
GaP InP

With x=0.52, In0.48Ga0.52P has =5.65 . A rough approximation of the resulting band gap of
In0.48Ga0.52P is given as follows:

EGInGaP =x EGaP InP

G + ( 1x ) EG (2.7)

The equation yields a band gap of 1.9 eV for In 0.48Ga0.52P. Therefore, a dual-junction solar cell of
InGaP at 1.9 eV and GaAs at 1.4 eV can be built. Figure 2.21 shows the lattice constant for InN and
GaN [60].

25
 Figure 2.21 Lattice constant for InN and GaN.

2.2.7 AM0 Spectrum

The location of the solar cell affects the input solar radiation spectrum. A solar cell on Mars
receives a different (smaller) spectrum than a solar cell on a satellite that orbits Earth. The energy
received outside Earths atmosphere is approximately 1367 W/m2. This spectrum is called Air Mass
Zero or AM0. Terrestrial solar cells have to deal with the attenuation of the solar spectrum due to
Earths atmosphere. This solar spectrum is called AM1.5. For the purposes of this thesis, AM0 is
used during simulations. From data obtained from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL) [61], the AM0 spectrum was plotted using a Matlab script. Figures 2.22 and 2.23 show the
AM0 spectrum with respect to wavelength and energy, respectively [61]. From Figure 2.23, it can
be seen that semiconductor materials with band gaps of less than 4 eV are able to extract most of
the solar spectrum.

26
 Figure 2.22 AM0 spectrum (Wavelength vs Irradiance).

Figure 2.23 AM0 spectrum (Energy vs Irradiance).

2.2.8 Current-Voltage Curves

A typical solar cell current-voltage (IV) curve is presented in Figure 2.24 [62].

27
 Figure 2.24 Sample IV curve used in efficiency calculations.

From Figure 2.24, there are several points of interest. The short circuit current ( I SC ) occurs

when the voltage is zero. This is the highest absolute value current. The open circuit voltage (

V OC ) occurs when the current is zero. This is the highest voltage. Since power (P) is determined

by the product of current times voltage, the maximum power point occurs at ( V mp , I mp ). The

calculations for solar cell efficiency are as follows:

Pmax =I mp V mp (2.8)

Pmax I V
FF= = mp mp
I sc V oc I sc V oc

(2.9)

Pmax I mp V mp
= = (2.10)
P P

Where Pmax is the maximum power point, FF is the fill factor, and is the efficiency. The fill

factor measures the squareness of the IV curve.

2.2.9 Electrical Output

A solar cell is a p-n junction photodiode. In order to obtain the IV characteristic of the solar cell, the
dark current needs to be subtracted from the photogenerated current.

I =I L I D (2.11)

The dark current is the current through the solar cell when bias is applied in the dark [51].
Graphically, the IV characteristic is obtained in Figure 2.25 [63].
28
 Figure 2.25 Solar cell IV characteristic.

2.3 Solar Cell Operations

The foundation of all solar cells is the basic p-n junction, or a simple diode. A diode used in an
electrical circuit is covered with an opaque insulation in order to prevent light from interfering with
its operations. A solar cell is a diode that utilizes incident light to generate an electrical current. To
generate current, a photon collides with a valence electron, imparting energy to the electron. If the
electron gains energy equal to or greater than the band gap energy of the material then the electron
will be freed from the weak, valence bond. Thus, the freed electron creates an electron-hole pair.
This process is called photogeneration. The electrical potential in the depletion region sweeps the
electron toward the n material and hole toward the p material. Figure 2.26 shows if the electron can
reach the n-side of the material without recombining, electrical current forms that can power an
externally connected circuit [54].

29
 Figure 2.26 Photogeneration in a simple solar cell.

2.4 Solar Cell Performance

Many different factors affect solar cell performance. Doping concentrations, types of materials,
thickness of layers, lattice growth, and even the manufacturing process can influence a cells
performance. Comparing different solar cells can be difficult so performance comparisons use
uniform measurements and parameters to compare. If the cell is exposed to light but unconnected to
an external circuit, a voltage is developed that opposes any further carrier diffusion. This voltage at

this equilibrium point is the open-circuit voltage (V OC ) and is the maximum voltage that the cell

can produce [64]. Likewise under short circuit conditions, the electrons flow to the metal contacts

without a potential build-up, a short-circuit current (I sc ) materializes. This current is the

maximum current that the solar cell can supply [64]. The number of electron-hole pairs depends on
the intensity and wavelength of the incoming light, which in turn determines the amount of current
produced [54]. The characteristics of a solar cell are best illustrated using a current-voltage curve
(called an I-V curve). As can be seen in Figure 2.27, the voltage is the horizontal axis and the
current is the vertical axis [53].

30
 Figure 2.27 Typical current-voltage relationship for a simple solar cell.

At zero voltage, the cell can produce the most current. As the external load increases, the voltage

will increase as the current decreases until V OC is reached. At V OC , all excess carriers have

recombined within the cell and no current is available to power the load [54] Two other parameters

are used in this thesis, maximum power (Pmax) and efficiency (abbreviated eff or ). Figure

2.28 shows Pmax is the point of at which maximum power is produced by the solar cell. V mp

and Imp can then be determined for use in the design of a solar array [54].

Figure 2.28 I-V curve showing Pmax with Vmp and Imp.

Efficiency of a solar cell is given by

31
 Pmax
= 100 For efficiency in percent (2.12)
P

Where Pin is the radiated power striking the cell area from the light source [55]. For this thesis, the
solar spectrum is used as the light source. Figure 2.29 represents Air Mass Zero is the solar
spectrum that reaches Earths orbit and is used as the space light intensity and spectrum standard
2
[65]. To be consistent with industry, 135.3 mW/ c m was used for Pin [66]

Figure 2.29 ASTM E-490 and Wehrli 1985 Air Mass Zero spectrum.

Another parameter sometimes used is Fill Factor (FF). Fill Factor is defined as:

Pmax
FF=
I sc V oc

(2.13)

FF was not used as a comparison parameter in this thesis. The most crucial factors of a solar cells
performance is the band gap energy and the input light intensity. The band gap energy determines
the minimum energy required to free a valence electron from its atomic bond. Therefore, the band
gap energy is the amount of energy that a photon must impart to an electron to generate an electron-
hole pair. The energy needed:

hc
E= (2.14)

32
Where, h is Plancks constant, c is the speed of light, and is the wavelength of the light.

Thus, a solar cell will only produce power for certain wavelengths of light [53]. This limited
response only to specific light spectrum led to the development of multi-junction solar cells to
broaden the spectrum that a cell could fully employ.

2.5 Multi Junction Solar Cells

Multi-junction cells use different means to better utilize the AM0 spectrum. A multi junction cell
stacks layers of materials that have varying band gap energies to provide for more photogeneration.
The physical stacking of one cell on top of the other created a parasitic junction between the two
cells shows in Figure 2.30 [53]. This problem was recognized and a highly doped region was
incorporated to create a tunneling junction to solve the problem.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.30 An example of physically stacking of solar cells showing (a) parasitic junction and (b)
tunnel junction to minimize parasitic issue.

Ideally, the same material that had a means to vary its band gap energy would be used. Garcia
demonstrated in Silvaco that InGaN could be used as such a material [67]. By varying the mole
fraction of InGaN, he was able to generate materials with various band gap energies. This varying
material could be layered into a multi-junction cell. The difficulty with this work has been
formulating the physical material into an actual solar cell. The material scientists have had
difficulty making a p-type InGaN material. Once these physical problems are overcome, a true
multi-junction solar cell made from one material could be feasible. Since the single material solar
cell has not been feasible, engineers looked to stacking different materials to make better use of the
input spectrum. The typical band gap energies of InGaP is 1.902 eV, of GaAs is 1.424 eV, and of Ge
33
is 0.664 eV [68]. These band gaps cover a wide range and permit better use of the incoming light
spectrum .A material between the GaAs and Ge, such as the 1.12eV Si, would produce a more
efficient solar cell. In this case, the mismatches of the Si and GaAs lattice structures have prevented
this improved cell. Again, the material scientists are attempting to solve a solar cell problem.
InGaNAs has shown in Figure 2.31 promise to solve this mismatch and cover this neglected part of
the spectrum. A quad junction cell could then be realized [53].

Figure 2.31 AM0 spectrum with photogeneration ranges for InGaP, GaAs, InGaNAs, and Ge.

34
 CHAPTER 3

Investigation of Major Characteristics

Multi junction (MJ) solar cell technology offers high efficiencies compared to traditional solar cells
made of a single layer of semiconductor material. Currently used MJ solar cells are based on two or
three junctions of different materials which are usually III-V semiconductors, and absorb a different
portion of the solar spectrum. Recently In xGa1-xN alloys have become very promising materials for
high performance MJ solar cells. This creates an opportunity to design and fabricate In xGa1-xN-
based MJ solar cells that will have improved performance. In order to realize such solar cell proper
theoretical design for high performance is urgently required. Therefore, the theoretical design and
modeling for high efficiency InxGa1-xN-based solar cells are discussed in this chapter. The
properties of the promising material, InxGa1-xN, which are used to design the MJ solar cells, are also
discussed in this chapter. Also the cross-sectional view and band diagram of the proposed InxGa1xN-
based solar cells are shown.

3.1 Present State of the Art of InGaN Solar Cells

Since it was first proposed to use InGaN for solar-cell applications in 2003, significant efforts and
progress have been made toward this goal, while great opportunities and grand challenges coexist.
Studies on InGaN cells were started using Ga-rich materials. This is because the technologies for
the growth and Mg-doping of GaN have been matured while the p-type doping for InN and In-rich
InGaN has not yet been established. The earliest success with clear PV response in III-nitride-based
PV was reported in 2007 [74-76]. Since then, fabrication of Ga-rich InGaN solar cells has been
reported by many groups, and most of the efforts have been made using the metalorgnic vapour
phase epitaxy (MOVPE) technique. The InGaN-based cells ever studied are summarized here into
two main groups. The first group is a type of InGaN homojunction including the pin structure.
The second group is a type of heterojunction structure, e.g., p-GaN/InGaN/n-GaN structure where
an InGaN layer as an absorption layer or multiquantum-well (MQW)/superlattice (SL) structure is
sandwiched by p- and n-GaN layers. The second group is similar to the InGaN-based light-emitting
devices, and most of the recent good results obtained are with such structures.

35
3.2 Theoretical Design and Modeling

Efficiency evaluation includes calculation of the total number of photons in solar spectrum per unit
area per unit time and selection of band gap in each junction so that equal number of photon can be
absorbed. The photocurrent density is calculated in each junction due to absorption of photons to

determine the short circuit current density ( J SC ). The current mismatch between the junctions in

the cells has been minimized by adjusting the emitter thickness. To obtain the maximum efficiency,
the bottom junction band gap energy is optimized and then the other junctions band gap energies

are selected accordingly. Also open circuit voltage V OC is calculated.

36
 Figure 3.1 Sample four junction InGaN solar cell.

3.3 Photocurrent Density

The generation rate gives the number of electrons generated at each point in the device due to the
absorption of photons. Generation is an important parameter in solar cell operation. The generation
of an electron-hole pair can be calculated at any location within the solar cell, at any wavelength of
light, or for the entire standard solar spectrum. Generation is the greatest at the surface of the
material, where the majority of the light is absorbed. Because the light used in PV applications
contains many different wavelengths, many different generation rates must be taken into account

when designing a solar cell. The generation rate at a distance x from the semiconductor is

given by [71]

'

G=F [ 1R ] e x (3.1)

Here,

x = Distance into the material

G= Generation rate

= Absorption coefficient

F= Number of photon flux per unit bandwidth

R= Reflectance

Under low injection condition, the one dimensional steady state continuity equation for electrons in
p-type and holes in n-type semiconductor are [71]

n p n p 0 1 d jn
G n + =0 (3.2)
n q d x'

and,

pn p n0 1 d jp
G p + =0 (3.3)
p q d x'
37
Here,

n p 0= Equilibrium electron density in the p-region

pn 0= Equilibrium hole density in the n-region

respectively

To calculate the carrier densities we use the semiconductor transport equation. These simplify for
each of the three regions of the p-n junction, which we will consider separately. The current density
equation for electron and hole are [71].

d np
J n=q n n p +q D n ' (3.4)
dx

And,

d pn
J p=q p pn q D p (3.5)
d x'

Respectively

Here,

L p= Diffusion length for p-type

Ln= Diffusion length for n-type

S p= Recombination velocities in p-type

S n= Recombination velocities in n-type

D p= Diffusion coefficient for p-type

D n= Diffusion coefficient for n-type

x j= Thickness of n-type material

H= Thickness of p-type material

38
 W = Depletion width

'
H = Width of the entire cell

In the electrically neutral p and n layers, the electric field is zero and the majority carrier
concentration is constant at the doping level. The minority carrier concentration is controlled by the
transport equation. In the case of an n or p junction with an n-type emitter and p-type base equation
(3.1), (3.3) and (3.5) can be combined to yield an expression for the top side of the junction [71].

d2 pn p p '

D p + F ( 1R ) e x n n 0 =0 (3.6)
dx '2 p

The general solution of this equation is

F ( 1R ) p '

pn pn 0 =A cos h ( x ' / L p ) +B sin h ( x ' / L p ) 2 2

e x (3.7)
L 1
p

For a uniform material L p is given by L p= D p p . There are two boundary conditions. At the

surface, x =0 , we have surface recombination with a recombination velocity S p :

d ( pn p n0 )
Dp =S p ( p n pn 0 )
dx

(3.8)

At the edge of the depletion region x ' =x j +W and at x ' =H the excess carrier density is

small due to the electric field in the depletion region:

pn pn 0 =0 (3.9)

Substituting eq. (3.8) and (3.9) into eq. (3.7), the hole density is

[ ]
( S p p / L p ) ( cos h ( H /L p ) e )+ sin h ( H /L p ) + e
E H H

pn pn 0 =
[ F ( 1R ) p
2 L2p1 ]
Sp p
( )Lp
sin h ( H / L p ) +cos h
H
Lp [ ]
(3.10)

39
And the resultant hole photocurrent density at the depletion edge J p

][ ]
H H
( S p p /L p ) ( cos h ( H / L p )e ) +sin h ( H / L p ) + L p e
J p=
[ qF ( 1R ) L p
2 L2p 1
e
( x j +W )
Lp
( S p p /L p ) sin h ( H / L p ) +cos h ( H /L p )

(3.11)

This photocurrent can be collect from the front side of an n or p junction solar cell at a given
wavelength. The lifetime, mobility and doping level are uniformed in this region.

To find the electron photocurrent from the base of the cell eq. (3.1), (3.2) and (3.4) are used
with the following boundary condition.

at, x =x j , n p n p 0 0

(3.12)

at, S n ( n pn p 0 )=D n d np /dx ' (3.13)

Using the boundary conditions the electron density is

[ (( ) )
]
Sn n Sn n
( Ln )
+ Ln e
x j

Ln
cos h ( x j / Ln ) +sin h ( x j / Ln )
n p n p 0=
[ qF ( 1R ) Ln
2 2
L 1
n
]
Sn n
( ) sin h ( x j / Ln )+ cos h ( x j / Ln )
x j
e

Ln

(3.14)

And the photocurrent density due to electrons at the depletion edge is jn

[ ]
Sn n S x
qF ( 1R ) Ln ( Ln )( ) ( )
+ Ln ex n n cos h j +sin h ( x j / Ln )
Ln Ln
j

J n=
( 2 L2n1 )
Sn n x
( ) ( ) ( )
Ln
sin h x j / Ln + cos h j
Ln

(3.15)

Some photocurrent generation takes place within the depletion region. The photocurrent per unit
bandwidth is equal to the number of photons absorbed.

40
 x j
J dr =qF ( 1R ) e ( 1eW ) (3.16)

So, the total photocurrent density is [71]

J ph=J n +J p +J dr (3.17)

Here,

J ph= Photocurrent density

J n= Photocurrent density due to electron

J p= Photocurrent density due to hole

J dr = Dark current

The photocurrent is referred to as the short circuit photocurrent, J sc , because there is a current

without any external applied voltage. It is as if there was a short circuit in the system. The
photocurrent is actually a reverse bias current because electrons flow toward the cathode and the
holes flow to the anode.

J sc =J ph (3.18)

3.4 Open Circuit Voltage

The open-circuit voltage is the voltage at which no current flows through the external circuit. It is

the maximum voltage that a solar cell can deliver. V OC corresponds to the forward bias voltage,

at which the dark current density compensates the photocurrent density. V OC depends on the

photo-generated current density and can be calculated from Equation (3.17) assuming that the net
current is zero [71].
J
V oc =
kT
q J0( )
ln sc + 1 (3.19)

Here,

J sc = Short circuit current density

41
 J 0= The reverse saturation current density

k = Boltzman constant

T = Temperature

q= Electron charge

V oc = Open circuit voltage

Equation (3.19) shows that V OC depends on the saturation current density of the solar cell and

the photo-generated current. While J ph typically has a small variation, the key effect is the

saturation current, since this may vary by orders of magnitude. The saturation current density J0

depends on the recombination in the solar cell. Therefore, V OC is a measure of the amount of

recombination in the device.

The reverse saturation current density J0 was calculated for InGaN alloy using the following

relationship

D nj D pj
J 0=qni
2
( + )
Lnj N A L pj N D
, j=1,2 n (3.20)

Here,

N A = Acceptor concentration

N D = Donor concentration

ni= Intrinsic carrier concentration

3.4.1 Standard Test Conditions

For a reliable measurement of the I-V characteristics, it is vital to perform the measurements under
standard test conditions (STC). This means, that the total irradiance on the solar cell that should be
measured is equal to 1000 W/m2. Further, the spectrum should resemble the AM1.5 spectrum.
42
3.5 Band Gap

In metals, semiconductors and insulators electrons are restricted by atomic forces to just a few
bands of energy, and cannot permanently reside in other regions. The term "band gap" refers to the
energy difference between the top of the valence (outer electron) band and the bottom of the
conduction (free electron flow) band. In the valence band electrons are tightly held in their orbits
by the nuclear forces of a single atom. In the conduction band, electrons have enough energy to
move around freely and are not tied to any one atom. A material with a large almost insurmountable
band gap, greater than 3 electron volts is called an insulator. In metal conductors, the valence and
conduction bands overlap, so they do not have a band gap. Materials with a small band gap, which
behave as insulators at absolute zero, but allow excitation of electrons into their conduction bands
(at temperatures below their melting point), are called semiconductors. Electrons are able to jump
from one band to another given an "energy lift" by some external force, such as a sunlight photon.
In order for an electron to make the leap from the valence band to the conduction band, it requires a
boost of "band gap" energy. Electrons can gain enough energy to jump to the conduction band by
absorbing either a "phonon" (heat) or a "photon" (light) with at least band gap energy. Photons with
energy less than the band gap will not separate electron pairs and simply pass through the solar cell.
Photons, with more energy than necessary to separate an electron pair, do generate an electron and
a hole with the balance of their energy being dissipated in the form of heat. Band gap energy differs
from one material to another. In a semiconductor crystal, the band gap does not vary owing to the
constant energy levels in a continuous crystalline structure (such as silicon). The band gaps in the
table below are in electron volts (eV) measured at a standard temperature of 300 Kelvin (81
F). InGaN is a semiconductor material made of a mix of GaN and InN. It is a ternary group
III/group V direct bandgap semiconductor . Its bandgap can be tuned by varying the amount of
indium in the alloy. InGaN has a direct bandgap span from the infrared (0.77 eV) for InN to the
ultraviolet (3.42 eV) of GaN. The ratio of In/Ga is usually between 0.02/0.98 and 0.3/0.7 [69].

The band gap of InGaN can be calculated from the following equation

InN GaN
E g=x . E g + ( 1x ) Eg b . x (1x ) (3.21)

Here,

E g= InGaN band gap.

43
 InN
E g = InN band gap

EGaN
g = GaN band gap

x= In concentration

(1x )= In concentration

Figure 3.2 Band gap graph of InGaN.

3.6 Effective Mass

If the same magnitude of electric field is applied to both electrons in vacuum and inside the crystal,
the electrons will accelerate at a different rate from each other due to the existence of different
potentials inside the crystal. The electron inside the crystal has to try to make its own way. So the

44
electrons inside the crystal will have a different mass than that of the electron in vacuum. This
altered mass is called as an effective-mass.
The effective mass of electron and hole of InxGa1-xN can be measured from following equation, [70]

mn ( InGaN )=0.12 x +0.2(1x ) (3.22)

mh ( InGaN )=0.17 x+1.0( 1x) (3.23)

3.7 Absorption Coefficient (InGaN)

When light impinges on a semiconductor with photon energy h , greater than or equal to the

band gap energy E g , which is absorbed, results in the excitation of an electron from the valence

band to the conduction band. The absorption coefficient, , is a material parameter which

depends on the photon energy. It is a measure of how good the material is for absorbing light of
certain wave length. Absorption coefficient in InxGa1-xN is related to its composition i.e. in fraction,
x , as well as wave length of the light. It also depends on temperature of operation. The

absorption coefficient of InxGa1-xN alloys as a function of photon energy with different indium
composition is shown in Fig. 3.3 at room temperature (300 K) [77].

=2.2 10 ( 1.24 )E
5
g (3.24)

Here,

= Absorption coefficient

= Wavelength of light

45
 Figure 3.3 Absorption coefficient vs Photon energy graph.

3.8 Reverse Saturation Current Density

Under reverse polarization, the externally applied voltage V pulls the holes in the p side and the
electrons in the n side away from the junction. The width of the depletion Layer and the height of
the barrier increase accordingly. The increase in the barrier energy is measured in eV. This rise of
the barrier height reduces the current to a negligible value, since very few majority carriers can now
cross the junction by surmounting the enhanced barrier. On the other side, the number of minority
carriers moving down the potential barrier is left unaffected since this number depends (mostly) on
the temperature. As a result of this mechanism, a small current called the "reverse saturation
current" flows. The reverse saturation current is almost independent of the applied reverse bias
voltage, but increases with the rise of temperature of the junction diode. This is because the
minority carrier density contributing proportion increases with the rise of temperature. [78]

Dnj D nj
J 0=qn2i ( + )
Lnj N A L pj N D
, j=1,2 n (3.25)

Where, NA is the concentration of acceptor atoms per c m3 on the p side, ND is

concentration of donor atoms per c m3 on the side, on the side, ni is the intrinsic carrier

concentration, j is the number of j th junction.

3.9 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

The thermal excitation of a carrier from the valence band to the conduction band creates free
carriers in both bands. The concentration of these carriers is called the intrinsic carrier
concentration. Semiconductor material which has not had impurities added to it in order to change
46
the carrier concentrations is called intrinsic material. The intrinsic carrier concentration is the
number of electrons in the conduction band or the number of holes in the valence band in intrinsic
material. This number of carriers depends on the band gap of the material and on the temperature of
the material. A large band gap will make it more difficult for a carrier to be thermally excited across
the band gap, and therefore the intrinsic carrier concentration is lower in higher band gap materials.
Alternatively, increasing the temperature makes it more likely that an electron will be excited into
the conduction band, which will increase the intrinsic carrier concentration. This translates directly
to solar cell efficiency.
Intrinsic carrier concentration can be expressed as [71]

( E g /kT )
n2i =N c N v e (3.26)

Here,

N c = Effective density of state in the conduction band

N v = Effective density of state in the valance band

N c and Nv can be determined from the following equation

N C =4.3 1014 T 3 / 2 ( cm 3 ) (3.27)

N V =8.9 1015 T 3 /2 ( cm3 ) (3.28)

The values of N C and NV can be given by

Using equation (3.30) and (3.31), (3.31) can be expressed by

n2i =3.827 1029 T 3 exp ( EkT )

g
(3.29)

3.10 Depletion Width

The depletion width of a typical p-n junction is to be found from the following equation

For a typical p-n junction, the contact potential, V 0 is

47
 kT N a N d
V 0= ln (3.30)
q n2i

And the depletion layer width, W is

1/ 2

W=
q [ (
2 V0 1 1
+
Na Nd )] (3.31)

Here is a dielectric constant

The width of the depletion layer in n and p type materials are x no and x p 0 .

1/ 2

x n 0=
{ [
2 V0
q
Na
N d ( N a+ N d ) ]}
(3.32)

1 /2

x p 0=
{ [
2 V0
q
Nd
N a ( N a+ Nd ) ]}
(3.33)

3.11 Efficiency

The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance of one solar cell
to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the solar cell to input energy
from the sun. In addition to reflecting the performance of the solar cell itself, the efficiency depends
on the spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight and the temperature of the solar cell.
Therefore, conditions under which efficiency is measured must be carefully controlled in order to
compare the performance of one device to another.

The efficiency of the solar cell is given by

I mp V mp
= (3.34)
P

The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage are the maximum current and voltage
respectively from a solar cell. However, at both of these operating points, the power from the solar

48
cell is zero. The "fill factor", more commonly known by its abbreviation " FF ", is a parameter

which, in conjunction with V OC and I sc , determines the maximum power from a solar cell.

The FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of

V OC and I sc .

I mp V mp
FF=
I sc V oc

(3.35)

I mp= Maximum obtainable current

V mp= Maximum obtainable voltage

So, the efficiency can be obtained from

I sc V oc FF
=
P

(3.36)

3.12 Reflectance

For normal incidence the reflectance of InGaN can be determined by Fresnel equation.

| |
n n
R= 1 2
n1+ n2

(3.37)

Here,

R= Reflectance

n1= Refractive index of air

n2= Refractive index of InGaN

n2 can be defined by the following equation

49
 ( ){ }
2
E Ph EPh E
n2= A 2 1+ 1 Ph + B (3.38)
Eg Eg Eg

Here,

E Ph= Photon energy

A ,B depend on the material composition.

A ( InGaN )=13.55 x+ 9.31 ( 1x ) (3.39)

B ( InGaN )=2.05 x +3.03 ( 1x ) (3.40)

3.13 Photon Energy

The photon energy is the energy carried by a single photon with a certain electromagnetic
wavelength and frequency. The higher the photon's frequency, the higher its energy. Equally, the
longer the photon's wavelength, the lower its energy. Photon energy is solely a function of the
photon's wavelength. Other factors, such as the intensity of the radiation, do not affect photon
energy. In other words, two photons of light with the same color (and, therefore, same wavelength)
will have the same photon energy, even if one was emitted from a wax candle and the other from
the Sun.

hc
E Ph= (3.41)

3.14 Photon Flux Density per Unit Bandwidth

The photon flux is important in determining the number of electrons which are generated, and
hence the current produced from a solar cell. As the photon flux does not give information about
the energy (or wavelength) of the photons, the energy or wavelength of the photons in the light
source must also be specified. At a given wavelength, the combination of the photon wavelength or
energy and the photon flux at that wavelength can be used to calculate the power density for
photons at the particular wavelength. The photon flux density is calculated by the following
equation.

50
 2
I
F=
1.24 q

(3.42)

Here,

I = Solar Irradiance

=Wavelength of Light

q =Charge of electron

3.15 Carrier Mobility

The carrier mobility characterizes how quickly carrier can move through a semiconductor, when
pulled by an electric field. In semiconductors, there is an analogous quantity for holes, called hole
mobility. The term carrier mobility refers in general to both electron and hole mobility in
semiconductors. Electron and hole mobility are special cases of electrical mobility of charged
particles in a fluid under an applied electric field.
The carrier mobility can be obtained from Empirical relationship [73]

2
T
T
1 ( )
( max min)
300
= min ( ) 1+ N T (
300
+ 3 T
4

) (3.43)
( N ( 300 ) ) ref
300

Where N is the total doping of the layer and N ref is the doping of the substrate which is fixed

18 3
at 10 cm 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 and are the specific parameters for a given material.

max And min , the values for the carrier mobility are given in Table 3.1. [78]

Table 3.1 Carrier mobility

Material max (cm2/V-s) min (cm2/V-s)

InN 3138.4 774

In0.8Ga0.2N 1252.7 644.3
In0.5Ga0.5N 758.1 459.4
In0.2Ga0.8N 684.2 389.4
51
 GaN 1460.7 295

The value of 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 and are given in Table 2.2. [78]

Table 3.2 The value of 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 and

Material 1 2 3 4

InN 0.68 -6.39 -1.81 8.05 -0.94

In0.8Ga0.2N 0.82 -1.81 -1.30 4.84 -0.41
In0.5Ga0.5N 1.04 -1.16 -1.74 2.21 -0.22
In0.2Ga0.8N 1.37 -1.36 -1.95 2.12 -0.99
GaN 0.66 -1.02 -3.84 3.02 0.81

The results of this thesis simulation demonstrate that InGaN is potentially an excellent
semiconductor photovoltaic material.

CHAPTER 4

Characteristics Calculation Using MATLAB

The InGaN solar cell simulation is done by using MATLAB. The preliminary development phase is
based on optimization of the InGaN material using a standard solar cell design. Here, the band gap
of the InGaN is same for all four layers. The suitability of InGaN with a specific band gap for
photovoltaic purpose is established, the development process moves into its second phase design
optimization. In this phase, the optimized InGaN is incorporated into advance solar cell designs and
tested. These solar cell designs are iteratively optimized with material quality to extract maximum
efficiency.

4.1 Effect of In Concentration in InGaN Band Gap

InGaN bandgap can be tuned by varying the amount of indium in the alloy. InGaN has a direct
bandgap span from the infrared (0.77 eV) for InN to the ultraviolet (3.42 eV) of GaN. The ratio of
52
In/Ga is usually between 0.02/0.98 and 0.3/0.7. From Figure 4.1 we observe that the band gap can
vary 0.77 eV to 3.42 eV. In our thesis we discussed that if the bandgap is high the more energy can
be absorbed by the solar cell so thus the efficiency increases. In our thesis we take In 0.2Ga0.8N as our
material which band gap is 2.6472 eV.

Indium concentration vs InGaN Band Gap

3.5

2.5
InGaN Band Gap (eV)

1.5

0.5 Figure 4.1 InGaN band gap as a function of In concentration.

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Indium concentration (unitless ratio)

Temparature Vs Band gap

2.65

2.648

2.646

2.644
Band gap(eV)

2.642

2.64

2.638

2.636

2.634
295 300 305 310 315 320 325
Temparature(K)
53
 Figure 4.2 Temperature dependence band gap.

The energy bandgap of semiconductors tends to decrease as the temperature is increased. This
behavior can be better understood if one considers that the interatomic spacing increases when the
amplitude of the atomic vibrations increases due to the increased thermal energy. This effect is
quantified by the linear expansion coefficient of a material. An increased interatomic spacing
decreases the potential seen by the electrons in the material, which in turn reduces the size of the
energy bandgap.

4.2 Effect of Band Gap on Absorption Coefficient

From figure 4.3 we can observed that if the band gap is small the absorption coefficient is low. As
we all know the absorption coefficient determines how far into a material light of a particular
wavelength can penetrate before it is absorbed. In a material with a low absorption coefficient, light
is only poorly absorbed, and if the material is thin enough, it will appear transparent to that
wavelength. The absorption coefficient depends on the material and also on the wavelength of light
which is being absorbed. Different semiconductor materials have different absorption coefficients.
Materials with higher absorption coefficients more readily absorb photons, which excite electrons
into the conduction band. So we should take the material In xGa1-xN for our research for better
absorption coefficient because the band gap range of this material is 0.77 eV to 3.42 eV which is
similar to the visible light spectrum.

8
x 10 InGaN Band Gap vs Absorption coefcient
3.9

3.8

3.7

3.6
Absorption coefcient

3.5

3.4

3.3

3.2

3.1

2.9
0.5 1 1.5 542 2.5 3 3.5
Band Gap (eV)
 Figure 4.3 Band gap dependence absorption coefficient.

4.3 Effect of Acceptor Doping Concentration on Short Circuit Current Density

and Open Circuit Voltage

Doped semiconductors are semiconductors which contain impurities, foreign atoms which are
incorporated into the crystal structure of the semiconductor. These impurities can either be
unintentional due to lack of control during the growth of the semiconductor or they can be added on
purpose to provide free carriers in the semiconductor. The generation of free carriers requires not
only the presence of impurities, but also that the impurities give off electrons to the conduction
band in which case they are called donors or that they give off holes to the valence band in which
case they are called acceptors. In figure 4.4 and figure 4.5 we observe that if the acceptor doping
concentration increases the short circuit current density first decreases rapidly then goes to a
saturation condition so thus the efficiency. And if the acceptor doping concentration increases the
open circuit voltage first increases rapidly then goes to a saturation condition so thus the efficiency.
In our thesis we take 61018 cm-3 as acceptor concentration (Na).

Acceptor doping concentration vs short circuit current density

46

44
short circuit current density-Jsc(mA/cm2)

42

40
Acceptor doping concentration vs Open circuit Voltage
4
38
Figure 4.4 Effect of acceptor doping concentration on short circuit current density.
3.5
36

34
3
Open circuit Voltage-Voc(V)

32
2.5
30
2
28

1.5
26
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Acceptor doping concentration-Na(cm-3)
18
x 10
1

0.5
55

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
- 18
Acceptor doping concentration-Na(cm 3) x 10
 Figure 4.5 Effect of acceptor doping concentration on open circuit voltage.

4.4 Effect of Band Gap on Reflectance

The reflectance of a material is the ability of the material to reflect the energy incident on its
surface. The reflectance of a material is determined when light and solar radiation is incident on the
surface of the material. This value can be used to describe the nature of a surface in terms of the
surface finish. In figure 4.6 it is clearly seen that if the band gap is small the more energy reflected
by the material and the energy is wasted. If the material has large band gap maximum energy can
pass through the material because of low reflectance. In0.2Ga0.8N has the band gap 2.6472 eV that
means it has low reflectance. So it can pass more energy for conversion.

Band gap Vs Refactance

0.3

0.28

0.26
Refactance

0.24

0.22

0.2

0.18
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Band gap of InGaN

Figure 4.6 Effect of band gap on reflectance.

56
4.5 Effect of n-layer Thickness on Efficiency
Since the optimal acceptor doping concentration was found, the main electrical parameters (sc, )
of the solar cell were calculated for a range of -layer thickness comprised between 1 and 1.3 m.
As shown in Figure, with the increasing of the front layer thickness of the four-junction In 0.2Ga0.8N
solar cell, the short circuit current density (sc) and the conversion efficiency () increase, first, and
then decrease. When the front layer thickness decreases, the distance between the space charge
region and the surface decreases, which improves the effective collection efficiency inducing the
enhancement of the short circuit current density. At the same time, if the surface recombination was
taken into account, the collection efficiency of the depletion region will be weakened as this last is
too close to the surface. The reduction of the collection efficiency leads to the decrease of the
conversion efficiency. Figure 4.7 shows that the peak of the efficiency was reached for a front layer
thickness of 0.15 m. As shown in Figure, for a front layer thickness of 0.15 m, the In0.2Ga0.8N
four junction solar cell reaches the best conversion efficiency.

n layer tnickness Vs Efciency

0.5

0.45

0.4

0.35
Efciency

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1 57
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
n layer tnickness
 Figure 4.7 Effect of n-layer thickness on efficiency.

4.6 Effect of Carrier Lifetime on Efficiency

Assuming that the surface recombination velocity was set at 520 cm/s and 600 cm/s, the conversion
efficiency of In0.2Ga0.8N four junction solar cells was determined for different values of minority
carrier lifetimes as shown in Figure 4.8. The results of simulations show that the conversion
efficiency increases with the minority carrier (electrons/holes) lifetimes. According to methodology
this is due to the low defect density that leads to the increase of the photocurrent density and the
decrease of the reverse saturation current density inducing the enhancement of the open circuit
voltage and so the conversion efficiency.

Carrier lifetime Vs Efciency

0.42

0.4

0.38
Efciency

0.36

0.34

0.32

0.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Carrier lifetime(ns) -9
x 10

Figure 4.8 Effect of carrier lifetime on efficiency.

58
4.7 Effect of Surface Recombination Velocities on Conversion Efficiency

Given that the minority carrier lifetimes were set at 0.6 ns, the influence of the surface
recombination velocity on the solar cell efficiency was presented in Figure 4.9. We notice that when
the surface recombination velocities exceed 502 cms 1, the four-junction solar cell efficiency
decreases heavily due to the high dropping in photo generated carrier collection by the electrodes.
In fact, according to methodology the increase of the surface recombination velocity, due to the
high surface defect density, conducts to the decrease of the photocurrent density and the open
circuit voltage, via the increasing reverse saturation current which is directly proportional to the
defect density, and these results in the decrease of the conversion efficiency. To get the best four-
junction solar cell configuration, a great number of simulations were done to select the optimal
device parameters as the optimal doping concentration and the optimal thickness of each layer of
the solar cell.
Surface recombination Velocity Vs Efciency
0.42

0.4

0.38
Efciency

0.36

0.34

0.32

59
0.3
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Surface recombination Velocity(cm/s)
 Figure 4.9 Effect of surface recombination velocities on conversion efficiency.

4.8 I-V Curve

The span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit current ( I SC ) at

zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage ( V OC ). In other words, the

maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the maximum current at closed
circuit. Of course, neither of these two conditions generates any electrical power, but there must be
a point somewhere in between was the solar cell generates maximum power. There is one particular
combination of current and voltage for which the power reaches its maximum value, at Imp and

V mp .

0.2

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
Current (Amp)

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02
60
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Voltage (volt)
 Figure 4.10 I-V curve of In0.2Ga0.8N.

4.9 Efficiency Calculation

Figure 4.11 shows the fill factor and maximum obtainable voltage and maximum obtainable
current which is need to calculate the cell efficiency.

Figure 4.11 Efficiency curve.

61
 Table 4.1: Efficiency for different In concentration

Mole Bandgap(eV Isc(A) Voc(V) Imp(A) Vmp(V) FF (%) Efficienc

fraction(x ) y (%)
)
0.2 2.6472 0.181916 3.63 0.1664 3.33 83.9% 40.5%
7
0.5 1.7025 0.09364 2.53 0.09015 2.33 88.66% 15.36%
0.8 1.0152 0.08103 2.13 0.07903 1.89 86.54% 10.92%

4.10 PV Curve

Voltage and power has the proportional relation when current is constant. From figure it is clear that
when voltage increase the power increases. After voltage become equal to the open circuit voltage
or peak voltage the power drop and become zero.

0.7

0.6

0.5
Power (Watt)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Voltage62
(volt)
Figure 4.12 P-V curve of In0.2Ga0.8N.

63
CONCLUSIONS

In this research work a new method has been adopted to simulate InGaN in MATLAB. Based on
this research it is found out that this materials has the potential to be used as photovoltaic cells. The
quad junction InGaN solar cell developed here has higher efficiency than any other group III nitride
solar cell. The findings of this research has been given below.

1. This thesis focused on the development of a solar cell model that emphasizes the use of
optical constants. The model used default settings for other parameters, such as electron and
hole lifetimes, electron and hole density of states, and doping concentration.

2. In this thesis different methods and mathematical terms have been used and mathematical
calculation have been done for finding the desired value and completing our goal.

3. If surface recombination velocity is lower efficiency is higher. In our research we use the
surface recombination velocity 520 cm/s obtained by the equation for highest efficiency.

4. GaN carrier lifetime is 4.2 ns and InN carrier lifetime is 6.7 ns. We make the composition of
InN and GaN so its carrier lifetime less than 4. If carrier lifetime is higher efficiency is
higher. In our research we take the carrier lifetime 1ns.

5. MATLAB code develop in this research stands as a base model to simulate other group III
nitride materials.

6. Current state-of-the-art multi-junction solar cells have efficiencies in the 30-33% range. The
40.5% efficiency predicted in this thesis is the highest of all simulations.

FUTURE WORKS

1. Other areas of research include finding different semiconductor materials that offer potential
for high efficiency solar cells. One more recommended path is to optimize the physical
parameters of the solar cell.

2. The band gap distribution for a quad-junction solar cell can be improved to obtain higher
efficiency. It should be noted that obtaining the correct optical data for these band gaps is
essential.

3. Much of the work that has been done in this thesis opens the way to do more research on
different solar cell materials such as InGaP (Indiam Galium Posphide), GaAs(Galium
Arsenide).
64
APPENDIX
1. INGAN BAND GAP CALCULATIONS

%%%% Band Gap of InGaN %%%%%%%%%%%%%

clc;
close all;
clear all;
%%%%% Band Gap Calculation %%%%%%
EgGaN=3.42; %%%%%%%%%%%%% Band gap of GaN
EgInN=0.7; %%%%%%%%%%%%% Band gap of InN
b=1.43; %%%%%%%%%%%%% Bowing parameter of InGaN
x=[0:0.0001:1];
Eg=((1-x).*EgGaN)+(x.*EgInN)-(b.*x.*(1-x));
plot(x,Eg,'b');
xlabel('Indium concentration (unitless ratio)');
ylabel('InGaN Band Gap (eV)');
title('Indium concentration vs InGaN Band Gap');

2. REFLECTANCE OF InGaN

clc;
close all;
clear all;
%%%%% Band Gap Calculation %%%%%%
EgGaN=3.42; %%%%%%%%%%%%% Band gap of GaN
EgInN=0.7; %%%%%%%%%%%%% Band gap of InN
b=1.43; %%%%%%%%%%%%% Bowing parameter of InGaN
x=[0:0.0001:1];
Eg=((1-x).*EgGaN)+(x.*EgInN)-(b.*x.*(1-x));
%%%%%%%%%%%%% reflactance %%%%%%%%%%%%%%
n2=2.506+0.91*x
n1=1; %%%%%%%%%%%% reflectance of air
R=((n1-n2)/(n1+n2))^2
plot(Eg,R,'b');
xlabel('Band gap of InGaN');
ylabel('Reflectance');
title(' Band gap of InGaN vs Reflectance ');

3. ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT

clc;
close all;
clear all;
%%%%% Band Gap Calculation %%%%%%
EgGaN=3.42; %%%%%%%%%%%%% Band gap of GaN
EgInN=0.7; %%%%%%%%%%%%% Band gap of InN
b=1.43; %%%%%%%%%%%%% Bowing parameter of InGaN
x=[0:0.0001:1];
Eg=((1-x).*EgGaN)+(x.*EgInN)-(b.*x.*(1-x));
%%%%% absorption coefficient%%%%%%%%%%%%
a_c=(2.2*10^5)*sqrt((1.24/L)-Eg);
plot(Eg,R,'b');
xlabel('Band gap of InGaN');
ylabel('absorption coefficient ');
title(' Band gap of InGaN vs absorption coefficient ');

65
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