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INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
COMMUNICATION MODES
It is use for such product whose manufacturing become terminates, but is warranty is
valid due to sold in market before.
It is use for such product whose manufacturing as well as warranty become stop. So the
Cisco does not support such device and consider as garbage.
SWITCH
It is a device use for networking (LAN), they based on specific chip that is represented
by ASIC (Application specific Integrated chip).
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Modular Switch
Such switches in which we can add the additional cards when need.
Layer-2 Switches
Layer-3 Switches
ROUTER
RAM
NVRAM
It is such memory where the data stored permanently and this configured data is refer by
the term start-up-configuration.
FLASH
It is such memory where the IOS present and here the data also present permanently.
ROM
It is such memory where all modes of switch or router exist, these modes called the ROM
monitor mode; they come after the IOS load.
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Switches and Router Boot Sequence
Network Design
Techniques
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There should be multiple data centers for easy data recovery
There should be multiple backup links to reduce single point of failure.
Network Media
1. Guided media: Wired network.
Examples are coaxial, UTP, STP, Fiber optic cable
2. Un-guided media: Wireless network.
It has eight wires, they are twisted with one another in a pair due to minimize of EMI,
and their wires have external coating.
Max distance in UTP is 100m.
UTP categorization
CAT 1: use only for voice
CAT 2: use only for voice
CAT 3: support data and voice
CAT 4: data and voice, 4Mbps
CAT 5: data and voice, 100Mbps
CAT 5E / 6: 1000Mbps or up to 1Gbps
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STP (shielded twisted pair cable)
Multimode fiber
Network topologies
Star topology
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Bus topology
Co-axial cable is used to connect the devices. The data rate of this cable is
10Mbps.
There is a single point of failure means if any one cable is broken then whole
network would be down.
It transmits the electrical signal from one end of a cable to the other end of a cable
This topology obsolete in early 90s.
Ring topology
Disadvantages:
It means that all the respective nodes in the network have a direct connection.
It is more reliable due to having more paths.
Database server needs more reliability, therefore it is recommended for it.
Disadvantages:
It is very complex to make mesh topology and also cost is very high.
In this topology some of the nodes in the network have a direct connection but
others do not.
It is very close to mesh topology.
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ETHERNET
It is an IEEE standard for LAN. Also known as 802.3
Classification of Ethernet
1) Application Layer
2) Presentation Layer
Three activities are taking place at this layer:
1) Encryption: The process of converting the plain text in to cipher text for data
confidentiality is called encryption. i.e. DES, 3DES and AES
2) Translation: Coverts protocol from one form to other. Like IPX to IP and vise
versa.
3) Compression: It simply works with the compression of data like win zip.
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3) Session Layer
A time period in which two machines communicate is called a session.
This layer deals with:
Session establishment: To establish a session before data communication.
Session management: To manage the session throughout the communication.
Session termination: To manually terminate the session or there is a network
down.
4) Transport Layer
Functions of TCP/IP
Telnet 23
SMTP 25
HTTP 80
HTTPS 443
DNS 53
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2. Error recovery
TCP numbers data bytes using the sequence and acknowledgement fields in the
tcp header
TCP sends data in sequence
Sender also sends re-transmission timer.
5) Network Layer
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6) Data Link Layer
7) Physical layer
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MODULE 2
SWITCHING
Cisco Switches Series
Layer 2 switches
The following are the components which exist in both switch and router.
1) RAM
It is such memory where data stored permanently and this configured data is
called start up configuration.
Syntax is: #show startup-configuration
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To save the running configuration, the syntax is:
#copy running-configuration startup-configuration
3) FLASH
This is such a memory where IOS (internetwork operating system) is present and
the data also present permanently.
4) ROM
It is such a memory where all modes of switch/router exist, these modes are called
ROM monitor mode. They come after IOS load.
Each and every switch creates a table in start called MAC address table or
forwarding data base.
At the power on the initial mac table is empty.
When the mac table is empty, the frame coming to the switch would be broadcast
by switch.
The mac addresses are bonded with respect to port numbers.
When the mac table is filled with source and destination mac addresses, now the
switch will not broadcast because the switch is an intelligent device and it
understands the mac addresses.
A switch can learn multiple mac addresses on its single port.
SWITCH TECHNOLOGIES
Switches work in different Technologies. These are as under:
Cut Through
In this mode latency does not depend on frame size, because it does not store
frame but forward it after seeing the MAC address.
It does not perform error detection.
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Fragment Free
In this mode switch checks first 64 bytes of a frame. The CRC field also exist in
this part of a frame, thus check out for any error.
Latency is not dependent on the size of frame.
Cisco 1900 series switches use this technology.
REDUNDENT TOPOLOGY
In this topology there is a backup link so that if one link fails than other is
activated. Such switching network that has the backup path for data transmission
is called redundant links.
This topology has some issues due to switching loop, which are as under:
Broadcast Storming
When the destination host frame not found by the switch, so the switch start
broadcast.
Network become down and frame transmission start in looping.
Frame first arrived will copy and then second time discarded.
Response on other hosts becomes slow due to multi frame discarded.
Instable database created due to learning of same MAC address by its multi ports.
These all issues actually concern with the non-manageable switch but can over come by
the manageable switch, by the use of protocols.
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SPANNING TREE PROTOCOL (STP)
Root Bridge
Root Bridge is the master switch and controls all the STP operation.
All other switches are non-root bridges and they use the best path.
All the ports are designated and act in forward state.
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Root Bridge Selection Process
Bridge ID
Combination of bridge priority and Mac address of a switch is called Bridge ID.
Bridge Priority
All the Cisco switches have default priority value of 32768.
MAC address
Root Port
Non-Root port
All other ports except one root port in Non-root Bridge are non-root ports.
Non-designated ports cant forward packet. Can receive or listen packet.
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Bridge Protocol Data Unit (BPDU)
Cost Bandwidth
100 10Mbps
19 100Mbps
04 1Gbps
02 10Gbps
Listening State
Here the port receives the BPDU and decided the port nature also called discarding state.
Learning State
Here the port can receive and send and also the switch built the MAC table. Forwarding
delay Time taken by port in shifting from one state to other.
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STP Convergence Time
Syntax:
Syntax:
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Spanning Tree Backbone Fast
This is use for the detection of indirect failure means, if the root port link not become
down but the link break due to any other switch in the network. In this case if any non-
indirect failure occur so the switch send the special BPDU called infinity BPDU to its
active link switch.
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VLAN (VIRTUAL LOCAL AREA NETWORK)
Broadcast Domain
ADVANTAGES OF VLAN
2. Security: One vlans information can not transfer into another vlan.
3. Flexibility: Transfer of port from one vlan to another vlan through configuration.
Trunk Port
It is such port which carries the multiple Vlans traffic. It is not the part of any vlan.
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TYPES OF VLAN
Static VLAN
This vlan is actually configured manually at each switch.
Syntax: switch (config) # vlan (any number)
Dynamic VLAN
These are such vlan which are configured by a server called VMPS (vlan management
policy server) in a large network environment and not need to create at each switch.
Benefit
You dont need to manually configure every time for access your vlan through out the
organization.
1. 802.1q(open standard)
802.1q Standard
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VTP (VLAN TRUNKING PROTOCOL)
It is open standard protocol, use for advertising the vlans informations throughout the
common administrative domain.
VTP MODES
There are three modes of VTP which are as following:
Server Mode
It is such mode where we can create, delete, modify and also synchronize the
Vlan information. vlan information is permanently save in flash memory.
Client mode
It is such mode in which we cant create, delete, modify the vlan information but
it can only synchronize and forward the vlan information.
Transparent mode
It is such mode where we can create, delete, modify the vlan information but it
can not synchronize but forward the information of vlan.
PORT SECURITY
When A port broadcast so the data will go to B as well as C port. The destination address
is B but C will also capture the data using the sniffer software, so to resolve this issue we
use switch. By using switch point to point communication is taking place between A&B.
But when the Mac table becomes full so the switch will broadcast the data.
It is such process which is used for hacking which becomes possible by the overflow the
MAC table; this process uses the software called the sniffer software. So to prevent the
switch by this attack we use the security feature called port security.
Sniffer Software
It is the software which is used by hacker for capturing the data in the plain text form.
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Macof
It is term used for flooding the Mac table by sending 300 to 400 Mac addresses in 1sec.
Restrict
When violation machine will not work but when we connect original machine it will
communicate and will generate a log value.
Shut down
When violated machine is connected to the port it would be shut down and when we
Connect the original machine so it will not work; now we will go to that interface and
write a command no shut.
Protect
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Wireless LAN (WLAN)
Modes of WLAN
1. Infra Structure Mode
There is a central device for example AP (Access Point). AP can connect to a switch with
cable.
2. Ad hoc Mode
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WLAN
Reflection
Refraction
Scattering:
Active Attacks
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Wireless Security Solutions from IEEE
1. WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)
WEP
Encryption Authentication
WPA
Encryption Authentication
3. 802.1I
WPA 2
Encryption Authentication
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MODULE 3
IP ADDRESSING
It is network address used for the communication between the nodes at LAN as
well as WAN.
These addresses are assigning by the IANA (Internet assigned numbering
authority)
There are two types of IP addressing, IPV4 and IPV6.
IPV4 address
It is total 32 bits address scheme these bits are divided into four octets, this
address scheme has two segments or portions (Host and Network).
This address is classified into the classes on the bases of network and host segment.
Class A
In this class the network segment have 8-bits and the host segments have24-bits.
Its range is from 01 up to 126 and total host exist 17millions.
Subnet mask is 255.0.0.0
Class B
Class C
In this class the network segment have 24-bits and host segment 16-bits.
Its range is from 192 up to 223 and total host exist 254.
Subnet mask is 255.255.255.0
Class D
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SUBNETTING
It is the process of dividing the single network ID into further various different
network IDs.
SUBNETMASK
It is the actually the group of network and host segment. It actually tells that how
many bits are used for network and how many bits are used for host.
128 bits
Assigned in hexadecimal (0--F)
I Hexadecimal = 4 bits
10C0:00FD:09C5:C509:0000:0000:509F every field is of 16 bits.
Ans:
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MODULE 4
ROUTING
Routing
Default Route:
# Ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0
OR
#Ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 s0/0
#show ip route
S* 0.0.0.0/0 s0/0
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2. Exterior Routing Protocol
Technology
Distance Vector
They exchange complete routing tables with each other after periodic time period
E.g. RIP (30 sec) and IGRP (60 sec).
Distance vector protocols have only best route information to the destination.
If best path is down than they recalculate the best path.
Link State
Link state routing protocol only send routing updates whenever there is some change in
network topology.
They are less bandwidth consumer because they only send routing updates not the whole
routing table means they efficiently utilize the bandwidth.
These protocols have complete network topology information.
These protocols are more intelligent because they have all routes information to the
destination
E.g. OSPF, IS-IS.
Disadvantage: CPU and memory intensive.
Hybrid
It is a combination of both distance vector and link state.
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RIP can perform routing up to 15 hops.
RIP enable routers exchange complete routing table after 30 sec.
RIP can perform equal cost load balancing, by default 4 paths and maximum 6
paths.
RIP version 2
The features of RIPv2 are:
It is class-less routing protocol.
RIPv2 is authentication supported.
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EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
This protocol is Cisco propriety.
It is Class-less routing protocol.
Administrative distance is 90.
It is interior gateway protocol means in same AS.
It is hybrid routing protocol.
It can support multiple network layer protocols, i.e. IP, IPX, Apple.
It can perform equal and unequal cost load balancing.
By default 4 paths and maximum of 6 paths
EIGRP uses an algorithm known as DUAL (Diffusion update algorithm).
DUAL is run over topology table and best paths are moved from topology table to
routing table.
By default best path selection on the basis of bandwidth and delay
Other parameters that EIGRP can use for best path selection are
o Reliability
o Load
o MTU
EIGRP TABLES
It creates 3 tables:
Neighbor table
Topology table
Routing table
Neighbor Table
In EIGRP directly connected routers maintain neighbor relationship.
They exchange HELLO PACKETS for maintaining the neighbor relationship.
Topology Table
This table contains the complete network information.
Router# show ip eigrp topology
Routing Table
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KHI (config)# router eigrp 50
KHI (config-router)# Network 10.0.0.0
KHI (config-router)# Network 11.0.0.0
If IP, IPx, Apple all are running at a time then this protocol will make different
tables for different operating systems.
Although IPx and Apple are not used nowadays.
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OSPF TABLES
1. Neighbor table.
2. Topology table
3. Routing table
Neighbor Table
It contains the information of directly connected routers just like eigrp.
Neighbor routers exchange HELLO PACKETS.
In OSPF neighbor table is also referred as Adjancy database.
Router #show ip ospf neighbor
Topology Table
OSPF Router ID
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OSPF AREAS
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MODULE 5
SECURITY
1. Standard ACL
2. Extended ACL
Standard ACL
In this type of ACL traffic is flittered on the basis of source ip address
The range of standard ACL is from 1 99
There are two types of actions performed in this type of ACL:
1. Permit
2. Deny
Example
These statements will permit host 10.0.0.1 to access Internet where as all other hosts
would be denied. This access list is applied on Fa0/0 inbound.
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This ACL will not deny host 10.0.0.1 because it is permitted in first statement
Access list filter traffic from and to router but do not filter traffic originating from
router.
Most restrictive statement of ACL should be on top
Any for all destinations.
Any any for all sources and all destinations
One ACL can be applied at one interface and in one direction
Extended ACL
This type of ACL filters the traffic on the basis of
1. Source ip
2. Destination ip
3. Protocol
4. Port number
The range of this ACL is from 100 199.
Actions performed by this ACL are:
1. Permit
2. Deny
Direction of ACL
Inbound direction
Traffic entering from 10.2 than for e0 it is inbound and traffic coming from Internet
toward 10.2 than it is out bound for e0.
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Router (config)# Access-list 101 permit tcp 10.0.0.1 0.0.0.49 host 1.1.1.1 eq 80
Router (config)# Access-list 101 permit tcp 10.0.0.1 0.0.0.49 host 2.2.2.2 eq 25
Router (config)# Access-list 101 permit ip 10.0.0.51 0.0.0.49 any
This will permit hosts from 10.0.0.1 to 10.0.0.50 to communicate pc 1.1.1.1 via tcp
protocol and Internet browser.
Example
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NAT (NETWORK ADDRESS TRANSLATION)
Translation of private ip to public ip address is called NAT.
Types of NAT
1. Dynamic NAT
2. Static NAT
3. NAT Overload
We can configure dynamic NAT, Static NAT and NAT overload simultaneously
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VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN)
VPN is a private network over a public network.
Only problem is security because your data is in clear text form so any one/hacker
can capture your confidential data.
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DES (Data Encryption Standard)
There is a key used for encryption from plain text to cipher text which is of 56
bits.
This standard is breakable but high processing machine is needed for breaking the
encryption.
It is broken in 90s
Now the object of IBM was to secure DES .So they created new protocols called
3DES.
1. 128 bits
2. 192 bits
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2) DATA INTEGRITY
Data integrity is achieved by an algorithm called HASHING.
HASHING ALGORITHM
MD-5 (Message Digest - 5) SHA-1 (Secure hashing
algorithm)
128 bit Hash 160 bits Hash
Strong but slow
3) PEER AUTHENTICATION
In peer authentication a Pre shared key is used called IKE (Internet Key
Exchange) protocol.
Data confidentiality
Data integrity
Origin authentication
AH (Authentication Header)
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MODULE 6
2) Circuit Switching
3) Packet Switching
Advantages
Disadvantages
Advantage
It is Cost effective solution
Disadvantage
Bandwidth is very low.
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Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
It is a set of digital services that transmit voice and data over phone lines.
It is a cost effective solution and also speed is high than normal dial up
connection.
It is also good to use it as a back-up link for other types of links like frame
relay and T1 connection.
B channel is used for voice and data both and D channel is used for signaling and
control.
E1
It is used in Europe and rest of the world.
T1
It is used in USA and Canada.
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The bandwidth of B and D channel is 64 kbps. It means the total bandwidth
provided by T1 is 1.54 mbps.
Cisco HDLC
If at both ends there are Cisco routers than use HDLC otherwise use PPP.
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Point To Point Protocol (PPP)
PPP Authentication
There are two types of PPP authentication:
1st router sends its password to 2nd router and 2nd router check its on password. If
both passwords are same than line protocol is up.
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Challenging Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)
1st router sends CHAP signal to 2nd router which says thyat I want to
communicate to you, send your password.
2nd router will send its password to 1st router in encrypted form.
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Frame Relay
It is a Standard of ITU-T.
It works on data link layer of OSI reference model.
This is an example of packet switching.X.25,Frame relay,ATM
Frame relay is working from POP to customer.
Router of customer is called Frame relay router.
The device in POP is called Central office Switch (CO Switch).
It is cost effective b/c there is a bandwidth-sharing concept within the cloud
The aim of frame relay is to connect customer router to Point of presence (POP)
of service provider.
Frame service provider provides service 1 connectivity as well as layer 2
connectivity. For layer 2 connectivity we have to configure Frame Relay.
In case of frame relay, at layer 1 we can use any type of media.
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Frame Relay Terminologies
CIR (Committed Interface Rate)
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FRAME RELAY ADDRESS MAPPING
Let suppose CTTC Customer example to understand the mapping concept.
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Local Management Interface (LMI)
It maintains the connection status b/w frame relay router and frame relay switch.
LMI Types
LMI States
They help in troubleshooting by this we can see the segment status of Frame relay
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