SOLIMAN, Ramces M.

LAHAR AND FLOOD CONTROL

LAHAR

A lahar is a type of mudflow or debris flow composed of slurry of pyroclastic material, rocky
debris, and water. The material flows down from a volcano, typically along a river valley. Lahars are
extremely destructive: they can flow tens of metres per second, can be 140 metres (460 ft) deep, and
destroy any structures in their path. Lahars are similar to pyroclastic flows but contain more water.

Lahars have killed more people than other volcanic hazard. As Lahars follow the laws of fluvial
dynamics and so it is assumed that protective steps for flood control will be effective for controlling
lahars. Engineering controls are only realistic from small to medium sized flows. The most effective
means for controlling a lahar is suppression and diversion.

FLOOD

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually dry. Flooding may occur as
an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river or lake, in which the water overtops or breaks
levees, resulting in some of that water escaping its usual boundaries, or it may occur due to an
accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an a real flood. While the size of a lake or other body of
water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, these changes in size are unlikely to
be considered significant unless they flood property or drown domestic animals.

MT. PINATUBO ERUPTION

The June 15, 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, one of the largest eruptions in the world this century,
deposited 5-7 cubic kilometers of pumiceous pyroclastic-flow deposits and about 0.2 cubic kilometers of
tephra-fall deposits on the slopes of the volcano. Decreases in infiltration capacity and evapotranspiration
caused by the eruption and its deposits have increased the rate and magnitude of surface runoff
production, and the new deposits provide a vast supply of highly credible sediment.

Lahars (debris-flow and hyperconcentrated-flow flood surges) generated by rain falling on

credible pyroclastic-flow deposits and by lake outbreaks are a serious hazard to areas surrounding the
volcano as far out as 50-60 kilometers. Proximal zones of potential hazard can be affected by direct
impact of lahars, bank collapse from lateral channel migration, back flooding due to blockage of tributary
valleys, and inundation by lahar deposits or fluvial sediments. In addition to these effects, distal zones
may experience siltation of canals, drains, fish ponds, and coastal zones. Most bridges in the potential
hazard zones have already been destroyed, and many roads have been directly inundated or back flooded.
 Lahars produced during the Pinatubo eruption
and in the following years caused the greatest damage
and longest-term effects on the surrounding population
and landscape. During the eruption, typhoon rains and

eruption-related storm cells generated lahars on both the

eastern and western volcano flanks. However, the most widespread lahars were generated by monsoon
and typhoon rains, after the emplacement of the unconsolidated pyroclastic flow and tephra deposits.
Eight major catchments were affected by lahars (Fig. 25). With continuous lahars occurring, channels
were filled to their capacity with sediment, causing later lahars to overflow and inundate lowlands
surrounding the river channels.

It is predicted that eventually only 63% of the 1991 pyroclastic-flow deposits erupted from
Pinatubo will be preserved (Fig. 28). The remaining fraction will be remobilised and mostly redeposited
by lahars with a small fraction of silt carried out to sea.

EFFECTS ON PARTICULAR RIVER SYSTEM

Tarlac River system

The upper portion of the Tarlac catchment (to the north of Pinatubo) stored a relatively large
amount of potential lahar source material (Table 11), but experienced limited effects from lahars. This was
partially due to natural retention features in the upper O'Donnell and Bangat valleys, where large amounts
of pyroclastic flow deposits were emplaced in broad flat valleys, upstream of bedrock valley
constrictions. In addition these catchments are in the rain shadow of the Southwest Monsoon. However,
the potential for destructive lahars remains, especially during typhoons, due to the large amount of
pyroclastic-flow deposits remaining in the upper catchment.

Bamban River system

The Sacobia River is the most active tributary of the Bamban, and had 0.6-0.9 km 3 of pyroclastic
deposits in its upper reaches. In 1992 a secondary pyroclastic flow caused erosion between the Abacan
and Sacobia Rivers, allowing the Sacobia to capture part of the Abacan flows.
 From 1991-1993 around 0.2 km3 of sediment was deposited along the Sacobia River. 1991 flows
reached 40 km from the volcano near Concepcion (Fig. 20), inundating 90 km2 of farmland and low-lying
communities adjacent to the river. Intermittent damming of the Sacobia's tributaries led to several
temporary lakes forming. Breaching of one of these lake impoundments contributed to a lahar that
destroyed a highway bridge across the Bambam. Accumulation of sediment in the lower reaches of the
Sacobia River led to aggradation further upstream in 1992-1993. Numerous lahar avulsions and lake-
breakout floods occurred burying parts of the towns of Mabalacat and Bamban in 1992 and 1993.Another
secondary pyroclastic flow occurred in the headwaters of the Sacobia in 1993, filling the channels and
diverting subsequent flows towards the Pasig-Potrero River. This resulted in no lahars in 1994 in the
Sacobia and much reduced sediment remobilisation. Table 11. Estimated volumes of sediment to be
transported to lowlands surrounding Mt. Pinatubo, adapted from Pierson et al., (1992).

Catchment Source Erosion New deposits Old deposits Estimated volume

volume intensity eroded (km3) eroded (km3) transported to lowlands
(km3) factor* (km3)

Low-source volume estimates

Tarlac 0.3 0.4 0.12 0.01 0.13

Bamban 0.6 0.4 0.24 0.02 0.26

Abacan 0.1 0.4 0.04 0.004 0.04

Pasig-Potrero 0.3 0.4 0.12 0.01 0.13

Porac/Gumai 0.03 0.7 0.02 0.002 0.02

n

Santo 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.05 0.55

Thomas

Bucao 2.5 0.5 1.25 0.13 1.38

Total 4.8 2.29 0.23 2.51

LAHAR & FLOOD CONTROL STRUCTURES (STRUCTURAL MITIGATION)

DAMS

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Dams generally serve the
primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as
dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.

Sabo dams- in flow channels are used to suppress the flow of a lahar. Sabo dams are
massive concrete or steel structures built at right angles to flow direction and are
designed to decrease the velocity and energy of mass transport as well as trap sediments.

Sabo Dam is next to Solsona and is located

in Province of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos,
Philippines

CHECK DAMS

These are small gravity dams, usually

constructed with rocks and mortar or
concrete, of variable height and width. These
structures are located in small or medium-
sized gullies to stabilize river bed slopes and
prevent soil erosion.
DIKES

Dikes are constructed parallel to valleys and

are designed to direct the course of flows.

RETAINING WALLS

These are rock/concrete block structures built

on steep slopes anywhere in the watershed,
where the erosion of the base foundation
threatens lands and/or homes.

SAUSAGE GROYNES

These are long, cylindrical, slightly flexible

structures of variable thickness, composed of
wire and rocks. Groynes are placed at the foot of
banks along small, slow-moving streams, where
there are signs of undermining and threats to
permanent structures. Sausage groynes are
designed to stop such action by allowing the
bank to collapse to an angle of repose in such a
manner as to form a moderate slope, which
encourages the growth of vegetation.
GABION GROYNES

These are long, flexible structures of variable

thickness, composed of wire and rocks. They
are placed on the shaped banks of large, fast-
moving streams where severe erosion is
occurring and many pose a danger to
permanent structures.

PAVED DRAINS

These are concrete structures designed to

quickly remove water from highly susceptible
erodable areas such as road-sides, under-
bridges and steep slopes.

LEVEES

These serve the purposed of

confining flood waters to the stream and to
portions of the flood plain. Levees are made
of clay or earth fill material is being used
with some structural modifications and has
proven quite effective. The slopes of an
earth fill levee should be no more than 2:1.
The base should be wide to allow for a
gradual slope. Trees and bushes should not
be planted on or near a levee because their
root systems tend to weaken it. A Levee is
an earth dyke or embankment. Levees are
most frequently used for flood control
because they can be built at relatively low or cost of material available at the site.It is a sort of an earthen
dam constructed along the river. Levees are usually built of material excavated from borrow pits parallel
to the levee line. The material should be placed in layers and compacted, with the least previous material
being placed along the river side of the levee.

FLOOD WALLS

Flood walls require very little space

and are often used to protect cities and
developed areas. They are costly to construct,
but involve minimal maintenance costs. Flood
walls are used in developed area where it is
difficult to obtain to obtain enough land for
the construction of levees. Because of flat
slopes, levees require very large width. If the
land is costly or limited, it is more economical
to construct flood walls. These are masonry or
concrete walls constructed just on the river
bank. A flood wall is a sort of gravity dam
constructed along the river, proper foundation
should be provided and all precautions should be taken against scouring. If there is a back fill on the land
side of the wall, it acts as an earth retaining wall.

CHANNEL ALTERATION

Reduce floods by deepening and

widening the channel by cutting meanders.
Sometimes these works can have undesirable
effects, by aiding the sediment transport
process. Care must be taken when channel
alternatives are considered.

DETENTION PONDS

Ponds placed on and off-side can

minimize the damage to downstream
structures by reducing peak flows. They should
be considered in the design of downstream
protective structures.

STORAGE RESERVOIRS
It is the most effective measure of flood
disaster mitigation measures. The modern
reservoirs are mostly multipurpose. The aim of
reservoir is to store excess water during flood
period and release it when flood subsides.
Generally, the reservoirs are formed on the
upstream of the area to be protected or on the
head reach of the river.

(San Roque Dam in San Manuel , Pangasinan)

DETENTION RESERVOIRS

In this type of reservoir, the spill ways

with adjustable gates provided with the dam so
that the flood water may be detained for some
time and then released according to the
situation of the downstream area by operating
the gates of the spillways.

RETARDING RESERVOIRS

In this type of reservoir spillways are provided

with the dam at such a level at a capacity so
that the flood discharge is retarded and it takes
long time for the flood water to flow
completely towards the downstream area. The
discharge stops when the water level falls
below the crest of the spillways.

(Balog balog Dam in San Jose Tarlac)

NON- STRUCTURAL MITIGATION FOR

LAHAR

Understanding the potential

hazards
Hazard maps
Monitoring
Emergency plan in place and practiced
Education of government officials and public
Clear communication between scientists, government officials and the public.
HAZARD MAPS/ CLASSIFICATION SCHEME: