CONTENTS

ABOUT THIS REPORT.................................................................................................4

PURPOSE:.............................................................................................................4
SCOPE:..................................................................................................................4
AUDIENCE:............................................................................................................4
ORGANIZATION:....................................................................................................4
1.FUNDAMENTALS OF PV CELLS.......................................................................5
1.1 PV TEHCHNOLOGY...............................................................................................5
1.2 HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAIC............................................................................5
1.3 HOW PV CELLS WORK.........................................................................................6
1.4: TYPES OF PV CELLS.............................................................................................7
1.5: PHOTOVOALTAIC MODULES............................................................................9
1.5.1:Describing photovoltaic module performance.................................................10
1.6: PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAYS................................................................................15
1.7: TYPES OF ARRAYS.............................................................................................18
1.7.1: Flat-plate stationary arrays..............................................................................18
1.7.2: Portable arrays.................................................................................................19
1.7.3: Tracking arrays................................................................................................20
1.8: FACTORS EFFECTING OUTPUT OF MODULES............................................20
1.9:TYPES OF MOUNTING........................................................................................21
1.9.1: Bracket mounting............................................................................................21
1.9.2: Pole mounting..................................................................................................22
1.9.3 Ground mounting..............................................................................................23
1.9.4: Structure mounting..........................................................................................24
2. PV CELLS.........................................................................................................25
2.1: TYPES OF PV CELLS:.........................................................................................26
2.1.1: MONOCYRSTALLINE PV CELLS..................................................................26
2.1.2: MULTICYRSTALLINE PV CELLS:.............................................................28
2.1.2.1: Manufacturing Process.................................................................................28
2.1.3: THIN FILM SOLAR CELL:...........................................................................29
2.1.3.1: Design and fabrication..................................................................................30
2.1.4: AMORPHOUS SILICON PV CELLS:...........................................................31
3. SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER...................................................................33
3.1: IMPORTANCE OF SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER.........................................33
3.1.1: Overcharge Protection.....................................................................................34
3.1.2: Over discharge Protection...............................................................................35
3.2: Charge Controller Set Points..................................................................................36
3.2.1: Voltage Regulation (VR) Set Point.................................................................37
3.2.2: Array Reconnect Voltage (ARV) Set Point.....................................................38
3.2.3: Voltage Regulation Hysteresis (VRH)............................................................38
3.2.4: Low Voltage Load Disconnect (LVD) Set Point.............................................38
3.3: CHARGE CONTROLLER DESIGNS..................................................................39
3.3.1: Shunt Controller Designs.................................................................................40
3.3.2: Series Controller Designs....................................................................................41

1
 3.4: WORKING OF SOALR CHARGE CONTROLLER............................................43
3.5 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING...........................................................45
3.5.1: Working of MPPT:..........................................................................................45
3.5.2: Hardware:........................................................................................................47
3.5.2.1 Switch Mode Converter.................................................................................47
3.5.2.2Control Section...............................................................................................47
3.5.2.3: Software........................................................................................................48
3.6: PWM CHARGE CONTROLLER VS MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER...........53
3.7: CHARGE CONTROLLER SELECTION..............................................................53
3.7.1: Sizing Charge Controllers...............................................................................54
4. UN-INTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY.........................................................55
5. BATTERIES......................................................................................................56
5.1: GENERAL DESCRIPTION...................................................................................56
5.1.1: Battery Design and Construction:....................................................................56
5.1.2: Battery Types and Classifications...................................................................60
5.2: Battery Selection Criteria.......................................................................................63
5.3: FACTORS EFFECTING BATTERY PERFORMANCE:.....................................65
5.3.3: Battery Gassing................................................................................................66
5.3.4: Sulfation...........................................................................................................67
5.3.5: Stratification....................................................................................................68
5.4: Battery Auxiliary Equipment..................................................................................68
5.4.1: Enclosures........................................................................................................68
5.4.1.1: Passive Cooling Enclosures..........................................................................68
5.4.1.2: Ventilation....................................................................................................69
5.4.1.3: Catalytic Recombination Caps.....................................................................69
5.5: BATTERY SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS..........................................................69
5.5.1: Handling Electrolyte........................................................................................70
5.5.2: Personnel Protection........................................................................................70
5.5.3: Dangers of Explosion......................................................................................70
5.5.4: Battery Disposal and Recycling......................................................................71
6: ECONOMY OF SOLAR BASED UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY........72
6.1 Power costs:.........................................................................................................72
6.2 Grid parity:...........................................................................................................73
7. WORKING OF SOLAR BASED UN-INTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY
SYSTEM...............................................................................................................74
7.1: TYPES OF PV SYSTEM.......................................................................................74
7.1.1: GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS:............................................................74
7.1.2: STAND ALONE PV SYSTEMS:...................................................................77
8. APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGE:...............................................................81

2
3
ABOUT THIS REPORT

PURPOSE:
The purpose of this manual is to provide explanation & operation of
solar-based uninterrupted power supply.

SCOPE:
This report provides details on pv cells and the history of development
solar charge controller ups system being used and batteries used for energy
storage. It does not provide details about particular brands of batteries.

AUDIENCE:
This report is intended for anyone who wants to know the basic
details of solar-based ups system and its components

ORGANIZATION:
This report is organized in 9 chapters.

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of PV cells

Chapter 2: Type of Pv cell, advantages, physical structure, upgraded technology.

Chapter 3: Solar Charge Controller

Chapter 4: UPS

Chapter 5: Batteries

Chapter 6: Economy of SPUPS

Chapter 7: working of solar based ups

Chapter 8: advantages and applications

Chapter 9: summary

4
1.FUNDAMENTALS OF PV CELLS

1.1 PV TEHCHNOLOGY

Photovoltaic (PV) solar cells as they are often referred to, are semiconductor
devices that convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity. Groups of PV
cells are electrically configured into modules and arrays, which can be used to
charge batteries, operate motors, and to power any number of electrical loads.
With the appropriate power conversion equipment, PV systems can produce
alternating current (AC) compatible with any conventional appliances, and
operate in parallel with and interconnected to the utility grid.

1.2 HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAIC

The first conventional photovoltaic cells were produced in the late 1950s, and
throughout the 1960s were principally used to provide electrical power for earth-
orbiting satellites.

In the 1970s, improvements in manufacturing, performance and quality of PV

modules helped to reduce costs and opened up a number of opportunities for
powering remote terrestrial applications, including battery charging for
navigational aids, signals, telecommunications equipment and other critical, low
power needs.
In the 1980s, photovoltaic became a popular power source for consumer
electronic devices, including calculators, watches, radios, lanterns and other
small battery charging applications. Following the energy crises of the 1970s,
significant efforts also began to develop PV power systems for residential and
commercial uses both for stand-alone, remote power as well as for utility-
connected applications. During the same period, international applications for PV
systems to power rural health clinics, refrigeration, water pumping,
telecommunications, and off-grid households increased dramatically, and remain
a major portion of the present world market for PV products. Today, the
industry’s production of PV modules is growing at approximately 25 percent
annually, and major programs in the U.S., Japan and Europe are rapidly
accelerating the implementation of PV systems on buildings and interconnection
to utility networks.

5
1.3 HOW PV CELLS WORK

A typical silicon PV cell is composed of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra-thin

layer of phosphorus-doped (N-type) silicon on top of a thicker layer of boron
doped (P-type) silicon. An electrical field is created near the top surface of the
cell where these two materials are in contact, called the P-N junction.

Since the top of the cell must be open to sunlight, a thin grid of metal is applied to
the top instead of a continuous layer. The grid must be thin enough to admit
adequate amounts of sunlight, but wide enough to carry adequate amounts of
electrical energy.

Fig 1.3.1

Light, including sunlight, is sometimes described as particles called "photons." As

sunlight strikes a photovoltaic cell, photons move into the cell.

6
When a photon strikes an electron, it dislodges it, leaving an empty "hole". The
loose electron moves toward the top layer of the cell. As photons continue to
enter the cell, electrons continue to be dislodged and move upwards.

If an electrical path exists outside the cell between the top grid and the back
plane of the cell, a flow of electrons begins. Loose electrons move out the top of
the cell and into the external electrical circuit. Electrons from further back in the
circuit move up to fill the empty electron holes.

Most cells produce a voltage of about one-half volt, regardless of the surface
area of the cell. However, the larger the cell, the more current it will produce.
The resistance of the circuit of the cell will affect the current and voltage. The
amount of available light affects current production. The temperature of the cell
affects its voltage.

Regardless of size, a typical silicon PV cell produces about 0.5 – 0.6 volt DC
under open-circuit, no-load conditions. The current (and power) output of a PV
cell depends on its efficiency and size (surface area), and is proportional to the
intensity of sunlight striking the surface of the cell. For example, under peak
sunlight conditions a typical commercial PV cell with a surface area of 160 cm^2
(~25 in^2) will produce about 2 watts peak power. If the sunlight intensity were 40
percent of peak, this cell would produce about 0.8 watts.

Fig1.3.2

7
1.4: TYPES OF PV CELLS

The four general types of photovoltaic cells are:

 Single-crystal silicon.
 Polycrystalline silicon (also known as multicrystalline silicon).
 Ribbon silicon.
 Amorphous silicon (abbreviated as "aSi," also known as thin film silicon).

 Single-crystal silicon:

Most photovoltaic cells are single-crystal types. To make

them, silicon is purified, melted, and crystallized into ingots. The ingots are sliced into
thin wafers to make individual cells. The cells have a uniform color, usually blue or black.

 Polycrystalline silicon:

Polycrystalline cells are manufactured and operate in a similar manner. The

difference is that lower cost silicon is used. This usually results in slightly lower
efficiency, but polycrystalline cell manufacturers assert that the cost benefits outweigh
the efficiency losses. The surface of polycrystalline cells has a random pattern of crystal
borders instead of the solid color of single crystal cells.

8
  Ribbon silicon:

Growing a ribbon from the molten silicon instead of an ingot makes ribbon-type
photovoltaic cells. These cells operate the same as single and polycrystal cells.

The anti-reflective coating used on most ribbon silicon cells gives them a prismatic
rainbow appearance.

 Amorphous or thin film silicon:

The previous three types of silicon used for photovoltaic cells have a
distinct crystal structure. Amorphous silicon has no such structure. Amorphous
silicon is sometimes abbreviated "aSi" and is also called thin film silicon.
Amorphous silicon units are made by depositing very thin layers of vaporized
silicon in a vacuum onto a support of glass, plastic, or metal.

1.5: PHOTOVOALTAIC MODULES 

9
 For almost all applications, the one-half volt produced by a single cell is
inadequate. Therefore, cells are connected together in series to increase the
voltage. Several of these series strings of cells may be connected together in
parallel to increase the current as well.

These interconnected cells and their electrical connections are then sandwiched
between a top layer of glass or clear plastic and a lower level of plastic or plastic
and metal. An outer frame is attached to increase mechanical strength, and to
provide a way to mount the unit. This package is called a "module" or "panel" .
Typically, a module is the basic building block of photovoltaic systems.

Groups of modules can be interconnected in series and/or parallel to form an

"array." By adding "balance of system" (BOS) components such as storage
batteries, charge controllers, and power conditioning devices, we have a
complete photovoltaic system.

1.5.1:Describing photovoltaic module performance

To insure compatibility with storage batteries or loads, it

is necessary to know the electrical characteristics of photovoltaic modules.

Consider "I" is the abbreviation for current, expressed in amps. "V" is used for
voltage in volts, and "R" is used for resistance in ohms.

A photovoltaic module will produce its maximum current when there is essentially
no resistance in the circuit. This would be a short circuit between its positive and
negative terminals.

This maximum current is called the short circuit current, abbreviated I(sc). When
the module is shorted, the voltage in the circuit is zero.Conversely, the maximum
voltage is produced when there is a break in the circuit. This is called the open
circuit voltage, abbreviated V(oc). Under this condition the resistance is infinitely
high and there is no current, since the circuit is incomplete.

These two extremes in load resistance, and the whole range of conditions in
between them, are depicted on a graph called a I-V (current-voltage) curve.
Current, expressed in amps, is on the vertical Y-axis. Voltage, in volts, is on the
horizontal X-axis (Figure 1).

10
 A typical current voltage curve

As you can see in Figure 1, the short circuit current occurs on a point on the
curve where the voltage is zero. The open circuit voltage occurs where the
current is zero.

The power available from a photovoltaic module at any point along the curve is
expressed in watts. Watts are calculated by multiplying the voltage times the
current (watts = volts x amps, or W = VA).

At the short circuit current point, the power output is zero, since the voltage is
zero.At the open circuit voltage point, the power output is also zero, but this time
it is because the current is zero.

There is a point on the "knee" of the curve where the maximum power output is
located. This point on our example curve is where the voltage is 17 volts, and the
current is 2.5 amps. Therefore the maximum power in watts is 17 volts times 2.5
amps, equaling 42.5 watts.

The power, expressed in watts, at the maximum power point is described as

peak, maximum, or ideal, among other terms. Maximum power is generally
abbreviated as "I (mp)." Various manufacturers call it maximum output power,
output, peak power, rated power, or other terms.

The current-voltage (I-V) curve is based on the module being under standard
conditions of sunlight and module temperature. It assumes there is no shading
on the module.

11
Standard sunlight conditions on a clear day are assumed to be 1000 watts of
solar energy per square meter (1000 W/m2or lkW/m2). This is sometimes called
"one sun," or a "peak sun." Less than one sun will reduce the current output of
the module by a proportional amount. For example, if only one-half sun (500
W/m2) is available, the amount of output current is roughly cut in half (Figure 2)

A Typical Current-Voltage Curve at One Sun and One-half Sun

For maximum output, the face of the photovoltaic modules should be pointed as
straight toward the sun as possible.

Because photovoltaic cells are electrical semiconductors, partial shading of the

module will cause the shaded cells to heat up. They are now acting as inefficient
conductors instead of electrical generators. Partial shading may ruin shaded
cells.

Partial module shading has a serious effect on module power output. For a
typical module, completely shading only one cell can reduce the module output
by as much as 80% (Figure 3). One or more damaged cells in a module can
have the same effect as shading.

12
A Typical Current-Voltage Curve for an Unshaded Module and for a Module with One
Shaded Cell.

This is why modules should be completely unshaded during operation. A shadow

across a module can almost stop electricity production. Thin film modules are not
as affected by this problem, but they should still be unshaded.

Module temperature affects the output voltage inversely. Higher module

temperatures will reduce the voltage by 0.04 to 0.1 volts for every one-Celsius
degree rise in temperature (0.04V/0C to 0.1V/0C). In Fahrenheit degrees, the
voltage loss is from 0.022 to 0.056 volts per degree of temperature rise (Figure
4).

A Typical Current-Voltage Curve for a Module at 25 ฐ C (77 ฐ F) and 85 ฐ C (185 ฐ F)

13
This is why modules should not be installed flush against a surface. Air should be
allowed to circulate behind the back of each module so it's temperature does not
rise and reducing its output. An air space of 4-6 inches is usually required to
provide proper ventilation.

The last significant factor that determines the power output of a module is the
resistance of the system to which it is connected. If the module is charging a
battery, it must supply a higher voltage than that of the battery.

If the battery is deeply discharged, the battery voltage is fairly low. The
photovoltaic module can charge the battery with a low voltage, shown as point #1
in Figure 5. As the battery reaches a full charge, the module is forced to deliver a
higher voltage, shown as point #2. The battery voltage drives module voltage.

Operating Voltages During a Battery Charging Cycle

Eventually, the required voltage is higher than the voltage at the module's
maximum power point. At this operating point, the current production is lower
than the current at the maximum power point. The module's power output is also
lower.

To a lesser degree, when the operating voltage is lower than that of the
maximum power point (point #1), the output power is lower than the maximum.
Since the ability of the module to produce electricity is not being completely used
whenever it is operating at a point fairly far from the maximum power point,
photovoltaic modules should be carefully matched to the system load and
storage.

14
Using a module with a maximum voltage, which is too high, should be avoided
nearly as much as using one with a maximum voltage, which is too low.

The output voltage of a module depends on the number of cells connected in

series. Typical modules use either 30, 32, 33, 36, or 44 cells wired in series.

The modules with 30-32 cells are considered self-regulating modules. 36 cell
modules are the most common in the photovoltaic industry. Their slightly higher
voltage rating, 16.7 volts, allows the modules to overcome the reduction in output
voltage when the modules are operating at high temperatures.

Modules with 33 - 36 cells also have enough surplus voltage to effectively charge
high antimony content deep cycle batteries. However, since these modules can
overcharge batteries, they usually require a charge controller. Finally, 44 cell
modules are available with a rated output voltage of 20.3 volts. These modules
are typically used only when a substantially higher voltage is required.

As an example, if the module is sometimes forced to operate at high

temperatures, it can still supply enough voltage to charge 12-volt battery.

Another application for 44 cell modules is a system with an extremely long wire
run between the modules and the batteries or load. If the wire is not large
enough, it will cause a significant voltage drop. Higher module voltage can
overcome this problem.

It should be noted that this approach is similar to putting a larger engine in a car
with locked brakes to make it move faster. It is almost always more cost effective
to use an adequate wire size, rather than to overcome voltage drop problems
with more costly 44 cell modules. 

1.6: PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAYS

In many applications the power available from one module is inadequate for the
load. Individual modules can be connected in series, parallel, or both to increase
either output voltage or current. This also increases the output power. When
modules are connected in parallel, the current increases. For example, three
modules which produce 15 volts and 3 amps each, connected in parallel, will
produce 15 volts and 9 amps (Figure 6).

15
 Three Modules Connected in Parallel

If the system includes a battery storage system, a reverse flow of current from
the batteries through the photovoltaic array can occur at night. This flow will drain
power from the batteries.
A diode is used to stop this reverse current flow. Diodes are electrical devices
which only allow current to flow in one direction (Figure 7). A blocking diode is
shown in the array in Figure 7.

Basic Operation of a Diode

Because diodes create a voltage drop, some systems use a controller which
opens the circuit instead of using a blocking diode.
If the same three modules are connected in series, the output voltage will be 45
volts, and the current will be 3 amps.

16
If one module in a series string fails, it provides so much resistance that other
modules in the string may not be able to operate either. A bypass path around
the disabled module will eliminate this problem (Figure 8). The bypass diode
allows the current from the other modules to flow through in the "right" direction.
Many modules are supplied with a bypass diode right at their electrical terminals.
Larger modules may consist of three groups of cells, each with its own bypass
diode.
Built in bypass diodes are usually adequate unless the series string produces 48
volts or higher, or serious shading occurs regularly.
Combinations of series and parallel connections are also used in arrays (Figure
9). If parallel groups of modules are connected in a series string, large bypass
diodes are usually required.

Three Modules Connected in Series with a Blocking Diode and Bypass Diodes

17
 Twelve Modules in a Parallel-Series Array with Bypass Diodes and Isolation Diodes

1.7: TYPES OF ARRAYS

1.7.1: Flat-plate stationary arrays

Stationary arrays are the most common. Some allow adjustments in their tilt
angle from the horizontal. These changes can be made any number of times
throughout the year, although they are normally changed only twice a year. The
modules in the array do not move throughout the day (Figure 10). Although a
stationary array does not capture as much energy as a tracking array that follows
the sun across the sky, and more modules may be required, there are no moving
parts to fail. This reliability is why a stationary array is often used for remote or
dangerous locations.

18
 Adjustable Array Tilted for Summer and Winter Solar Angles

1.7.2: Portable arrays

A portable array may be as small as a one square foot module easily carried by
one person to recharge batteries for communications or flashlights. They can be
mounted on vehicles to maintain the engine battery during long periods of
inactivity. Larger ones can be installed on trailers or truck beds to provide a
portable power supply for field operations (Figures 11)

19
 portable array

1.7.3: Tracking arrays

Arrays that track, or follow the sun across the sky, can follow the sun in one axis
or in two (Figure 12). Tracking arrays perform best in areas with very clear
climates. This is because following the sun yields significantly greater amounts of
energy when the sun's energy is predominantly direct. Direct radiation comes
straight from the sun, rather than the entire sky.

Figure 12: One Axis and Two Axis Tracking Arrays

Normally, one axis trackers follow the sun from the east to the west throughout the day.
The angle between the modules and the ground does not change. The modules face in
the "compass" direction of the sun, but may not point exactly up at the sun at all times.

Two axis trackers change both their east-west direction and the angle from the ground
during the day. The modules face straight at the sun all through the day. Two axis
trackers are considerably more complicated than one-axis types.

1.8: FACTORS EFFECTING OUTPUT OF MODULES

20
The surface on which the PV array is mounted should receive as much light as
possible. The more light the solar array receives the more electricity will be
generated. The three issues, which affect how much light a surface receives, are:

1. Orientation: Due south is the best possible orientation. If the PV is to be

mounted on a vertical façade the orientation should preferably be between South
East and South West. If the PV is to be mounted at a tilt a wider range of
orientations will still give a reasonable energy yield. North facing orientations
should be avoided.

2. Tilt: A tilted array will receive more light than a vertical array. Any angle
between vertical and 15o off horizontal can be used. A minimum tilt of 15o off
horizontal is recommended to allow the rain to wash dust off the array. The
optimal tilt angle is 30o - 60o for a south facing array in Europe. Shallower tilt
angles are better for east or west facing arrays.

3. Shadowing: Shadows cast by tall trees and neighboring buildings must also be
considered. Even minor shading can result in significant loss of energy. If
shading is unavoidable, your system designer can advise on how to minimize the
effect of shade on the amount of electricity produced.

The area required for mounting a PV array depends on the output power desired
and the type of module used. An area of around 8 m2 will be required to mount
an array with a rated power output of 1kW, if monocrystalline modules are used
(the most efficient modules type). If multicrystalline modules are used an area of
around 10 m2 will be required for a 1kWp system and if amorphous modules are
used an area of about 20 m2 will be required.
These areas can be scaled up or down depending on the output power desired. 1
- 3 kWp is a typical power output for a domestic system, although smaller or
larger systems can be installed.

1.9:TYPES OF MOUNTING
There are various ways in which a PV array can be mounted on a building. The various
options offer different appearances and vary in cost.

1.9.1: Bracket mounting

Small arrays of one or two modules can use simple brackets to secure the
modules individually to a secure surface (Figure 13). The surface may be a roof,
wall, post, pole, or vehicle. Brackets can include some method to adjust the tilt
angle of the module.

The brackets are usually aluminum. If steel is used, it should be painted or

treated to prevent corrosion. Galvanized steel is normally avoided, because the

21
continuous grounding used on arrays aggravates the galvanic corrosion that
occurs between galvanized steel and almost all other metals .

Fastener hardware should be stainless steel or cadmium plated to prevent

corrosion. Identical metals should be used for components and fasteners
whenever possible.

1.9.2: Pole mounting

Typically, up to four modules can be connected together and mounted on a pole

(Figure 14).

Black iron or steel pipe can be used, if painted. Galvanized pipe, rarely available
in this size, can be used if compatible fasteners are used. Larger arrays can be
pole mounted, if hardware sizes are appropriately increased.

22
The same types of materials used for bracket mounting should be used for pole
mounting.

Pole Mount of Photovoltaic Array

1.9.3 Ground mounting

For arrays of eight or more modules, ground mounting is usually the most appropriate
technique. The greatest concern is often the uplifting force of wind on the array. This is
why most ground-mounted arrays are on some kind of sturdy base, usually concrete.

Concrete bases are either piers, a slab with thicker edges, or footings at the front and
rear of the array (Figure 15). All three usually include a steel reinforcement bar. In some
remote sites it may be more desirable to use concrete block instead of poured concrete.
The best way to do this is to use two-web bond-beam block, reinforce it with steel, and
fill the space between the webs with concrete or mortar.

23
Pressure-treated wood of adequate size is sometimes used for ground mounting.
This can work well in fairly dry climates, but only if the beams are securely
anchored to the

The array's mounting hardware can be bolted to an existing slab. With

extensive shimming, some mountaintop arrays are bolted to exposed rock. In
either case, adequately sized expansion-type anchor bolts are used. The heads
of the bolts should be covered with some type of weatherproof sealant. Silicone
sealant is the best choice.

Concrete Bases
1.9.4: Structure mounting

Photovoltaic modules mounted on buildings or other structures are

subjected to downward force when the wind hits their front surfaces.
When the wind strikes the back of the modules, upward force is
generated (Figure 16).

For this reason, the attachment to the building of modules with

exposed backs is designed to resist both directions of force.

24
Another consideration when modules are mounted to a structure is
the trapped heat between the module and the structure. Remember
that module voltage drops with increased temperature. Generally,
photovoltaic arrays are mounted on structures in such a way that air
can maturely circulate under the modules. This keeps the modules
operating at the lowest possible temperature and highest possible
output voltage. Access to the back of the modules also simplifies
service operations.

FIGURE 16 Forces on a Photovoltaic Array

2. PV CELLS
A solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity
by the photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices

25
intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight such as solar panels and
solar cells, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the light source is
unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar panels, solar modules,
or photovoltaic arrays. Photovoltaic’s is the field of technology and research
related to the application of solar cells in producing electricity for practical use.
The energy generated this way is an example of solar energy (also known as
solar power).
Photovoltaic cells are manufactured by using different materials with different
process of making. Each type has it’s own advantages and disadvantages ,
giving the end user a lot of choices, so as to consider different parameters.

2.1: TYPES OF PV CELLS:

There are four types of photovoltaic cells: multicrystalline silicon, monocrystalline

silicon, ribbon silicon, and thin-film.

2.1.1: MONOCYRSTALLINE PV CELLS

2.1.1.1: MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The starting material is lumps of chemically pure polycrystalline silicon, of a

quality close to semiconductor-grade, produced by the Siemens process. The
traditional route for monocrystalline wafers is the Czochralski process in which a
single crystal of up to about 150mm diameter is pulled from molten Si held in a
large heated quartz crucible.  In the more recently developed method, Si is cast
in a re-useable graphite mould to produce blocks of multicrystalline silicon (cubes
of over 0.5m dimensions).  When sawn into bars and then wafers (just bigger
than a compact disc) using a wire saw, the cleaned product is ready for cell
manufacturing.
Single crystal or monocrystalline wafers are made using the Czochralski process.

Czochralski process:

High-purity, semiconductor-grade silicon (only a few parts per million of

impurities) is melted down in a crucible, which is usually made of quartz. Dopant
impurity atoms such as boron or phosphorus can be added to the molten intrinsic
silicon in precise amounts in order to dope the silicon, thus changing it into n-type
or p-type extrinsic silicon. This influences the electronic properties of the silicon.
A precisely oriented seed crystal, mounted on a rod, is dipped into the molten
silicon. The seed crystal's rod is very slowly pulled upwards and rotated at the
same time. By precisely controlling the temperature gradients, rate of pulling and
speed of rotation, it is possible to extract a large, single-crystal, cylindrical ingot
from the melt. Investigating and visualizing the temperature and velocity fields
during the crystal growth process can avoid occurrence of unwanted instabilities

26
in the melt. This process is normally performed in an inert atmosphere, such as
argon, and in an inert chamber, such as quartz.

Due to the efficiencies that can be gained by the adoption of common wafer
specifications, the semiconductor industry has for some time used wafers with
standardized dimensions. Currently, high-end device manufacturers use 200 mm
and 300 mm diameter wafers. The crystal ingots from which these wafers are
sliced can be up to 2 meters in length, weighing several hundred kilograms.
Larger wafers allow improvements in manufacturing efficiency, as more chips
can be fabricated on each wafer, so there has been a steady drive to increase
silicon wafer sizes. The next step up, 450 mm, is currently scheduled for
introduction in 2012. Silicon wafers are typically about 0.2–0.75 mm thick, and
can be polished to a very high flatness for making integrated circuits, or textured
for making solar cells.
The process begins when the chamber is heated up to approximately 1500
degrees Celsius, to melt the silicon. When the silicon is fully melted, a small seed
crystal mounted on the end of a rotating shaft is slowly lowered until it just dips
below the surface of the red-hot molten silicon. The shaft rotates
counterclockwise and the crucible rotates clockwise. The rotating rod is then
drawn upwards very slowly, allowing a roughly cylindrical boule to be formed.
The boule can be from one to two meters, depending on the amount of silicon in
the crucible.
In the early days of the technology, the boles were smaller, only a few inches
wide. With increasing technology, nowadays up to 300 mm (12-inch)- wide
boules can be grown. The width is controlled by precise control of the
temperature, the speeds of rotation and how fast the seed holder is withdrawn.
Widths of 400 mm (16 inches) are expected in the next several years. This is one
reason for the rapidly decreasing cost of chips in recent years, because more LSI
chips can be created from a single wafer with the same number of fabrication
process steps.
The electrical characteristics of the silicon are controlled by adding material like
phosphorus or boron to the silicon before it is melted. The added material is
called dopant and the process is called doping.
When silicon is grown by the Czochralski method, the melt is contained in a silica
(quartz) crucible. During growth, the walls of the crucible dissolve into the melt
and Czochralski silicon therefore contains oxygen at a typical concentration of
1018 cm−3. Oxygen impurities can have beneficial effects. Carefully chosen
annealing conditions can allow the formation of oxygen precipitates. These have
the effect of trapping unwanted transition metal impurities in a process known as
gettering. Additionally, oxygen impurities can improve the mechanical strength of
silicon wafers by immobilizing any dislocations that may be introduced during
device processing. It was experimentally shown in the 1990s that the high
oxygen concentration is also beneficial for radiation hardness of silicon particle
detectors used in harsh radiation environment. Therefore, radiation detectors
made of Czochralski- and Magnetic Czochralski-silicon are considered to be
promising candidates for many future high-energy physics experiments. It has

27
also been shown that presence of oxygen in silicon increases impurity trapping
during post-implantation annealing processes.
However, oxygen impurities can react with boron in an illuminated environment,
such as experienced by solar cells. This results in the formation of electrically
active boron–oxygen complex that detracts from cell performance. Module output
drops by approximately 3% during the first few hours of light exposure.

2.1.2: MULTICYRSTALLINE PV CELLS:

Techniques for the production of multicrystalline silicon are more simple, and
therefore cheaper, than those required for single crystal material. However, the
material quality of multicrystalline material is lower than that of single crystalline
material due to the presence of grain boundaries. Grain boundaries introduce
high localised regions of recombination due to the introduction of extra defect
energy levels into the band gap, thus reducing the overall minority carrier lifetime
from the material. In addition, grain boundaries reduce solar cell performance by
blocking carrier flows and providing shunting paths for current flow across the p-
n junction.

2.1.2.1: Manufacturing Process

The feedstock (made by purification of silicon or by alternative refining methods)

is charged in a silicon nitride coated quartz crucible and heated until all the
silicon is melted. Heat is then extracted from the bottom of the crucible by moving
the heat zone up compared to the crucible and / or cooling the bottom of the
crucible. Often the crucible is lowered away from the heat zone and
simultaneously the bottom is revealed to a cooling source.

A temperature gradient is created in the melt and the solidification will start at the
bottom and crystals will grow upwards, and grain boundaries will grow parallel to
the solidification direction. To obtain a directional solidification the solidification
heat must be transported through the steadily growing layer of solid silicon. It is
necessary to maintain a net heat flux over the solid-liquid interface and the
temperature at the lower part of the crucible must be decreased according to the
increase in solid silicon thickness to maintain a steady growth rate. The growth
rate is proportional to the temperature gradient difference between the solid and
the liquid silicon.

Impurity Distribution in Directionally Solidified Ingots:

Due to the fact that most elements are more soluble in liquid than in solid silicon,
impurities dissolved in the melt will segregate and the element concentration in
the ingot will in most cases increase upwards in the ingot following Scheil’s
equation when the melt solidifies from the bottom and up.

28
The exponential distribution will create a heavily contaminated thin layer at the
top of the resulting ingot.

The Scheil equation assumes no diffusion in the solid state, complete mixing in
the liquid state and equilibrium at the solid/liquid interface. If convection is not
sufficient to provide complete mixing in the liquid phase, solute atoms are
rejected by the advancing solid at a greater rate than they can diffuse into the
bulk of the melt. A concentration gradient is thus developed ahead of the solid.
This enriched region will determine the rate of solute incorporation into the solid
front. This region is called a diffusion boundary layer. Scheil’s equation is still
valid if an effective distribution coefficient is used.

Forming of Precipitates:

Precipitates may form after saturation is met, and Scheil’s equation will no longer
be valid. The amount of super saturation needed for precipitates to form will vary
with the chemical composition and the growth conditions in the system.

Diffusion of Impurities:

In addition to the Scheil distribution the impurity distribution will depend on

diffusion. Impurities will diffuse into the solidified silicon from the crucible walls
and bottom as well as from the coating. Back-diffusion can also occur as
impurities diffuse from the heavily contaminated top layer back into the bulk
material after solidification, or from the boundary layer during solidification. Both
in-diffusion from the crucible and coating and back-diffusion are temperature
dependent and the impurity distribution varies with varying temperature profile
during growth and the subsequent cooling.

Boron Doped Silicon:

Boron is an acceptor in silicon, and multicrystalline silicon ingots made by

directional solidification are often pre-doped with boron. A small amount of boron
is added together with the feedstock prior to melting and solidification. Boron is
most commonly used because it is the doping element with the distribution
coefficient closest to 1 (k0 = 0.8). The distribution profile will thus not vary as
much with height as the other doping elements.

2.1.3: THIN FILM SOLAR CELL:

A thin-film solar cell (TFSC), also called a thin-film photovoltaic cell (TFPV), is a
solar cell that is made by depositing one or more thin layers (thin film) of
photovoltaic material on a substrate. The thickness range of such a layer is wide
and varies from a few nanometers to tens of micrometers.

29
Many different photovoltaic materials are deposited with various deposition
methods on a variety of substrates. Thin-film solar cells are usually categorized
according to the photovoltaic material used:

 Amorphous silicon (a-Si) and other thin-film silicon (TF-Si)

 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
 Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS or CIGS)
 Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC) and other organic solar cells

2.1.3.1: Design and fabrication

The silicon is mainly deposited by chemical vapor deposition, typically plasma-

enhanced (PE-CVD), from silane gas and hydrogen gas. Other deposition
techniques being investigated include sputtering and hot wire techniques.

The silicon is deposited on glass, plastic or metal, which has been coated with a
layer of transparent conducting oxide (TCO).

Polysilicon deposition, or the process of depositing a layer of polycrystalline

silicon on a semiconductor wafer, is achieved by pyrolyzing silane (SiH 4) at 580
to 650 °C. This pyrolysis process releases hydrogen.

Polysilicon layers can be deposited using 100% silane at a pressure of 25–130

Pa (0.2 to 1.0 Torr) or with 20–30% silane (diluted in nitrogen) at the same total
pressure. Both of these processes can deposit polysilicon on 10–200 wafers per
run, at a rate of 10–20 nm/min and with thickness uniformities of ±5%. Critical
process variables for polysilicon deposition include temperature, pressure, silane
concentration, and dopant concentration. Wafer spacing and load size have been
shown to have only minor effects on the deposition process. The rate of
polysilicon deposition increases rapidly with temperature, since it follows
Arrhenius behavior, that is deposition rate = A·exp(–qE a/kT) where q is electron
charge and k is the Boltzmann constant. The activation energy (E a) for polysilicon
deposition is about 1.7 eV. Based on this equation, the rate of polysilicon
deposition increases as the deposition temperature increases. There will be a
minimum temperature, however, wherein the rate of deposition becomes faster
than the rate at which unreacted silane arrives at the surface. Beyond this
temperature, the deposition rate can no longer increase with temperature, since it
is now being hampered by lack of silane from which the polysilicon will be
generated. Such a reaction is then said to be 'mass-transport-limited.' When a
polysilicon deposition process becomes mass-transport-limited, the reaction rate
becomes dependent primarily on reactant concentration, reactor geometry, and
gas flow.

When the rate at which polysilicon deposition occurs is slower than the rate at
which unreacted silane arrives, then it is said to be surface-reaction-limited. A
deposition process that is surface-reaction-limited is primarily dependent on

30
reactant concentration and reaction temperature. Deposition processes must be
surface-reaction-limited because they result in excellent thickness uniformity and
step coverage. A plot of the logarithm of the deposition rate against the reciprocal
of the absolute temperature in the surface-reaction-limited region results in a
straight line whose slope is equal to –qEa/k.

At reduced pressure levels for VLSI manufacturing, polysilicon deposition rate

below 575 °C is too slow to be practical. Above 650 °C, poor deposition
uniformity and excessive roughness will be encountered due to unwanted gas-
phase reactions and silane depletion. Pressure can be varied inside a low-
pressure reactor either by changing the pumping speed or changing the inlet gas
flow into the reactor. If the inlet gas is composed of both silane and nitrogen, the
inlet gas flow, and hence the reactor pressure, may be varied either by changing
the nitrogen flow at constant silane flow, or changing both the nitrogen and silane
flow to change the total gas flow while keeping the gas ratio constant.

Polysilicon doping, if needed, is also done during the deposition process, usually
by adding phosphine, arsine, or diborane. Adding phosphine or arsine results in
slower deposition, while adding diborane increases the deposition rate. The
deposition thickness uniformity usually degrades when dopants are added during
deposition.

Depending upon the efficiency required, these dopants are removed using
several techniques.

2.1.4: AMORPHOUS SILICON PV CELLS:

Amorphous Silicon cells use layers of a-Si only a few micrometers thick, attached
to an inexpensive backing such as glass, flexible plastic, or stainless steel.  This
means that they use less than 1% of the raw material (silicon) compared
standard crystalline Silicon (c-Si) cells, leading to a significant cost saving.

2.1.4.1: MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

Amorphous silicon is gradually degraded, by exposure to light, by phenomena

called the Staebler-Wronski Effect (SWE).  SWE affects the power output of a-Si
modules by as much as 10%. This light induced degradation is reduced by
depositing the layers of the cell using high hydrogen dilution and by making
combinations (alloys) of different types of cells.  Because of SWE, a-Si cells are
rated in the stabilized condition, which occurs after about 100 hours exposure to
light.

Unlike crystal silicon, in which atomic arrangements are regular, amorphous

silicon features irregular atomic arrangements.  As a result, the reciprocal action
between photons and silicon atoms occurs more frequently in amorphous silicon
than in crystal silicon, allowing much more light to be absorbed. Thus, an ultra-

31
thin amorphous silicon film of less than 1µm can be produced and used for power
generation. This film, because it is not crystalline and is so thin, will not break
when it is flexed, thus allowing it to be deposited on flexible substrates.  Because
of the flexability of the cell and the substrates a-Si producers are able to use
automated "roll-to-roll" manufacturing processes in which the substrate and
deposited material move through the production process as one continuous strip
passing over several rolls in the process which maintain stability to the process
as well as moving the product along its way.

Amorphous silicon films are fabricated using plasma vapor deposition techniques
to apply silane (SiH4) to the substrate or other beneficial film, allowing large-area
solar cells to be fabricated much more easily than with conventional c-Si.   Three
amorphous silicon layers — p-layer, i-layer, and n-layer — are formed
consecutively on the substrate. This p-i-n junction corresponds to the p/n junction
of a c-Si solar cell. Amorphous silicon can be deposited onto a many substrates
Including glass and ceramics, metals such as stainless steel, and plastics. 

Low temperature induced crystallization of amorphous silicon:

Amorphous silicon can be transformed to crystalline silicon using well-understood

and widely implemented high-temperature annealing processes. This typical
method is the typical method used in industry but requires high-temperature
compatible materials, such as special high temperature glass that is expensive to
produce. However, there are many applications for which this is an inherently
unattractive production method. Flexible solar cells have been a topic of interest
for less conspicuous-integrated power generation than solar power farms. These
modules may be placed in areas where traditional cells would not be feasible,
such as wrapped around a telephone pole or cell phone tower. In this application
a photovoltaic material may be applied to a flexible substrate, often a polymer.
Such substrates cannot survive the high temperatures experienced during
traditional annealing. Instead, novel methods of crystallizing the silicon without
disturbing the underlying substrate have been studied extensively. Aluminum-
induced crystallization (AIC) and local laser crystallization are common in the
literature, however not extensively used in industry.

In both of these methods, amorphous silicon (a-Si or a-Si: H) is grown using

traditional techniques such as plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
(PECVD). The crystallization methods diverge during post-deposition processing.

In aluminum-induced crystallization, a thin layer of aluminum (50 nm or less) is

deposited by physical vapor deposition onto the surface of the amorphous
silicon. This stack of material is then annealed at a relatively low temperature
between 140°C and 200°C in a vacuum. The aluminum that diffuses into the
amorphous silicon is believed to weaken the hydrogen bonds present, allowing
crystal nucleation and growth. Experiments have shown that polycrystalline

32
silicon with grains on the order of 0.2 – 0.3 μm can be produced at temperatures
as low as 150°C. The volume fraction of the film that is crystallized is dependent
on the length of the annealing process.

Aluminum-induced crystallization produces polycrystalline silicon with suitable

crystallographic and electronic properties that make it a candidate for producing
polycrystalline thin films for photovoltaics. AIC can be used to generate
crystalline silicon Nan wires and other nano-scale structures.

Another method of achieving the same result is the use of a laser to heat the
silicon locally without heating the underlying substrate beyond some upper
temperature limit. An excimer laser or, alternatively, green lasers such as a
frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser is used to heat the amorphous silicon,
supplying energy necessary to nucleate grain growth. The laser fluence must be
carefully controlled in order to induce crystallization without causing widespread
melting. Crystallization of the film occurs as a very small portion of the silicon film
is melted and allowed to cool. Ideally, the laser should melt the silicon film
through its entire thickness, but not damage the substrate. Toward this end, a
layer of silicon dioxide is sometimes added to act as a thermal barrier. This
allows the use of substrates that cannot be exposed to the high temperatures of
standard annealing, polymers for instance. Polymer-backed solar cells are of
interest for seamlessly integrated power production schemes that involve placing
photovoltaics on everyday surfaces.

A third method for crystallizing amorphous silicon is the use of thermal plasma
jet. This strategy is an attempt to alleviate some of the problems associated with
laser processing – namely the small region of crystallization and the high cost of
the process on a production scale. The plasma torch is a simple piece of
equipment that is used to thermally anneal the amorphous silicon. Compared to
the laser method, this technique is simpler and more cost effective.

Plasma torch annealing is attractive because the process parameters and

equipment dimension can be changed easily to yield varying levels of
performance. A high level of crystallization (~90%) can be obtained with this
method. Disadvantages include difficulty-achieving uniformity in the
crystallization of the film. While this method is applied frequently to silicon on a
glass substrate, processing temperatures may be too high for polymers.

3. SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER

3.1: IMPORTANCE OF SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER

The primary function of a charge controller in a stand-alone PV system is to

maintain the battery at highest possible state of charge while protecting it from

33
overcharge by the array and from overdischarge by the loads. Although some PV
systems can be effectively designed without the use of charge control, any
system that has unpredictable loads, user intervention, optimized or undersized
battery storage (to minimize initial cost) typically requires a battery charge
controller. The algorithm or control strategy of a battery charge controller
determines the effectiveness of battery charging and PV array utilization, and
ultimately the ability of the system to meet the load demands. Additional features
such as temperature compensation, alarms, meters, remote voltage sense leads
and special algorithms can enhance the ability
of a charge controller to maintain the health and extend the lifetime of a battery,
as well as providing an indication of operational status to the system caretaker.

Important functions of battery charge controllers and system controls are:

Prevent Battery Overcharge: to limit the energy supplied to the battery by the
PV array when the battery becomes fully charged.

Prevent Battery Over discharge: to disconnect the battery from electrical

loads when the battery reaches low state of charge.

Provide Load Control Functions: to automatically connect and disconnect an

electrical load at a specified time, for example operating a lighting load from
sunset to sunrise.

3.1.1: Overcharge Protection

A remote stand-alone photovoltaic system with battery storage is designed so

that it will meet the system electrical load requirements under reasonably
determined worst-case conditions, usually for the month ofthe year with the
lowest insolation to load ratio. When the array is operating under good-to-
excellent weather conditions (typically during summer), energy generated by the
array often exceeds the electrical load demand. To prevent battery damage
resulting from overcharge, a charge controller is used to protect the battery. A
charge controller should prevent overcharge of a battery regardless of the
system sizing/design and seasonal changes in the load profile, operating
temperatures and solar insolation.

Charge regulation is the primary function of a battery charge controller, and

perhaps the single most important issue related to battery performance and life.
The purpose of a charge controller is to supply power to the battery in a manner
which fully recharges the battery without overcharging. Without charge control,
the current from the array will flow into a battery proportional to the irradiance,
whether the battery needs charging or not. If the battery is fully charged,
unregulated charging will cause the battery voltage to reach exceedingly high
levels, causing severe gassing, electrolyte loss, internal heating and accelerated

34
grid corrosion. In most cases if a battery is not protected from overcharge in PV
system, premature failure
of the battery and loss of load are likely to occur.

Charge controllers prevent excessive battery overcharge by interrupting or

limiting the current flow from the array to the battery when the battery becomes
fully charged. Charge regulation is most often accomplished by limiting the
battery voltage to a maximum value, often referred to as the voltage regulation
(VR) set point.

Sometimes, other methods such as integrating the ampere-hours into and out of
the battery are used. Depending on the regulation method, the current may be
limited while maintaining the regulation voltage, or remain disconnected until the
battery voltage drops to the array reconnect voltage (ARV) set point.

3.1.2: Over discharge Protection

During periods of below average insolation and/or during periods of excessive

electrical load usage, the energy produced by the PV array may not be sufficient
enough to keep the battery fully recharged. When a battery is deeply discharged,
the reaction in the battery occurs close to the grids, and weakens the bond
between the active materials and the grids. When a battery is excessively
discharged repeatedly, loss of capacity and life will eventually occur. To protect
batteries from overdischarge, most charge controllers include an optional feature
to disconnect the system loads once the battery reaches a low voltage or low
state of charge condition.

In some cases, the electrical loads in a PV system must have sufficiently high
enough voltage to operate. If batteries are too deeply discharged, the voltage
falls below the operating range of the loads, and the loads may operate
improperly or not at all. This is another important reason to limit battery
overdischarge in PV systems.

Overdischarge protection in charge controllers is usually accomplished by open-

circuiting the connection between the battery and electrical load when the battery
reaches a pre-set or adjustable low voltage load disconnect (LVD) set point. Most
charge controllers also have an indicator light or audible alarm to alert the system
user/operator to the load disconnect condition. Once the battery is recharged to a
certain level, the loads are again reconnected to a battery.
Non-critical system loads are generally always protected from overdischarging
the battery by connection to the low voltage load disconnect circuitry of the
charge controller. If the battery voltage falls to a low but safe level, a relay can
open and disconnect the load, preventing further battery discharge. Critical loads
can be connected directly to the battery, so that they are not automatically
disconnected by the charge controller. However, the danger exists that these
critical loads might overdischarge the battery. An alarm or other method of user

35
feedback should be included to give information on the battery status if critical
loads are
connected directly to the battery.

Regulation or limiting the PV array current to a battery in a PV system may be

accomplished by several methods. The most popular method is battery voltage
sensing, however other methods such as amp hour integration are also
employed. Generally, voltage regulation is accomplished by limiting the PV array
current at a predefined charge regulation voltage. Depending on the regulation
algorithm, the current may be limited while maintaining the regulation voltage, or
remain disconnected until the battery voltage drops to the array
reconnect set point.

While the specific regulation method or algorithm vary among charge controllers,
all have basic parameters and characteristics. Charge controller manufacturer's
data generally provides the limits of controller application such as PV and load
currents, operating temperatures, parasitic losses, set points, and set point
hysteresis values. In some cases the set points may be dependent upon the
temperature of the battery and/or controller, and the magnitude of the battery
current.

3.2: Charge Controller Set Points

The battery voltage levels at which a charge controller performs control or

switching functions are called the controller set points. Four basic control set
points are defined for most charge controllers that have battery overcharge and
over discharge protection features. The voltage regulation (VR) and the array
reconnect voltage (ARV) refer to the voltage set points at which the array is
connected and disconnected from the battery. The low voltage load disconnect
(LVD) and load reconnect voltage (LRV) refer to the voltage set points at which
the load is disconnected from the battery to prevent over discharge. Figure 1
shows the basic controller set points on a simplified diagram plotting battery
voltage versus time for a charge and discharge cycle. A detailed discussion of
each charge controller set point follows.

36
 Controller set points

3.2.1: Voltage Regulation (VR) Set Point

The voltage regulation (VR) set point is one of the key specifications for charge
controllers. The voltage regulation set point is defined as the maximum voltage
that the charge controller allows the battery to reach, limiting the overcharge of
the battery. Once the controller senses that the battery reaches the voltage
regulation set point, the controller will either discontinue battery charging or begin
to regulate (limit) the amount of current delivered to the battery. In some
controller designs, dual regulation set points may be used. For example, a higher
regulation voltage may be used for the first charge cycle of the day to provide a
little battery overcharge, gassing and equalization, while a lower regulation
voltage is used on subsequent cycles through the remainder of the day to
effectively ‘float charge’ the battery.

Proper selection of the voltage regulation set point may depend on many factors,
including the specific battery chemistry and design, sizes of the load and array
with respect to the battery, operating temperatures, and electrolyte loss
considerations.

An important point to note about the voltage regulation set point is that the values
required for optimal battery performance in stand-alone PV systems are
generally much higher than the regulation or ‘float voltages’ recommended by
battery manufacturers. This is because in a PV system, the battery must be
recharged within a limited time period (during sunlight hours), while battery
manufacturers generally allow for much longer recharge times when determining

37
their optimal regulation voltage limits. By using a higher regulation voltage in PV
systems, the battery can be recharged in a shorter time period, however some
degree over overcharge and gassing will occur. The designer is faced selecting
the optimal voltage regulation set point that maintains the highest possible
battery state of charge without causing significant overcharge .

3.2.2: Array Reconnect Voltage (ARV) Set Point

In interrupting (on-off) type controllers, once the array current is disconnected at

the voltage regulation set point, the battery voltage will begin to decrease. The
rate at which the battery voltage decreases depends on many factors, including
the charge rate prior to disconnect, and the discharge rate dictated by the
electrical load. If the charge and discharge rates are high, the battery voltage will
decrease at a greater rate than if these rates are lower. When the battery voltage
decreases to a predefined voltage, the array is again reconnected to the battery
to resume charging. This voltage at which the array is reconnected is defined as
the array reconnect voltage (ARV) set point.

If the array were to remain disconnected for the rest of day after the regulation
voltage was initially reached, the battery would not be fully recharged. By
allowing the array to reconnect after the battery voltage reduces to a set value,
the array current will ‘cycle’ into the battery in an on-off manner, disconnecting at
the regulation voltage set point, and reconnecting at the array reconnect voltage
set point. In this way, the battery will be brought up to a higher state of charge by
‘pulsing’ the array current into the battery.

It is important to note that for some controller designs, namely constant-voltage

and pulse-width-modulated (PWM) types, there is no clearly distinguishable
difference between the VR and ARV set points. In these designs, the array
current is not regulated in a simple on-off or interrupting fashion, but is only
limited as the battery voltage is held at a relatively constant value through the
remainder of the day.

3.2.3: Voltage Regulation Hysteresis (VRH)

The voltage span or difference between the voltage regulation set point and the
array reconnect voltage is often called the voltage regulation hysteresis (VRH).
The VRH is a major factor, which determines the effectiveness of battery
recharging for interrupting (on-off) type controllers. If the hysteresis is to great,
the array current remains disconnected for long periods, effectively lowering the
array energy utilization and making it very difficult to fully recharge the battery. If
the regulation hysteresis is too small, the array will cycle on and off rapidly,
perhaps damaging controllers, which use electro-mechanical switching elements.

3.2.4: Low Voltage Load Disconnect (LVD) Set Point

38
Overdischarging the battery can make it susceptible to freezing and shorten it’s
operating life. If battery voltage drops too low, due to prolonged bad weather for
example, certain non-essential loads can be disconnected from the battery to
prevent further discharge. This can be done using a low voltage load disconnect
(LVD) device connected between the battery and non-essential loads. The LVD
is either a relay or a solid-state switch that interrupts the current from the battery
to the load, and is included as part of most controller designs. In some cases, the
low voltage load disconnect unit may be a separate unit from the
main charge controller.

In controllers or controls incorporating a load disconnect feature, the low voltage

load disconnect (LVD) set point is the voltage at which the load is disconnected
from the battery to prevent overdischarge. The LVD set point defines the actual
allowable maximum depth-of-discharge and available capacity of the battery
operating in a PV system. The available capacity must be carefully estimated in
the PV system design and sizing process using the actual depth of discharge
dictated by the LVD set point.

The proper LVD set point will maintain a healthy battery while providing the
maximum battery capacity and load availability. To determine the proper load
disconnect voltage, the designer must consider the rate at which the battery is
discharged. Because the battery voltage is affected by the rate of discharge, a
lower load disconnect voltage set point is needed for high discharge rates to
achieve the same depth of discharge limit. In general, the low discharge rates in
most small stand-alone PV systems do not have a significant effect on the
battery voltage. Typical LVD values used are between 11.0 and 11.5 volts, which
corresponds to about 75-90% depth of discharge for most nominal 12 volt lead-
acid batteries at discharge rates lower than C/30

3.3: CHARGE CONTROLLER DESIGNS

Two basic methods exist for controlling or regulating the charging of a battery
from a PV module or array - shunt and series regulation. While both of these
methods are effectively used, each method may incorporate a number of
variations that alter their basic performance and applicability. Simple designs
interrupt or disconnect the array from the battery at regulation, while more
sophisticated designs limit the current to the battery in a linear manner that
maintains a high battery voltage.

The algorithm or control strategy of a battery charge controller determines the

effectiveness of battery charging and PV array utilization, and ultimately the
ability of the system to meet the electrical load demands. Most importantly, the
controller algorithm defines the way in which PV array power is applied to the
battery in the system. In general, interrupting on-off type controllers require a

39
higher regulation set point to bring batteries up to full state of charge than
controllers that limit the array current in a gradual manner.

Some of the more common design approaches for charge controllers are
described in this section.

3.3.1: Shunt Controller Designs

Since photovoltaic cells are current-limited by design (unlike batteries), PV

modules and arrays can be short-circuited without any harm. The ability to short-
circuit modules or an array is the basis of operation for shunt controllers.

Figure 12 shows an electrical design of a typical shunt type controller. The shunt
controller regulates the charging of a battery from the PV array by short-circuiting
the array internal to the controller. All shunt controllers must have a blocking
diode in series between the battery and the shunt element to prevent the battery
from short-circuiting when the array is regulating. Because there is some voltage
drop between the array and controller and due to wiring and resistance of the
shunt element, the array is never entirely shortcircuited, resulting in some power
dissipation within the controller. For this reason, most shunt controllers require a
heat sink to dissipate power, and are generally limited to use in PV systems with
array currents
less than 20 amps.

Shunt controller
The regulation element in shunt controllers is typically a power transistor or
MOSFET, depending on the specific design. There are a couple of variations of
the shunt controller design. The first is a simple interrupting, or on-off type
controller design. The second type limits the array current in a gradual manner,
by increasing the resistance of the shunt element as the battery reaches full state
of charge.

Shunt-Interrupting Design

40
The shunt-interrupting controller completely disconnects the array current in an
interrupting or on-off fashion when the battery reaches the voltage regulation set
point. When the battery decreases to the array reconnect voltage, the controller
connects the array to resume charging the battery. This cycling between the
regulation voltage and array reconnect voltage is why these controllers are often
called ‘on-off’ or ‘pulsing’ controllers. Shunt-interrupting controllers are widely
available and are low cost, however they are generally limited to use in systems with array
currents less than 20 amps due to heat dissipation requirements.

Shunt-Linear Design

Once a battery becomes nearly fully charged, a shunt-linear controller maintains

the battery at near a fixed voltage by gradually shunting the array through a
semiconductor regulation element. In some designs, a comparator circuit in the
controller senses the battery voltage, and makes corresponding adjustments to
the impedance of the shunt element, thus regulating the array current. In other
designs, simple Zener power diodes are used, which are the limiting factor in the
cost and power ratings for these controllers. There is generally more heat
dissipation in shunt-linear controllers than in shunt-interrupting types.

3.3.2: Series Controller Designs

As the name implies, this type of controller works in series between the array and
battery, rather than in parallel as for the shunt controller. There are several
variations to the series type controller, all of which use some type of control or
regulation element in series between the array and the battery. While this type of
controller is commonly used in small PV systems, it is also the practical choice
for larger systems due to the current limitations of shunt controllers.

Figure 13 shows an electrical design of a typical series type controller. In a series

controller design, a relay or solid-state switch either opens the circuit between
the array and the battery to discontinuing charging, or limits the current in a
series-linear manner to hold the battery voltage at a high value. In the simpler
series interrupting design, the controller reconnects the array to the battery once
the battery falls to the array reconnect voltage set point. As these on-off charge
cycles continue, the ‘on’ time becoming shorter and shorter as the battery
becomes fully charged.

Because the series controller open-circuits rather than short-circuits the array as
in shunt-controllers, no blocking diode is needed to prevent the battery from
short-circuiting when the controller regulates.

41
 Series controller

Series-Interrupting Design

The most simple series controller is the series-interrupting type, involving a one-
step control, turning the array charging current either on or off. The charge
controller constantly monitors battery voltage, and disconnects or open-circuits
the array in series once the battery reaches the regulation voltage set point. After
a pre-set period of time, or when battery voltage drops to the array reconnect
voltage set point, the array and battery are reconnected, and the cycle repeats.
As the battery becomes more fully charged, the time for the battery voltage to
reach the regulation voltage becomes shorter each cycle, so the amount of array
current passed through to the battery becomes less each time. In this way, full
charge is approached gradually in small steps or pulses, similar in operation to
the shunt-interrupting type controller. The principle difference is the series or
shunt mode by which the array is regulated.

Similar to the shunt-interrupting type controller, the series-interrupting type

designs are best suited for use with flooded batteries rather than the sealed
VRLA types due to the way power is applied to the battery

Series-Interrupting, 2-step, Constant-Current Design

This type of controller is similar to the series-interrupting type, however when the
voltage regulation set point is reached, instead of totally interrupting the array
current, a limited constant current remains applied to the battery. This ‘trickle
charging’ continues either for a pre-set period of time, or until the voltage drops
to the array reconnect voltage due to load demand. Then full array current is
once again allowed to flow, and the cycle repeats. Full charge is approached in a
continuous fashion, instead of smaller steps as described
above for the on-off type controllers.

Series-Linear, Constant-Voltage Design

In a series-linear, constant-voltage controller design, the controller maintains the
battery voltage at the voltage regulation set point. The series regulation element

42
acts like a variable resistor, controlled by the controller battery voltage sensing
circuit of the controller. The series element dissipates the balance of the power
that is not used to charge the battery, and generally requires heat sinking. The
current is inherently controlled by the series element and the voltage drop across
it.
Series-linear, constant-voltage controllers can be used on all types of batteries.
Because they apply power to the battery in a controlled manner, they are
generally more effective at fully charging batteries than on-off type controllers.

Series-Interrupting, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Design

This algorithm uses a semiconductor-switching element between the array and

battery, which is, switched on/off at a variable frequency with a variable duty
cycle to maintain the battery at or very close to the voltage regulation set point.
Although a series type PWM design is discussed here, shunt-type PWM designs
are also popular and perform battery charging in similar ways. Similar to the
series-linear, constant-voltage algorithm in performance, power dissipation within
the controller is considerably lower in the series interrupting PWM design.

By electronically controlling the high speed switching or regulation element, the

PWM controller breaks the array current into pulses at some constant frequency,
and varies the width and time of the pulses to regulate the amount of charge
flowing into the battery. When the battery is discharged, the current pulse width is
practically fully on all the time. As the battery voltage rises, the pulse width is
decreased, effectively reducing the magnitude of the charge current.

The PWM design allows greater control over exactly how a battery approaches
full charge and generates less heat. PWM type controllers can be used with all
battery type, however the controlled manner in which power is applied to the
battery makes them preferential for use with sealed VRLA types batteries over
on-off type controls. To limit overcharge and gassing, the voltage regulation set
points for PWM and constant voltage controllers are generally specified lower
than those for on-off type controllers.

3.4: WORKING OF SOALR CHARGE CONTROLLER

When connecting a solar panel to a rechargeable battery, it is usually

necessary to use a charge controller circuit to prevent the battery from
overcharging and to avoid power wastage.

Solar charger controller is typically configured for a three stage charging process,
Bulk, Absorption and Float. The three-stage charge process provides a
somewhat higher charge voltage to charge the battery quickly and safely. Once
the battery is fully charged a somewhat lower voltage is applied maintain the
battery in a fully charged state without excessive water loss. The three stage

43
charge process charges the battery as quickly as possible while minimizing
battery water loss and maintenance.

Figure 1: Bulk charge curve

Bulk charge:
When charge starts the Solar charger controller attempts to apply the bulk
charge voltage to the battery. The system will switch to Bulk charge if the battery
is sufficiently discharged and/or insufficient charge current is available to drive
the battery up to the bulk voltage set point. During the Bulk charge stage the unit
delivers as much charge current as possible to rapidly recharge the battery.
Once the charge control system enters Absorption or Float, the unit will again
switch to Bulk charge if battery voltage drops below the present charge voltage
set point.
Absorption charge:
During this stage, the unit changes to a constant voltage mode where the
absorption voltage is applied to the battery. When charge current decreases to
the float transition current setting, the battery is fully charged and the unit
switches to the float stage.

Float charge:
During this stage, the float voltage is applied to the battery to maintain it in a fully
charged state. When battery voltage drops below the float setting for a
cumulative period, a new bulk cycle will be triggered.

The above charging process ensures that the battery is not overcharged thus
ensuring long life of operation. Recently developed charge controllers also use a
new technology called the maximum power point tracking that allows the charge
controller to keep of the maximum power voltage as operation conditions change
thus maximizing the output.

44
 Solar charge controller essentially uses the property of the PV cell being a
constant current type device as shown in fig 2.

3.5 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

3.5.1: Working of MPPT:

Maximum Power Point Tracking, frequently referred to as MPPT, is an electronic

system that operates the Photovoltaic (PV) modules in a manner that allows the
modules to produce all the power they are capable of. MPPT is not a mechanical
tracking system that “physically moves” the modules to make them point more
directly at the sun. MPPT is a fully electronic system that varies the electrical
operating point of the modules so that the modules are able to deliver maximum
available power. Additional power harvested from the modules is then made
available as increased battery charge current. MPPT can be used in conjunction
with a mechanical tracking system, but the two systems are completely different.

Feature:
The most outstanding feature of Maximum Power Point
Tracking controller is intelligent tracking input voltage from solar panel, which
could let solar panel always working at Maximum Power Point of V-A curve.
Compared with normal solar charge controller, this MPPT controller could
increase 10%-30% electrical power using efficiency from solar panel.

Function:
This MPPT controller is not only have above mentioned special function, at the
same time including completely Protecting and
Controlling functions:

Overcharge protection
Over-discharge protection
Battery Reverse Current Protection

45
Overloading Protection
Short Circuit Protection
Reverse Polarity Connection Protection

Schematic Diagram:
Picture 2 shows typical 12V battery solar charge system V-A curve.
Normal Solar Charge Controller:
Solar Panel works at point A state, the solar panel working voltage is a little
higher than battery voltage.
Charge Voltage: UA=13.2V Charge Current:: IA=9.8A
Charge Power: PA=13.2*9.8=129.36w
Area in drawing: ①＋③
MPPT Solar Charge Controller:
Solar Panel works at point B state, the solar panel working voltage much higher
than battery voltage.
Charge Voltage: UB=18.4V, Charge Current:: IB=9.3A
Charge Power: PB=18.4*9.3=171.12w
Area in drawing: ①＋②

Comparison: The power B is more than power A

△P/ PA =（PB— PA）/ PA＝32.3%
As a result of different manufacture of solar panels, different solar illumination
intensity, different temperature, different efficiency of solar charge controller and
so on. The effective power increase rate is 10-30%.

46
3.5.2: Hardware:

The MPPT consists of two basic components: a switch mode converter and
control section.

3.5.2.1 Switch Mode Converter

The switch-mode converter is the core of the entire supply. This allows energy at
one potential to be drawn, stored as magnetic energy in an inductor, and then
released at a different potential. By setting up the switch-mode section in various
different topologies, either high-to-low (buck converter) or low-to-high (boost)
voltage converters can be constructed. Normally, the goal of a switch-mode
power supply is to provide a constant output voltage or current. In power
trackers, the goal is to provide a fixed input voltage and/or current, such that the
array is held at the maximum power point, while allowing the output to match the
battery voltage.

3.5.2.2Control Section

The control section is designed to determine if the input is actually at the

maximum
power point by reading voltage/current back from the switching converter or from
the array terminal and adjust the switch-mode section such that it is. Depending
on the application, different feedback control parameters are needed to perform
maximum power tracking. Most commonly voltage and power feedback controls
are employed to control the system and hence to find the MPP of the array.

Voltage Feedback Control

The solar array terminal voltage is used as the control variable for the system.
The system keeps the array operating close to its maximum power point by
regulating the array’s voltage and matches the voltage of the array to a desired
voltage.

However, this has the following drawbacks:

a) The effects of the insolation and temperature of the solar array are neglected.
b) It cannot be widely applied to battery energy storage systems.

Therefore, this control is only suitable for use under constant insolation
conditions such as a satellite system, because it cannot automatically track the
maximum power point of the array when variations in insolation and temperature
occur.

47
Power Feedback Control

Maximum power control is achieved by forcing the derivative (dP/dV) to be equal

to zero under power feedback control. A general approach to power feedback
control is to measure and maximize the power at the load terminal. This has an
advantage of unnecessarily knowing the solar array characteristics. However,
this method maximizes power to the load not power from the solar array.
Although a converter with MPPT offers high efficiency over a wide range of
operating points, but for a bad converter, the full power may not be delivered to
the load due to power loss. Therefore, the design of a high performance
converter is a very importance issue.

3.5.2.3: Software

You can use many algorithms to perform MPPT. Some of the important factors to
consider when choosing a technique to perform MPPT are sensors used, ability
of an algorithm to detect multiple maxima, costs, and convergence speed.

Sensors Used:
For a large-scale application, the number of sensors you use can affect its
complexity and accuracy. Often, for more precise MPPT, you may need to use
more sensors. The number and type of sensors required depend largely on your
MPPT technique.
Ability of an Algorithm to Detect Multiple Local Maxima:

It is common for the irradiance levels at different points on a solar panel’s surface
to vary. This leads to multiple local maxima in one system. The efficiency and
complexity of an algorithm determine if the true maximum power point or a local
maximum power point is calculated. In the latter case, the maximum electrical
power is not extracted from the solar panel.

Costs:

The numbers of sensors as well as the type of hardware you use to monitor and
control the electrical tracking system affect the cost of implementing it. The type
of algorithm you use largely determines the resources required to set up this
application.

Convergence Speed:

For a high-performance MPPT system, the time taken to converge to the

required operating voltage or current should be low. Depending on how fast you
need to do this and your tracking system requirements, the system has to
accordingly maintain the load at the maximum power point.

48
A few popular and effective MPPT algorithms are described below.

There are many algorithms that are used to control the MPPT. The algorithms that
are most commonly used are the perturbation and observation method, dynamic
approach method and the incremental conductance algorithm.

Perturbation and Observation Method

Perturbation and Observation (P&O) method has a simple feedback structure and
Fewer measured parameters. It operates by periodically perturbing (i.e. incrementing
or decreasing) the array terminal voltage and comparing the PV output power with
that of the previous perturbation cycle. If the perturbation leads to an increase
(decrease) in array power, the subsequent perturbation is made in the same
(opposite) direction. In this manner, the peak power tracker continuously seeks the
peak power condition.

Flow chart of P&O algorithm

Modified Perturb and Observe

The P&O method implements a hill climbing technique, which works well in slow
changing
Environment but has some limitations under rapidly changing atmospheric
conditions [1]-[8]. The methods may lead to incorrect or slow maximum power
point tracking. To overcome such problems the MP&O method shown in Figure

49
2, isolates the fluctuations caused by the perturbation process from those caused
by the irradiance or weather change.

Flow chart of MP&O algorithm

This method adds an irradiance-changing estimate process in every perturb
process to measure the amount of power change caused by the change of
atmospheric condition.
Because the estimate process stops tracking maximum power point by keeping
the PV voltage constant, the tracking speed of MP&O method is only half of the
conventional P&O method.

Estimate, Perturb and Perturb:

The EPP algorithm was introduced in previous work by the authors in order to
improve the speed of the MP&O algorithm while keeping its main features. When
Compared with the MP&O algorithm, the EPP algorithm that uses one estimate
mode for every two perturb modes increases significantly the tracking speed of
the MPPT control, without reduction of the tracking accuracy.
Comparing with the MP&O algorithm, the EPP algorithm has a tracking speed of
1.5 times faster but has the same delay time between the estimate process and
the perturb process. Therefore the EPP algorithm has obvious advantages over
the MP&O algorithm.

50
Dynamic Approach Method:

This method employe the ripple at the array output to maximize the array power
by dynamically extrapolate the characteristic of the PV array. The instantaneous
behavior of array voltage v, current i and power p can be grouped into three
cases: current below that for the optimum power, current near the optimum and
current above the optimum [5]. The array performance is reflected in both shapes
and phase relationships. The product of the derivatives p’ and v’ is negative if the
current is below that for optimum power and positive if the current is above the
optimum and zero when the maximum power point is being tracked [5]. Since p’
v’ is a chain rule derivative, it is actually equal to dp/dv. This implies that by
driving dp/dv to zero, power will be effectively maximized.

Incremental Conductance Algorithm

This method uses the source incremental conductance method as its MPP
search
Algorithm. It is more efficient than Perturb and Observe method and independent
on
Device physics. The output voltage and current from the source are monitored
upon which the MPPT controller relies to calculate the conductance and
incremental conductance, and to make its decision (to increase or decrease duty
ratio output).

Mathematical of the Incremental Conductance algorithm is discussed below.

The output power from the source can be expressed as
P = VI----------------------------------------- (1)
The fact that P = V I and the chain rule for the derivative of products yields

dP/dV = d (V I) / dV
= I dV / dV + V dI / dV
= I + V dI / dV

(1/V) dP/dV = (I/V) + dI/dV----------------- (2)

Let’s define the source conductance:

G = I/V --------------------------------------- (3)
And the source incremental conductance:
G = dI/dV ---------------------------------- (4)

In general output voltage from a source is positive. Equation (2) explains that the
operating voltage is below the voltage at the maximum power point if the
conductance is larger than the incremental conductance, and vice versa. The job
of this algorithm is therefore to search the voltage operating point at which the
conductance is equal to the incremental conductance. These ideas are
expressed by equation (5), (6), (7), and graphically shown in Figure2.

51
dP/dV > 0, if G > G --------------------------(5)
dP/dV = 0, if G = G --------------------------(6)
dP/dV > 0, if G > G --------------------------(7)

The P-V curve

Flowchart for an Incremental Conductance Tracking System

52
3.6: PWM CHARGE CONTROLLER VS MPPT CHARGE
CONTROLLER

More modern charge controllers use pulse width modulation (PWM) to slowly
lower the amount of power applied to the batteries as the batteries get closer and
closer to fully charged.  This type of controller allows the batteries to be more
fully charged with less stress on the battery, extending battery life.  It can also
keep batteries in a fully charged state (called “float”) indefinitely.  PWM is more
complex, but doesn’t have any mechanical connections to break.

The most recent and best type of solar charge controller is called maximum
power point tracking or MPPT.  MPPT controllers are basically able to convert
excess voltage into amperage.  This has advantages in a couple of different
areas.

Most solar power systems use 12 volt batteries, like you find in cars.  (Some use
other voltages and the same advantages apply to these systems as well.)  Solar
panels can deliver far more voltage than is required to charge the batteries.  By,
in essence, converting the excess voltage into amps, the charge voltage can be
kept at an optimal level while the time required to fully charge the batteries is
reduced.  This allows the solar power system to operate optimally at all times.

Another area that is enhanced by an MPPT charge controller is power loss.

Lower voltage in the wires running from the solar panels to the charge controller
results in higher energy loss in the wires than higher voltage.  With a PWM
charge controller used with 12v batteries, the voltage from the solar panel to the
charge controller typically has to be 18v.  Using an MPPT controller allows much
higher voltages in the wires from the panels to the solar charge controller.  The
MPPT controller then converts the excess voltage into additional amps.  By
running higher voltage in the wires from the solar panels to the charge controller,
power loss in the wires is reduced significantly.

MPPT charge controllers are more expensive that PWM charge controllers, but
the advantages are worth the cost.

3.7: CHARGE CONTROLLER SELECTION

The selection and sizing of charge controllers and system controls in PV systems
involves the consideration of several factors, depending on the complexity and

53
control options required. While the primary function is to prevent battery
overcharge, many other functions may also be used, including low voltage load
disconnect, load regulation and control, control of backup energy sources,
diversion of energy to and auxiliary load, and system monitoring. The designer
must decide which options are needed to satisfy the requirements of a specific
application. The following list some of the basic considerations for selecting
charge controllers for PV systems.

1. System voltage
2. PV array and load currents
3. Battery type and size
4. Regulation algorithm and switching element design
5. Regulation and load disconnect set points
6. Environmental operating conditions
7. Mechanical design and packaging
8. System indicators, alarms, and meters
9. Over current disconnects and surge protection devices
10. Costs, warranty and availability

3.7.1: Sizing Charge Controllers

Charge controllers should be sized according to the voltages and currents

expected during operation of the PV system. The controller must not only be able
to handle typical or rated voltages and currents, but must also be sized to handle
expected peak or surge conditions from the PV array or required by the electrical
loads that may be connected to the controller. It is extremely important that the
controller be adequately sized for the intended application. If an undersized
controller is used and fails during operation, the costs of service and replacement
will be higher than what would have been spent on a controller that was initially
Oversized for the application.

Typically, we would expect that a PV module or array produces no more than its
rated maximum power current at 1000 W/m2 irradiance and 25 oC module
temperature. However, due to possible reflections from clouds, water or snow,
the sunlight levels on the array may be “enhanced” up to 1.4 times the nominal
1000 W/m2 value used to rate PV module performance. The result is that peak
array current could be 1.4 times the nominal peak rated value if reflection
conditions exist. For this reason, the peak array current ratings for charge
controllers should be sized for about 140% or the nominal peak maximum power
current ratings for the modules or array.

The size of a controller is determined by multiplying the peak rated current from
an array times this “enhancement” safety factor. The total current from an array is
given by the number of modules or strings in parallel, multiplied by the module
current. To be conservative, use the short-circuit current (Isc) is generally used

54
instead of the maximum power current (Imp). In this way, shunt type controllers
that operate the array at short-circuit current conditions are covered safely.

4. UN-INTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY

UPSis designed to provide un-interruptible power supply to critical load. The
system is supplied with a single phase mains power supply, which is rectified to
nominal DC voltage and used to drive inverter and charge a battery. In the event
of mains power failure, the battery will continue to supply the inverter for a period
of time to the load current.

Un-interruptible power supply comprises mainly of

1. Rectifier & battery charger

2. Battery
3. Inverter

1. Rectifier & battery charger:

The rectifier –battery charger transforms the alternating voltage of the mains to
DC supply to feed the inverter and charging the battery.the level of the DC
voltage is decided upon the number of batteries connected and the charging
current depends on the ampere hour (Ah) capacity of the battery.

55
2. Battery:
The battery stores DC energy and delivers the same to the inverter whenever the
main supply fails. Electrical energy is converted on to a chemical energy and it is
stored when in charging. Similarly the stored chemical energy is converted into
electrical energy while discharging. The backup duration depends on the
ampere hour capacity of the battery and the connected load.

3. Inverter:
The inverter charging changes the dc voltage from the rectifier or from the battery
in a single –phase sinusoidal alternating (AC) voltage for feeding the external
loads connected to it.

5. BATTERIES

5.1: GENERAL DESCRIPTION

To properly select batteries for use in stand-alone PV systems, it is important that

system designers have a good understanding of their design features,
performance characteristics and operational requirements. Because the demand
for energy does not always coincide with its production, electrical storage
batteries are commonly used in PV systems. The primary functions of a storage
battery in a PV system are to:

1. Energy Storage Capacity and Autonomy: to store electrical energy when it is

produced by the PV array and to supply energy to electrical loads as needed or
on demand.

2. Voltage and Current Stabilization: to supply power to electrical loads at

stable voltages and currents, by suppressing or 'smoothing out' transients that
may occur in PV systems.

3. Supply Surge Currents: to supply surge or high peak operating currents to

electrical loads or appliances.

5.1.1: Battery Design and Construction:

56
Battery manufacturing is an intensive, heavy industrial process involving the use
of hazardous and toxic materials. Batteries are generally mass produced,
combining several sequential and parallel processes to construct a complete
battery unit. After production, initial charge and discharge cycles are conducted
on batteries before they are shipped to distributors and consumers.

Some important components of battery construction are described below.

Cell:
The cell is the basic electrochemical unit in a battery, consisting of a set of
positive and negative plates divided by separators, immersed in an electrolyte
solution and enclosed in a case. In a typical leadacid battery, each cell has a
nominal voltage of about 2.1 volts, so there are 6 series cells in a nominal 12 volt
battery. Figure 1 shows a diagram of a basic lead-acid battery cell.

Active Material:
The active materials in a battery are the raw composition materials that form the
positive and negative plates, and are reactants in the electrochemical cell. The
amount of active material in a battery is proportional to the capacity a battery can
deliver. In lead-acid batteries, the active materials are lead dioxide (PbO2) in the
positive plates and metallic sponge lead (Pb) in the negative plates, which react
with a sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution during battery operation.

Electrolyte:
The electrolyte is a conducting medium, which allows the flow of current through
ionic transfer, or the transfer of electrons between the plates in a battery. In a
lead-acid battery, the electrolyte is a diluted sulfuric acid solution, either in liquid
(flooded) form, gelled or absorbed in glass mats. In flooded nickel cadmium cells,
the electrolyte is an alkaline solution of potassium hydroxide and water. In most
flooded battery types, periodic water additions are required to replenish the
electrolyte lost through gassing. When adding water to batteries, it is very
important to use distilled or de-mineralized water, as even the impurities
in normal tap water can poison the battery and result in premature failure.

Grid:
In a lead-acid battery, the grid is typically a lead alloy framework that supports
the active material on a battery plate, and which also conducts current. Alloying
elements such as antimony and calcium are often used to strengthen the lead
grids, and have characteristic effects on battery performance such as cycle
performance and gassing. Some grids are made by expanding a thin lead alloy
sheet into a flat plate web, while others are made of long spines of lead with the
active material plated around them forming tubes, or what are referred to as
tubular plates.

57
Plate:
A plate is a basic battery component, consisting of a grid and active material,
sometimes called an electrode. There are generally a number of positive and
negative plates in each battery cell, typically connected in parallel at a bus bar or
inter-cell connector at the top of the plates. A pasted plate is manufactured by
applying a mixture of lead oxide, sulfuric acid, fibers and water on to the grid. The
thickness of the grid and plate affect the deep cycle performance of a battery. In
automotive starting or SLI type batteries, many thin plates are used per cell. This
results in maximum surface area for delivering high currents, but not much
thickness and mechanical durability for deep and prolonged discharges. Thick
plates are used for deep cycling applications such as for forklifts, golf carts and
other electric vehicles. The
thick plates permit deep discharges over long periods, while maintaining good
adhesion of the active material to the grid, resulting in longer life.

Separator:
A separator is a porous, insulating divider between the positive and negative
plates in a battery, used to keep the plates from coming into electrical contact
and short-circuiting, and which also allows the flow of electrolyte and ions
between the positive and negative plates. Separators are made from micro

58
porous rubber, plastic or glass-wool mats. In some cases, the separators may be
like an envelope, enclosing the entire plate and preventing shed materials from
creating short circuits at the bottom of the plates.

Element:
In element is defined as a stack of positive and negative plate groups and
separators, assembled together with plate straps interconnecting the positive and
negative plates.

Terminal Posts:
Terminal posts are the external positive and negative electrical connections to a
battery.

A battery is connected in a PV system and to electrical loads at the terminal

posts. In a lead-acid battery the posts are generally lead or a lead alloy, or
possibly stainless steel or copper-plated steel for greater corrosion resistance.
Battery terminals may require periodic cleaning, particularly for flooded designs.
It is also recommended that the clamps or connections to battery terminals be
secured occasionally as they may loosen over time.

Cell Vents:
During battery charging, gasses are produced within a battery that may be
vented to the atmosphere. In flooded designs, the loss of electrolyte through gas
escape from the cell vents it a normal occurrence, and requires the periodic
addition of water to maintain proper electrolyte levels. In sealed, or valve-
regulated batteries, the vents are designed with a pressure relief mechanism,
remaining closed under normal conditions, but opening during higher than normal
battery pressures, often the result of overcharging or high temperature operation.
Each cell of a complete battery unit has some type of cell vent.

Flame arrestor vent caps are commonly supplied component on larger, industrial
battery systems. The venting occurs through a charcoal filter, designed to contain
a cell explosion to one cell, minimizing the potential for a catastrophic explosion
of the entire battery bank.

Case:
Commonly made from a hard rubber or plastic, the case contains the plates,
separators and electrolyte in a battery. The case is typically enclosed, with the
exception of inter-cell connectors which attach the plate assembly from one cell
to the next, terminal posts, and vents or caps which allow gassing products to
escape and to permit water additions if required. Clear battery cases or
containers allow for easy monitoring of electrolyte levels and battery plate
condition. For very large or tall batteries, plastic cases are often supported with
an external metal or rigid plastic casing.

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5.1.2: Battery Types and Classifications

Many types and classifications of batteries are manufactured today, each with
specific design and performance characteristics suited for particular applications.
Each battery type or design has its individual strengths and weaknesses. In PV
systems, lead-acid batteries are most common due to their wide availability in
many sizes, low cost and well understood performance characteristics. In a few
critical, low temperature applications nickel-cadmium cells are used, but their
high initial cost limits their use in most PV systems. There is no “perfect battery”
and it is the task of the PV system designer to decide which battery type is most
appropriate for each application.
In general, electrical storage batteries can be divided into to major categories,
primary and secondary batteries.
Primary Batteries:
Primary batteries can store and deliver electrical energy, but cannot be
recharged. Typical carbon-zinc and lithium batteries commonly used in consumer
electronic devices are primary batteries. Primary batteries are not used in PV
systems because they cannot be recharged.
Secondary Batteries:
A secondary battery can store and deliver electrical energy, and can also be
recharged by passing a current through it in an opposite direction to the
discharge current. Common lead-acid batteries used in automobiles and PV
systems are secondary batteries. Table 1 lists common secondary battery types
and their characteristics which are of importance to PV system designers .

Table 1. Secondary Battery Types and Characteristics

Lead-Acid Battery Classifications

Many types of lead-acid batteries are used in PV systems, each having specific
design and performance characteristics. While there are many variations in the
design and performance of lead-acid cells, they are often classified in terms of
one of the following three categories.

SLI Batteries

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Starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) batteries are a type of lead-acid battery
designed primarily for shallow cycle service, most often used to power
automobile starters. These batteries have a number of thin positive and negative
plates per cell, designed to increase the total plate active surface area. The large
number of plates per cell allows the battery to deliver high discharge currents for
short periods. While they are not designed for long life under deep cycle service,
SLI batteries are sometimes used for PV systems in developing countries where
they are the only type of battery locally manufactured. Although not
recommended for most PV applications, SLI batteries may provide up to two
years of useful service in small stand-alone PV systems where the average daily
depth of discharge is limited to 10-20%, and the maximum allowable depth of
discharge is limited to 40-60%.
Motive Power or Traction Batteries:
Motive power or traction batteries are a type of
lead acid battery designed for deep discharge cycle service, typically used in
electrically operated vehicles and equipment such as golf carts, fork lifts and floor
sweepers. These batteries have a fewer number of plates per cell than SLI
batteries; however the plates are much thicker and constructed more durably.
High content lead-antimony grids are primarily used in motive power batteries to
enhance deep cycle performance. Traction or motive power batteries are very
popular for use in PV systems due to their deep cycle capability, long life and
durability of design.
Stationary Batteries:
Stationary batteries are commonly used in un-interruptible
power supplies (UPS) to provide backup power to computers, telephone
equipment and other critical loads or devices. Stationary batteries may have
characteristics similar to both SLI and motive power batteries, but are generally
designed for occasional deep discharge, limited cycle service. Low water loss
lead-calcium battery designs are used for most stationary battery applications, as
they are commonly float charged continuously.

Lead-Acid Battery Chemistry

Now that the basic components of a battery have been described, the overall
electrochemical operation of a battery can be discussed. Referring to Figure 10-
1, the basic lead-acid battery cell consists of sets positive and negative plates,
divided by separators, and immersed in a case with an electrolyte solution. In a
fully charged lead-acid cell, the positive plates are lead dioxide (PbO2), the
negative plates are sponge lead (Pb), and the electrolyte is a diluted sulfuric acid
solution. When a battery is connected to an electrical load, current flows from the
battery as the active materials are converted to lead sulfate (PbSO4).

Lead-Acid Cell Reaction

The following equations show the electrochemical reactions for the lead-acid cell.
During battery discharge, the directions of the reactions listed goes from left to
right. During battery charging, the direction of the reactions are reversed, and the

61
reactions go from right to left. Note that the elements as well as charge are
balanced on both sides of each equation.

At the positive plate or electrode:

PbO2 + HSO4- + 3 H+ + 2 e →PbSO4 +H2O

On the negative electrode

Pb + HSO4- →PbSO4 + H+ + 2 e-

Overall reaction:
Pb + PbO2 + 2 H+ + 2 HSO4- →2 PbSO4 + 2 H2O

As the battery is discharged, the active materials PbO2 and Pb in the positive
and negative plates, respectively, combine with the sulfuric acid solution to form
PbSO4 and water. Note that in a fully discharged battery the active materials in
both the positive and negative plates are converted to PbSO4, while the sulfuric
acid solution is converted to water.

Battery Strengths and Weaknesses:

Each battery type has design and performance features suited for particular
applications. Again, no one type of battery is ideal for a PV system applications.
The designer must consider the advantages and disadvantages of different
batteries with respect to the requirements of a particular application. Some of the
considerations include lifetime, deep cycle performance, tolerance to high
temperatures and overcharge, maintenance and many others. The following
table summarizes some of the key characteristics of the different battery types
discussed in the preceding section.

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5.2: Battery Selection Criteria

A Battery system design and selection criterion involves many decisions and
trade offs. Choosing the right battery for a PV application depends on many
factors. While no specific battery is appropriate for all PV applications, common
sense and a careful review of the battery literature with respect to the particular
application needs will help the designer narrow the choice. Some decisions on
battery selection may be easy to arrive at, such as physical properties, while
other decisions will be much more difficult and may involve making tradeoffs
between desirable and undesirable battery features. With the proper application
of this knowledge, designers should be able to differentiate among battery types
and gain some application experience with batteries they are familiar with. Table
summarizes some of the considerations in battery selection and design.

Type of system and mode of operation

Charging characteristics; internal resistance
Required days of storage (autonomy)
Amount and variability of discharge current
Maximum allowable depth of discharge
Daily depth of discharge requirements

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Accessibility of location
Temperature and environmental conditions
Cyclic life and/or calendar life in years
Maintenance requirements
Sealed or unsealed
Self-discharge rate
Maximum cell capacity
Energy storage density
Size and weight
Gassing characteristics
Susceptibility to freezing
Susceptibility to sulfation
Electrolyte concentration
Availability of auxiliary hardware
Terminal configuration
Reputation of manufacturer
Cost and warranty.

In the individual case, the selection of battery depends upon very many factors
and will be influenced by system management and climatic conditions. The
special requirements made of the battery in operation can be broadly classified
according to the operating time per year, the type of loads ( high or low power
drain) and the number of cycles per week. However, it is still difficult to make
generalizations about which battery type is best for which typical applications, as
the basic conditions (such as cost, housing capabilities, maintenance capabilities
and reliability requirements) can be deciding factors.

Batteries for use in a pv stand-alone system should have the following features:

1. Good Price/ Performance ratio

2. Low maintenance requirements
3. Sufficiently long service life
4. Low self-discharging and high energy efficiency
5. Can be charged with small charge currents
6. High energy and power density (space requirement and weight )
7. Vibration resistant (Mobile use or for transportation)
8. Protection against health and environmental hazards, Recyclable.

No storage type fulfills all the stated requirements to the same extent. It has
to be decided which are the most important properties, according to the
respective application.

In sporadically used stationary systems (holiday home, weekend home and

summer house), a simple solar battery with fluid electrolyte meets the
requirements for the PV accumulator and is an excellent choice. It is cost
effective, has low maintenance and achieves a long service life if it is generously

64
dimensioned. If it can be housed in a protected location, it is safe against
external damage and spillage of acid.

In the use of systems, that are used all year around, the service life of solar and
gel batteries is not sufficient. In this case, the use of stationary batteries of block
batteries , type can be recommended.

When purchasing batteries, it should also be ensured that the manufacturers

specifications listed below are available.

1. Capacity specification with the associated discharge: Since manufacturers

base the nominal capacities on different discharge times at the very least the
C10 and C100 values for the 10- and 100- hour power discharge should be
specified in order to be able to compare various products.

2. Nominal acid density, acid volume or weight

3. A graph or table showing the cycle resilience or the expected service life in
years, in relation to the discharge depth. With the aid of this information, it is
possible to tell which the most cost-effective product is.

In general, transparent housings should be preferred as they enable better visual

checking with regard to acid level, sedimentation, corrosion of terminals. Sealed
batteries however, are not available with transparent housings.

5.3: FACTORS EFFECTING BATTERY PERFORMANCE:

5.3.1: Temperature Effects:

For an electrochemical cell such as a battery, temperature has important effects

on performance. Generally, as the temperature increases by 10o C the rate of an
electrochemical reaction doubles, resulting in statements from battery
manufacturers that battery life decreases by a factor of two for every 10o C
increase in average operating temperature. Higher operating temperatures
accelerate corrosion of the positive plate grids, resulting in greater gassing and
electrolyte loss. Lower operating temperatures generally increase battery life.
However, the capacity is reduced significantly at lower temperatures, particularly
for lead-acid batteries. When severe temperature variations from room
temperatures exist, batteries are located in an insulated or other temperature-

65
regulated enclosure to minimize battery temperature swings .

Temperature effects on battery life

5.3.2: Corrosion

The electrochemical activity resulting from the immersion of two dissimilar

metals in an electrolyte, or the direct contact of two dissimilar metals causing one
material to undergo oxidation or lose electrons and causing the other material to
undergo reduction, or gain electrons. Corrosion of the grids supporting the active
material in a battery is an ongoing process and may ultimately dictate the
battery's useful lifetime. Battery terminals may also experience corrosion due to
the action of electrolyte gassing from the battery, and generally require periodic
cleaning and tightening in flooded lead-acid types. Higher temperatures and the
flow of electrical current between two dissimilar metals accelerates the corrosion
Process.

5.3.3: Battery Gassing

Gassing occurs in a battery during charging when the battery is nearly fully
charged. At this point, essentially all of the active materials have been converted
to their fully charged composition and the cell voltage rises sharply. The gas
products are either recombined internal to the cell as in sealed or valve regulated
batteries, or released through the cell vents in flooded batteries. In general, the
overcharge or gassing reaction in batteries is irreversible, resulting in water loss.
However in sealed lead-acid cells, an internal recombinant process permits the
reforming of water from the hydrogen and oxygen gasses generated under
normal charging conditions, allowing the battery to be sealed and requiring no
electrolyte maintenance. All gassing reactions consume a portion of the charge
current which can not be delivered on the subsequent discharge, thereby
reducing the battery charging efficiency.

66
The onset of gassing in a lead-acid cell is not only determined by the cell voltage,
but the temperature as well. As temperatures increase, the corresponding
gassing voltage decreases for a particular battery. Regardless of the charge rate,
the gassing voltage is the same, however gassing begins at a lower battery state
of charge at higher charge rates. The grid design, whether lead-antimony or lead-
calcium also affects gassing.

The charge regulation voltage, or the maximum voltage that a charge controller
allows a battery to reach in operation plays an important part in battery gassing.
Charge controllers are used in photovoltaic power systems to allow high rates of
charging up to the gassing point, and then limit or disconnect the PV current to
prevent overcharge. The highest voltage that batteries are allowed to reach
determines in part how much gassing occurs. If charge regulation voltages in a
typical PV system were set at the manufacturer’s recommended float voltage, the
batteries would never be fully charged.

5.3.4: Sulfation

Sulfation is a normal process that occurs in lead-acid batteries resulting from

prolonged operation at partial states of charge. Even batteries which are
frequently fully charged suffer from the effects of sulfation as the battery ages.
The sulfation process involves the growth of lead sulfate crystals on the positive
plate, decreasing the active area and capacity of the cell. During normal battery
discharge, the active materials of the plates are converted to lead sulfate. The
deeper the discharge, the greater the amount of active material that is converted
to lead sulfate. During recharge, the lead sulfate is converted back into lead
dioxide and sponge lead on the positive and negative plates, respectively. If the
battery is recharged soon after being discharged, the lead sulfate converts easily
back into the active materials.However, if a lead-acid battery is left at less than
full state of charge for prolonged periods (days or weeks), the lead sulfate
crystallizes on the plate and inhibits the conversion back to the active materials
during recharge. The crystals essentially “lock away” active material and prevent
it from reforming into lead and lead dioxide, effectively reducing the capacity of
the battery. If the lead sulfate crystals grow too large, they can cause physical
damage to the plates. Sulfation also leads to higher internal resistance within the
battery, making it more difficult to recharge. Sulfation is a common problem
experienced with lead-acid batteries in many PV applications. As the PV array is
sized to meet the load under average conditions, the battery must sometimes be
used to supply reserve energy during periods of excessive load usage or below
average insolation. As a consequence, batteries in most PV systems normally
operate for some length of time over the course of a year at partial states of
charge, resulting in some degree of sulfation. The longer the period and greater
the depth of discharge, the greater the extent of sulfation.

To minimize sulfation of lead acid batteries in photovoltaic systems, the PV array

is generally designed to recharge the battery on the average daily conditions
during the worst insolation month of the year. By sizing for the worst month’s

67
weather, the PV array has the best chance of minimizing the seasonal battery
depth of discharge. In hybrid systems using a backup source such as a generator
or wind turbine, the backup source can be effectively used to keep the batteries
fully charged even if the PV array cannot. In general, proper battery and array
sizing, as well as periodic equalization charges can minimize the onset of
sulfation.

5.3.5: Stratification

Stratification is a condition that can occur in flooded lead-acid batteries in which

the concentration or specific gravity of the electrolyte increases from the bottom
to top of a cell. Stratification is generally the result of undercharging, or not
providing enough overcharge to gas and agitate the electrolyte during finish
charging. Prolonged stratification can result in the bottom of the plates being
consumed, while the upper portions remaining in relatively good shape, reducing
battery life and capacity. Tall stationary cells, typically of large capacity, are
particularly prone to stratification when charged at low rates. Periodic
equalization charges thoroughly mix the electrolyte and can prevent stratification
problems.

5.4: Battery Auxiliary Equipment

Battery auxiliary equipment includes any systems or other hardware necessary to
safely and effectively operate a battery system. Some of the more important
battery auxiliary systems and equipment are discussed below.

5.4.1: Enclosures

Batteries are generally required by local electrical codes and safety standards to
be installed in an enclosure separated from controls or other PV system
components. The enclosure may also be insulated, or may have active or
passive cooling/heating mechanisms to protect the batteries from excessive
temperatures. Battery enclosures must be of sufficient size and strength hold the
batteries, and can be located below ground if needed to prevent freezing. If the
enclosure is located above ground, care should be taken to limit the direct
exposure to sunlight, or some type of shading or reflective coating should be
provided.

5.4.1.1: Passive Cooling Enclosures

We have shown that temperature is a critical factor affecting battery performance

and life expectancy. Any actions taken by the system designer to reduce
temperature swings will be rewarded with better battery performance, longer life,
and lower maintenance.

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One approach to moderating the influence of ambient temperature swings on
battery temperature is the use of passive cooling enclosures, without the need for
active components such as motors, fans or air conditioners. The use of active
temperature regulation means generally requires additional electrical power, and
adds unnecessarily to the complexity, size and cost of the PV system. By using a
thermodynamically passive approach, maximum benefits are gained with minimal
complexity and maximum reliability – key features of any PV system installation.

5.4.1.2: Ventilation

Batteries often produce toxic and explosive mixtures of gasses, namely

hydrogen, and adequate ventilation of the battery enclosure is required. In most
cases, passive ventilation techniques such as vents or ducts may be sufficient. In
some cases, fans may be required to provide mechanical ventilation. Required
air change rates are based on maintaining minimum levels of hazardous gasses
in the enclosure. Under no circumstances should batteries be kept in an
unventilated area or located in an area frequented by personnel.

5.4.1.3: Catalytic Recombination Caps

A substitute for standard vented caps on lead-antimony batteries, catalytic

recombination caps (CRCs) primary function is to reduce the electrolyte loss from
the battery. CRCs contain particles of an element such as platinum or palladium,
which surfaces adsorb the hydrogen generated from the battery during finishing
and overcharge. The hydrogen is then recombined with oxygen in the CRC to
form water, which drains back into the battery. During this recombination
process, heat is released from the CRCs as the combination of hydrogen and
oxygen to form water is an exothermic process. This means that temperature
increases in CRCs can be used to detect the onset of gassing in the battery. If
CRCs are found to be at significantly different temperatures during recharge
(meaning some cells are gassing and others are not), an equalization charge
may be required. The use of CRCs on open-vent, flooded lead-antimony
batteries has proven to reduce electrolyte loss by as much as 50% in subtropical
climates.

5.5: BATTERY SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Due to the hazardous materials and chemicals involved, and the amount of
electrical energy which they store, batteries are potentially dangerous and must
be handled and used with caution. Typical batteries used in stand-alone PV
systems can deliver up to several thousand amps under short-circuit conditions,
requiring special precautions. Depending on the size and location of a battery
installation, certain safety precautions are be required.

69
5.5.1: Handling Electrolyte

The caustic sulfuric acid solution contained in lead-acid batteries can destroy
clothing and burn the skin. For these reasons, protective clothing such as aprons
and face shields should be worn by personnel working with batteries. To
neutralize sulfuric acid spills or splashes on clothing, the spill should be rinsed
immediately with a solution of baking soda or household ammonia and water. For
nickel-cadmium batteries, the potassium hydroxide electrolyte can be neutralized
with a vinegar and water solution. If electrolyte is accidentally splashed in the
eyes, the eyes should be forced open and flooded with cool clean water for
fifteen minutes. If acid electrolyte is taken internally, drink large quantities of
water or milk, followed by milk of magnesia, beaten eggs or vegetable oil. Call a
physician immediately.

If it is required that the electrolyte solution be prepared from concentrated acid

and water, the acid should be poured slowly into the water while mixing. The
water should never be poured into the acid. Appropriate nonmetallic funnels and
containers should be used when mixing and transferring electrolyte solutions.

5.5.2: Personnel Protection

When performing battery maintenance, personnel should wear protective clothing

such as aprons, ventilation masks, goggles or face shields and gloves to protect
from acid spills or splashes and fumes. If sulfuric acid comes into contact with
skin or clothing, immediately flush the area with a solution of baking soda or
ammonia and water. Safety showers and eye washes may be required where
batteries are located in close access to personnel. As a good practice, some type
of fire extinguisher should be located in close proximity to the battery area if
possible. In some critical applications, automated fire sprinkler systems may be
required to protect facilities and expensive load equipment. Jewelry on the hands
and wrists should be removed, and properly insulated tools should be used to
protect against inadvertent battery short-circuits.

5.5.3: Dangers of Explosion

During operation, batteries may produce explosive mixtures of hydrogen and

oxygen gasses. Keep spark, flames, burning cigarettes, or other ignition sources
away from batteries at all times. Explosive gasses may be present for several
hours after a battery has been charged. Active or passive ventilation techniques
are suggested and often required, depending on the number of batteries located
in an enclosure and their gassing characteristics. The use of battery vent caps
with a flame arrester feature lowers the possibility of a catastrophic battery
explosion. Improper charging and excessive overcharging may increase the
possibility of battery explosions. When making and breaking connections to a
battery from a charging source or electrical load, ensure that the charger or load
is switched off as to not create sparks or arcing during the connection.

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5.5.4: Battery Disposal and Recycling

Batteries are considered hazardous items as they contain toxic materials such as
lead, acids and plastics which can harm humans and the environment. For this
reason, laws have been established which dictate the requirements for battery
disposal and recycling. In most areas, batteries may be taken to the local landfill,
where they are in turn taken to approved recycling centers. In some cases,
battery manufacturers provide guidelines for battery disposal through local
distributors, and may in fact recycle batteries themselves. Under no
circumstances should batteries be disposed of in landfills, or the electrolyte
allowed to seep into the ground, or the battery burned.

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6: ECONOMY OF SOLAR BASED UNINTERRUPTED
POWER SUPPLY
The energy payback time of a power generating system is the time required to
generate as much energy as was consumed during production of the system. In
2000 the energy payback time of PV systems was estimated as 8 to 11 years
and in 2006 this was estimated to be 1.5 to 3.5 years for crystalline silicon PV
systems and 1-1.5 years for thin film technologies.

Another economic measure, closely related to the energy payback time, is the
energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) which is the ratio of electricity
generated divided by the energy required to build and maintain the equipment.
(This is not the same as the economic return on investment (EROI), which varies
according to local energy prices, subsidies available and metering techniques.)
With lifetimes of at least 30 years, the EROEI of PV systems are in the range of
10 to 30, thus generating enough energy over their lifetimes to reproduce
themselves many times (6-31 reproductions) depending on what type of material,
balance of system (BOS), and the geographic location of the system.

6.1 Power costs:

The PV industry is beginning to adopt levelized cost of energy (LCOE) as the unit
of cost. For a 10 MW plant in Phoenix, AZ, the LCOE is estimated at $0.15 to
0.22/kWh in 2005.

The table below is a pure mathematical calculation. It illustrates the calculated

total cost in US cents per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated by a photovoltaic
system as function of the investment cost and the efficiency, assuming some
accounting parameters such as cost of capital and depreciation period. The row
headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kWp), of a
photovoltaic installation. The column headings across the top refer to the annual
energy output in kilowatt-hours expected from each installed peak kilowatt. This
varies by geographic region because the average insolation depends on the
average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It
also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon.

Panels can be mounted at an angle based on latitude, or solar tracking can be

utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total
energy output. The calculated values in the table reflect the total cost in cents per
kilowatt-hour produced. They assume a 10% total capital cost (for instance 4%
interest rate, 1% operating and maintenance cost, and depreciation of the capital
outlay over 20 years).

Physicists have claimed that recent technological developments bring the cost of
solar energy more in parity with that of fossil fuels. In 2007, David Faiman, the
director of the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center of Israel, announced

72
that the Center had entered into a project with Zenith Solar to create a home
solar energy system that uses a 10 square meter reflector dish. In testing, the
concentrated solar technology proved to be up to five times more cost effective
than standard flat photovoltaic silicon panels, which would make it almost the
same cost as oil and natural gas. A prototype ready for commercialization
achieved a concentration of solar energy that was more than 1,000 times greater
than standard flat panels.

6.2 Grid parity:

Grid parity, the point at which photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than
grid power, is achieved first in areas with abundant sun and high costs for
electricity such as in California and Japan.

Grid parity has been reached in Hawaii and other islands that otherwise use
fossil fuel (diesel fuel) to produce electricity, and most of the US is expected to
reach grid parity by 2015.

General Electric's Chief Engineer predicts grid parity without subsidies in sunny
parts of the United States by around 2015. Other companies predict an earlier
date the cost of solar power will be below grid parity for more than half of
residential customers and 10% of commercial customers in the OECD, as long
as grid electricity prices do not decrease through 2010.

The fully loaded cost (cost not price) of solar electricity is $0.25/kWh or less in
most of the OECD countries. By late 2011, the fully loaded cost is likely to fall
below $0.15/kWh for most of the OECD and reach $0.10/kWh in sunnier regions.
These cost levels are driving three emerging trends:

1. vertical integration of the supply chain;

2. origination of power purchase agreements (PPAs) by solar power
companies;
3. Unexpected risk for traditional power generation companies, grid
operators and wind turbine manufacturers.

Abengoa Solar has announced the award of two R&D projects in the field of
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) by the US Department of Energy that total
over $14 million. The goal of the DOE R&D program, working in collaboration
with partners such as Abengoa Solar, is to develop CSP technologies that are
competitive with conventional energy sources (grid parity) by 2015.
Concentrating photovoltaics (CPV) could reach grid parity in 2011.

Due to the growing demand for photovoltaic electricity, more companies enter
into this market and lower cost of the photovoltaic electricity would be expected.

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 7. WORKING OF SOLAR BASED UN-INTERRUPTED
POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM

7.1: TYPES OF PV SYSTEM

Photovoltaic power systems are generally classified according to their functional and
operational requirements, their component configurations, and how the equipment is
connected to other power sources and electrical loads. The two principal classifications
are grid-connected or utility-interactive systems and stand-alone systems. Photovoltaic
systems can be designed to provide DC and/or AC power service, can operate
interconnected with or independent of the utility grid, and can be connected with other
energy sources and energy storage systems.

7.1.1: GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS:

Grid-connected or utility-interactive PV systems are designed to operate in

parallel with and interconnected with the electric utility grid. The primary
component in grid-connected PV systems is the inverter, or power conditioning
unit (PCU). The PCU converts the DC power produced by the PV array into AC
power consistent with the voltage and power quality requirements of the utility
grid, and automatically stops supplying power to the grid when the utility grid is
not energized. A bi-directional interface is made between the PV system AC
output circuits and the electric utility network, typically at an on-site distribution
panel or service entrance. This allows the AC power produced by the PV system
to either supply on-site electrical loads, or to back-feed the grid when the PV
system output is greater than the on-site load demand. At night and during other
periods when the electrical loads are greater than the PV system output, the
balance of power required by the loads is received from the electric utility This
safety feature is required in all grid-connected PV systems, and ensures that the
PV system will not continue to operate and feed back into the utility grid when the
grid is down for service or repair.

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 Figure 1. Diagram of grid-connected photovoltaic system

Grid-Intertied Solar-Electric Systems with Battery Backup

Array DC disconnect:
The DC disconnect is used to safely interrupt the flow of electricity from the PV array. It’s
an essential component when system maintenance or troubleshooting is required.
The disconnect enclosure houses an electrical switch rated for use in DC circuits. It also
may integrate either circuit breakers or fuses, if needed.

Charge Controller: A charge controller’s primary function is to protect your

battery bank from overcharging. It does this by monitoring the battery bank—
when the bank is fully charged, the controller interrupts the flow of electricity from
the PV panels. Batteries are expensive and pretty particular about how they like
to be treated. To maximize their life span, you’ll definitely want to avoid

75
overcharging or undercharging them. Most modern charge controllers
incorporate maximum power point tracking (MPPT), which optimizes the PV
array’s output, increasing the energy it produces. Some battery based charge
controllers also include a low-voltage disconnect that prevents over discharging,
which can permanently damage the battery bank.

Battery Bank:
When there is no power supply from the grid, the power stored in the battery
bank is used for supplying the loads connected to the system. The batteries are
to be chosen carefully considering the performance characteristics of the other
equipment connected to the system like inverters.
System meter: System meters measure and display several different aspects of
your solar-electric system’s performance and status, tracking how full battery
bank is; how much electricity your solar panels are producing or have produced;
and how much electricity is in use..

Main DC disconnect:
In battery-based systems, a disconnect between the batteries and inverter is required.
This disconnect is typically a large, DC-rated breaker mounted in a sheetmetal
enclosure. This breaker allows the inverter to be quickly disconnected from the batteries
for service, and protects the inverter-to-battery wiring against electrical fires.

Inverter:
The feeding of electricity into the grid requires the transformation of DC into AC
by a special, grid-controlled inverter.
In kW sized installations the DC side system voltage is as high as permitted
(typically 1000V except US residential 600V) to limit ohmic losses. Most modules
(72 crystalline silicon cells) generate about 160W at 36 volts. It is sometimes
necessary or desirable to connect the modules partially in parallel rather than all
in series. One set of modules connected in series is known as a 'string'

Grid connected inverter

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On the AC side, these inverters must supply electricity in sinusoidal form,
synchronized to the grid frequency, limit feed in voltage to no higher than the grid
voltage including disconnecting from the grid if the grid voltage is turned off.

On the DC side, the power output of a module varies as a function of the voltage
in a way that power generation can be optimized by varying the system voltage
to find the 'maximum power point'. Most inverters therefore incorporate
'maximum power point tracking'.
The inverters are designed to connect to one or more strings.

AC Breaker Panel & Inverter AC Disconnect :

The AC breaker panel is the point at which all of a home’s electrical wiring meets with
the “provider” of the electricity, whether that’s the grid or a solar-electric system.

Kilowatt- Hour Meter:

Most homes with a grid-tied solar electric system will have AC electricity both coming
from and going to the electric utility grid. A bidirectional KWH meter can simultaneously
keep track of how much electricity flows in each of the two directions.

In some countries, for installations over 30kWp a frequency and a voltage monitor with
disconnection of all phases is required
For safety reasons a circuit breaker is provided both on the AC and DC side to enable
maintenance. The AC output usually goes through across an electricity meter into the
public grid.

Using grid-connected PV power can have economic as well as environmental

advantages. Where utility power is available, consumers can use a grid-connected PV
system to supply some of the power they need and use utility-generated power at night
and on very cloudy days. When the PV system supplies power to the grid as well as to a
specific building or piece of equipment, the utility becomes a kind of storage device or
battery for PV-generated power.

7.1.2: STAND ALONE PV SYSTEMS:

Stand-alone PV systems are designed to operate independent of the electric

utility grid, and are generally designed and sized to supply certain DC and/or AC
electrical loads. These types of systems may be powered by a PV array only, or

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may use wind, an engine-generator or utility power as an auxiliary power source
in what is called a PV hybrid system. The simplest type of stand-alone PV
system is a direct-coupled system, where the DC output of a PV module or array
is directly connected to a DC load (Figure 5). Since there is no electrical energy
storage (batteries) in direct-coupled systems, the load only operates during
sunlight hours, making these designs suitable for common applications such as
ventilation fans, water pumps, and small circulation pumps for solar thermal
water heating systems. Matching the impedance of the electrical load to the
maximum power output of the PV array is a critical part of designing well-
performing direct-coupled system. For certain loads such as positive
displacement water pumps, a type of electronic DC-DC converter, called a
maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is used between the array and load to help
better utilize the available array maximum power output.

In many stand-alone PV systems, batteries are used for energy storage. The
following figure shows a diagram of a typical stand-alone PV system powering
DC and AC loads. Shows how a typical PV hybrid system might be configured.

Diagram of stand-alone PV system with battery storage powering DC and AC loads

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 Diagram of photovoltaic hybrid system

WORKING OF STAND ALONE SYSTEMS:

As said above the direct coupled system does not use an energy storage system in
between the pv array and the load. Hence it is capable of supplying to the load only
during the day hours when there is sunlight available. The working here is quite simple.
The sunlight is converted to electrical energy by the pv array, which is directly supplied
to the load. If the load is ac, then a converter might have to be used. In order to
maximize the power transfer from the array to the load impedance matching is to be
optimized. This is explained below:

Load matching factor:

This is defined as the ratio of the load energy to the array maximum energy in a one day
period. It is used as a measure for load matching of the pv array. Optimum matching of
parameters can be done by carefully selecting the array parameters with respect to the
load parameters. The temperature of the array has little effect on the optimum matching
factor. However the optimum matching parameters are greatly affected by the array
temperature. A battery of selected parameters can be included if the load characteristics
results in poor matching performance. Matching the impedance of the electrical load to
the maximum power output of the PV array is a critical part of designing well-performing
direct-coupled system. Because this influences the power transfer power transfer
between the pv array and the load connected directly as for the maximum power to take
place between the source and load which is the main requirement in a pv system,
transfer of maximum power.

Several studies were conducted for optimum load matching and it’s characteristics with
different loads.

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It was found out that Resistive loads are optimized by selecting the load rate power,
voltage and resistance with respect to those of the array. The optimum matching can be
as high as 94.34% at 25 C.

Electrolytic loads are found compatible with the array. The optimum matching factor is
99.83% at 25C. This can be achieved by carefully selecting the number of series and
parallel cells of the array with respect to those of the electrolyte so that the internal emf
and resistance of the load are close to the optimum values. The optimum values of
power and voltage must be reduced with the increase of the array operating temperature
at approximately the same rate as Pmax and Vmax.

Several models were developed for finding the optimum load matching factor are
developed.

STAND ALONE PV SYSTEMS (SAPV) vs THERMAL:

A comparison between stand alone systems economy and thermal power

economy is presented in the tabular form below:

s.no Functions SAPV ( Thermal (

million ) million )
1 Installation cost of 17 104.35 12 274.44
Power Plants

2 Transmission and Nil 5521.45

distribution

3 Production cost Nil 5809.37

Cost comparison of SAPV panels versus conventio

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8. APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGE:

1. Saves you money

 After the initial investment has been recovered, the energy from the sun is
practically FREE.
 The recovery/ payback period for this investment can be very short
depending on how much electricity consumption.
 Financial incentives are available form the government that will reduce
cost.
 If the system produces more energy than usage, utility company can buy it
from user, building up a credit on the user account. This is called net
metering.
 It will save money on the user’s electricity bill.
 Solar energy does not require any fuel.
 It's not affected by the supply and demand of fuel and is therefore not
subjected to the increasing price of conventional sources of energy.
 The savings are immediate and for many years to come.
 The use of solar energy indirectly reduces health costs.

2. Environmentally friendly

 Solar Energy is clean, renewable (unlike gas, oil and coal) and
sustainable, helping to protect our environment.
 It does not pollute our air by releasing carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide,
sulphur dioxide or mercury into the atmosphere like many traditional forms
of electrical generations does.
 Therefore Solar Energy does not contribute to global warming, acid rain or
smog.
 It actively contributes to the decrease of harmful green house gas
emissions.
 It's generated when it is needed.
 By not using any fuel, Solar Energy does not contribute to the cost and
problems of the recovery and transportation of fuel or the storage of
radioactive waste.

3. Independent/ semi-independent

 Solar Energy can be utilized to offset utility-supplied energy consumption.

It does not only reduce your electricity bill, but will also continue to supply
your home/ business with electricity in the event of a power outage.
 A Solar Energy system can operate entirely independent, not requiring a
connection to a power or gas grid at all. Systems can therefore be
installed in remote locations (like holiday log cabins), making it more

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 practical and cost-effective than the supply of utility electricity to a new
site.
 The use of Solar Energy reduces our dependence on foreign and/or
centralized sources of energy, influenced by natural disasters or
international events and so contributes to a sustainable future.
 Solar Energy supports local job and wealth creation, fuelling local
economies.

4. Low/ no maintenance

 Solar Energy systems are virtually maintenance free and will last for
decades.
 Once installed, there are no recurring costs.
 They operate silently, have no moving parts, do not release offensive
smells and do not require you to add any fuel.
 More solar panels can easily be added in the future when your family's
needs grow.

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