Found Ary

Foundry Technology
Sub-Topics of Foundry Technology:

2.1.1 Patterns practices:
Types of patterns, allowances and material used for
patterns.
2.1.2 Molding materials, molding sands, Molding
sands properties and sand testing; grain fineness;
moisture content, clay content and permeability test.
2.1.3 Core materials and core making, core print; core
boxes, chaplets, gating system design.
2.1.4 Molding practices: Green, dry and loam sand
molding, pit and floor molding; shell molding;
permanent molding; carbon dioxide molding.
Sub-Topics of Foundry Technology:
2.2 Casting practices:
2.2.1 Fundamental of metal casting, Sand casting, Shell-Mold
casting, Mold casting (plaster and ceramic), Investment
casting, Vacuum casting, Permanent mould casting, Slush
casting, Pressure casting, Die casting, Centrifugal casting,
Continuous casting, Squeeze casting, Casting alloys.
2.2.2 Casting defects.
2.2.3 Design of casting, Gating system design, and riser design.
2.2.4 Melting furnaces-rotary, Pit electric, Tilting and cupola.
2.2.5 Metallurgical considerations in casting elements of gating
system, and risers and their design.
Metal Casting Introduction:
Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods
known.
Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold made using
pattern with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to
solidify.
When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the
mold either by breaking the mold or taking the mold apart.
The solidified object is called the casting.
By this process, intricate parts can be given strength and
rigidity frequently not obtainable by any other manufacturing
process.
The mold, into which the metal is poured, is made of some heat
resisting material.
Sand is most often used as it resists the high temperature of the
molten metal.
Permanent molds of metal can also be used to cast products.
Metal Casting:
Metal Casting Advantages:
Molten material can flow into very small sections so that
intricate shapes can be made by this process. As a result, many
other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can
be minimized or eliminated.
It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or
non-ferrous.
As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large
saving in weight can be achieved.
The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple
and inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small lot, it is
the ideal process.
There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can
only be processed this way.
Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting
process.
Metal Casting Limitations:
Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the
castings made by sand casting processes are a
limitation to this technique. Many new casting
processes have been developed which can take into
consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy
and surface finish, some of these processes are die
casting process, investment casting process,
vacuum-sealed molding process, and shell
molding process.
The metal casting process is a labor intensive

process
Metal Casting History:
3200 B.C. A copper frog, the oldest known casting
in existence, is cast in Mesopotamia.
233 B.C. Cast iron plowshares are poured in China.
500 A.D. Cast crucible steel is first produced in

India, but the process is lost until 1750, when
Benjamin Huntsman reinvents it in England.
1455 Dillenburg Castle in Germany is the first to use

cast iron pipe to transport water.
1480 Birth of Vannoccio Biringuccio (1480-1539),
the "father of the foundry industry," in Italy. He is
the first man to document the foundry process in
writing.
1709 Englishman Abraham Darby creates the first
true foundry flask for sand and loam molding.
1750 Benjamin Huntsman reinvents the process of

cast crucible steel in England. This process is the
first in which the steel is completely melted,
producing a uniform composition within the melt.
Since the metal is completely molten, it also
allows for alloy steel production, as the additional
elements in the alloy can be added to the crucible
during melting. Prior steel production was
accomplished by a combination of forging and
tempering, and the metal never reached a molten
state.
1809 Centrifugal casting is developed by A. G.

Eckhardt of Soho, England.
1896 American Foundrymen's Association (renamed
American Foundrymen's Society in 1948 and now
called the American Foundry Society) is formed.
1897 Investment casting is rediscovered by B.F.

Philbrook of Iowa. He uses it to cast dental inlays.
1947 The Shell process, invented by J. Croning of

Germany during WWII, is discovered by U.S. officials
and made public.
1953 The Hotbox system of making and curing cores in

one operation is developed, eliminating the need for
dielectric drying ovens.
1958 H.F. Shroyer is granted a patent for the full mold
process, the forerunner of the expendable pattern (lost
foam) casting process.
1968 The Coldbox process is introduced by L. Toriello
and J. Robins for high production core making.
1971 The Japanese develop V-Process molding. This
method uses unbonded sand and a vacuum.
1971 Rheocasting is developed at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.
1996 Cast metal matrix composites are first used in a
production model automobile in the brake rotors for the
Lotus Elise.
Metal Casting History (India):
3000 BC Earliest castings include the 11 cm high
bronze dancing girl found at Mohen-jo-daro.
2000 BC Iron pillars, arrows, hooks, nails, bowls and
daggers or earlier have been found in Delhi, Roopar,
Nashik and other places.
500 BC Large scale state-owned mints and jewelry
units, and processes of metal extraction and alloying
have been mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra
500 A.D. Cast crucible steel is first produced in India,
but the process is lost until 1750, when Benjamin
Huntsman reinvents it in England
Casting Terms:
Figure : Mold Section showing some casting terms

Casting Terms:
1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in
which the mold is formed. Depending upon the position of the
flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various names
such as drag - lower molding flask, cope - upper molding flask,
cheek - intermediate molding flask used in three piece molding.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold
cavity is made with the help of pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding
flasks that makes up the mold.
4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its
permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay,
and moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material
sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold cavity to give a better
surface finish to the castings.
Casting Terms:
6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally
baked, which is used to create openings and various shaped
cavities in the castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the
mold into which the molten metal is poured.
8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the
pouring basin, reaches the mold cavity. In many cases it
controls the flow of metal into the mold.
9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is
carried from the sprue to the gate.
10.Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the
mold cavity.
11.Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the
mold cavity to take care of its own weight and overcome the
metallostatic force.
12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed
the castings as it shrinks and solidifies. Also known as "feed
head".
13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air
and gases.
Steps in Making Sand Castings:
Patternmaking
Core making
Molding
Melting and pouring
Cleaning
Work flow in typical sand-casting foundries
Steps of sand casting process:
Steps in Making Sand Castings:
Pattern making
The pattern is a physical model of the casting used to
make the mold. The mold is made by packing some
readily formed aggregate material, such as molding
sand, around the pattern. When the pattern is
withdrawn, its imprint provides the mold cavity, which
is ultimately filled with metal to become the casting. If
the casting is to be hollow, as in the case of pipe
fittings, additional patterns, referred to as cores, are
used to form these cavities.
Core making
Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are
placed into a mold cavity to form the interior surfaces
of castings. Thus the void space between the core and
mold-cavity surface is what eventually becomes the
casting.
2.1.1 Patterns practices:
Types of patterns,
Pattern allowances and
Material used for patterns.

Patterns:
Definition of a Pattern
A pattern is a form of wood, metal, or other suitable
material around which molding material is packed to
produce the mold cavity.
Fig. View in a pattern

shop. (Courtesy of Allis-
Chalmers Mfg. Co.)
Patterns:
Functions of the Pattern
1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of
making a casting.
2. A pattern may contain projections known as core
prints if the casting requires a core and need to be made
hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten
metal in the mold cavity may form a part of the pattern.
4. Patterns properly made and having finished and
smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall
cost of the castings.
Patterns:
A pattern differs from a finished cast part and from the
original drawing in four essential ways.
1. An allowance is added to the pattern to compensate
for metal contraction.
2. An allowance may be added to certain details to
provide for machining and other finishing requirements.
3. An allowance, called pattern taper or draft, is usually
made on vertical sides to facilitate removal of the
pattern from the sand.
4. Projections, called core prints, may be present which
form recesses in the sand for the location and support of
cores.
Patterns:
Types of patterns:
Pattern types may depend on a utilitarian classification.
a. Patterns are those which are complete in themselves and
not dependent on any rigging or mounting. They may be
single, split, or loose-piece in construction, depending on size
and details.
b. Gated patterns are those which have an added detail
designed to form the gate and runner. Often several patterns
are held together with this gating device.
c. Match-plate or mounted patterns are those which have
been fastened to a plate and equipped to fit a given flask size
and type. They may include cope and drag portions mounted
on opposite sides of one plate; or the cope portion may be
mounted on one plate and the drag portion mounted on
another plate.
d. Other miscellaneous pattern types include those with
follow boards, sweep patterns, and skeleton patterns, often
used for special jobs.
Types of Patterns:
Solid or Single piece Pattern
Split Pattern
Match Plate Pattern
Gated Pattern
Cope and Drag Pattern
Loose Piece Pattern
Skeleton Pattern
Sweep Pattern
Left hand and Right hand Pattern
Shell Pattern
Segmental Pattern
Follow Board Pattern
Types of Patterns:
Solid or Single Piece Pattern:

A single or solid piece pattern is made with out joints,
loose pieces or partings.
It has usually one board surface that serves as a parting
surface in the mould.
This type of pattern is used for a limited number of
castings because most of the molding operations like
providing runners and risers, withdrawal of pattern etc.
is done by hand.
Soil temper glands of steam engines are made by solid
or single piece pattern.
Types of Patterns:
Fig. Portion of a large skeleton pattern under

construction. (Courtesy of Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co.)
Types of Patterns:
Types of Patterns:
o Split Pattern:
o This type of pattern is used when the pattern if made is single
piece will give rise to withdrawal difficulty from the mould.
o Split pattern consists of two pieces; one half of the pattern
rests in the drag (lower part of the molding box) and the other
half in the cope (upper part of the molding box).
o The split patterns are commonly used for the casting of steam
valve bodies, small pulleys, wheels and cylinders etc.
Types of Patterns:
Match Plate Pattern
It is split pattern in which the cope and drag portions are
mounted on side of a plate, called match plate, conforming to the
parting line.
The associated gating and rising system, is usually made and
then mounted on match plate, but can be cast integrally with the
size of the match plate corresponds to the size of the flask used
to make mould.
Multiple patterns of small parts can be mounted on a single
match plate can often be shared by the multiple patterns on the
match plate. In features can be added to the cope and drag sides
of the match plate to accurate alignment of the cope and drag
mould halves after removal of the pattern.
Match plate pattern are used for moderate to high volume prod
small and medium size castings with considerable dimensional
accuracy.
Types of Patterns:
Match plate pattern are used for moderate to high
volume production of small and medium size castings
with considerable dimensional accuracy.
Types of Patterns:
Gated Pattern
The gated pattern is used for mass production.
For small castings, multi cavity moulds are prepared
i.e. single moulds carry a number of cavities. Each
pattern may be provided with a gate pattern with it
examples are Vice Handle, Nuts and bolts etc.
Types of Patterns:
o Cope and Drag Pattern:

o When large cavities are to be manufactured, the
moulds are to be very heavy to handle.
o Separate pieces of pattern are made on a
convenient joint line and mounted on boards with
slots and holes provided with easier fittings.
o This arrangement helps the molder to work on
each piece separately.
o This ensures higher strength and durability.
Types of Patterns: Cope and Drag Pattern:
Types of Patterns:
Loose Piece Pattern:
The loose piece pattern are
needed when the casting is
such that the pattern cannot
be removed as one piece,
even though the pattern is
split and the parting line is
made on more than one
plane.
In loose piece pattern the
main pattern is removed
first, then the Small loose
piece is removed.
Types of Patterns:
Skeleton Pattern:
For large castings pattern would require a considerable
amount of timber for fully solid pattern.
In such cases the pattern is made of wooden frame and rib
construction so that it will form an exterior or interior outline
of casting, this framework is known as skeleton.
The gaps between ribs and frame are filled with molding sand,
the shape is obtained by using strickle board.
Skeleton patterns are generally employed for symmetrical
castings.
Castings, which are generally made by making bodies, pipe
bends, water pipes and boxes.
Types of Patterns:
Sweep Pattern:
Uniform moulds and cores are shaped by sweep
pattern.
The sweep pattern consists of a wooden board
having a shape corresponding to the shape of desired
casting.
It is arranged to rotate about a central axis.

The sand is rammed and the board is made to rotate
to get the desired shape mould.
Sweep pattern is used for manufacturing of circular
parts.
This method is very economical since no actual
pattern is needed and the pattern costs are kept at
minimum eliminating expensive pattern construction.
Types of Patterns: Sweep Pattern:
Types of Patterns: Follow board pattern:
A follow board is a wooden board and is used for
supporting a pattern which is very thin and fragile and
which may give way and collapse under pressure when
the sand above the pattern is being rammed.
With the follow board support under the weak
pattern, the drag is rammed, and then the fallow board
is with drawn, The rammed drag is inverted, cope is
mounted on it and rammed.
During this operation pattern remains over the
inverted drag and get support from the rammed sand of
the drag under it.
Follow boards are also used for casting master
patterns for many applications.
Types of Patterns: Follow board pattern:
Types of Patterns:
Segmental Patterns:
These patterns are used for preparing molds of larger
size circular casting, avoiding use of solid pattern of
exact size.
In principle they are similar to sweep patterns , but
deference is the sweep pattern is given continuous
revolving motion to generate the desired shape while a
segmental pattern is a portion of a solid pattern itself
and a mold is prepared in parts by it.
It is mounted on a central pivot and after preparing the
part mold in one position, the segment is moved to the
next position . The operation is repeated till complete
mold is ready.
Types of Patterns:
Pattern allowances
Pattern Allowances:
The variation in the size of a pattern compared to
the final casting, because it carries certain
allowances due to
Metallurgical considerations
Example: Shrinkage allowance is the result of
metallurgical phenomenon.
Mechanical considerations
Example: Machining, draft, distortion, shake and
other allowances are due to mechanical reasons.
Types of Pattern Allowances:
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance.
2. Machining or finish allowance.
3. Draft of tapper allowances.
4. Distortion or chamber allowance.
5. Shake or rapping allowance.
6. Wall movement allowance.

Shrinkage Allowance:
All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on
cooling.
The metal shrinkage is of three types:
1. Liquid Shrinkage:
It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal cools from
pouring temperature to liquidous / solidus state.
2. Solidifying Shrinkage:
It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes
from liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature.
These shrinkages described in 1 &2 will be taken care by
gating system & riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting.
2. Solid Shrinkage:
It refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state.
To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the
patterns.
Shrinkage Allowance (Cont..):
Almost all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically after
solidification and therefore the pattern to obtain a particular
sized casting is made oversize by an amount equal to that of
shrinkage or contraction.
Different metals shrink at different rates because shrinkage is
the property of the cast metal / alloy.
The metal shrinkage depends upon:
1. The cast metal or alloy.
2. Pouring temp. of the metal/alloy.
3. Casted dimensions(size).
4. Casting design aspects.
5. Molding conditions(i.e., mould materials and molding

methods employed)
Shrinkage Allowance (Cont..):
The contraction of metals/alloys is always volumetric, but the

contraction allowances are always expressed in linear measures.
Machining Allowance:
A Casting is given an allowance for machining,
because:
i. Castings get oxidized in the mold and during heat

treatment; scales etc., thus formed need to be
removed.
ii. It is the intended to remove surface roughness and

other imperfections from the castings.
iii. It is required to achieve exact casting dimensions.
iv. Surface finish is required on the casting.

Machining Allowance (Cont..):
How much extra metal or how much machining
allowance should be provided, depends on the factors
listed below:
i. Nature of metals.
ii. Size and shape of casting.
iii. The type of machining operations to be employed for

cleaning the casting.
iv. Casting conditions.
v. Molding process employed.

Machining Allowance (Cont..):
Machining Allowances of Various Metals:
Draft or Taper Allowance:
It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting line.
Draft allowance is given so that the pattern can be
easily removed from the molding material tightly
packed around it with out damaging the mould cavity.
The amount of taper depends upon:
i. Shape and size of pattern in the depth direction in
contact with the mould cavity.
ii. Molding methods.
iii. Mold materials.
iv. Draft allowance is imparted on internal as well as
external surfaces; of course it is more on internal
surfaces.
Draft or Taper Allowance:
The taper provided by the pattern maker on all
vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it can be removed
from the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand
mold and without excessive rapping by the molder.
Figure (a) shows a pattern having no draft
allowance being removed from the pattern. In this case,
till the pattern is completely lifted out, its sides will
remain in contact with the walls of the mold, thus
tending to break it.
Figure (a) Pattern

having no draft
on vertical
edges.
Draft or Taper Allowance (Cont..):
Figure (b) is an illustration of a pattern having proper draft
allowance. Here, the moment the pattern lifting commences,
all of its surfaces are well away from the sand surface.
Thus the pattern can be removed without damaging the mold
cavity.
Fig: taper in design

Distortion or cambered allowance:
o A casting will distort or wrap if :
i. It is of irregular shape,
ii. All it parts do not shrink uniformly i.e., some parts shrinks
while others are restricted from during so,
iii. It is u or v-shape,
iv. The arms possess unequal thickness,
v. It has long, rangy arms as those of propeller strut for the ship,
vi. It is a long flat casting,
vii. One portion of the casting cools at a faster rate as compared to
the other.
Distortion or cambered allowance (Cont..):
Distortion or cambered allowance (Cont..):
Shake allowance:
A patter is shaken or rapped by striking the same
with a wooden piece from side to side. This is done
so that the pattern a little is loosened in the mold
cavity and can be easily removed.
In turn, therefore, rapping enlarges the mould cavity
which results in a bigger sized casting.
Hence, a ve allowance is provided on the pattern
i.e., the pattern dimensions are kept smaller in order
to compensate the enlargement of mould cavity due
to rapping.
The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced
by increasing the tapper.
Wall movement Allowance:
The walls of the mold cavity may move due to
followings:
a. When mold is under rammed while packing sand and
molten metal is poured the hydro-static pressure of liquid
metal causes mold cavity walls to get compressed and
cavity get enlarged. This is negative (ve) allowance.
b. If plaster of paris is used as mold material, it gets
expanded during curing operation and make mold cavity
smaller.
Fillets:
Sharp edges and corners are to be avoided so these are filled
with fillets of wood or paste or such materials. The change in
cross sectional area should be smooth, there also chmpher or
arc is provided to avoid defects and stress concentration.
Pattern Layout:
Steps involved:
Get the working drawing of the part for which the
pattern is to be made.
Make two views of the part drawing on a sheet, using
a shrink rule. A shrink rule is modified form of an
ordinary scale which has already taken care of
shrinkage allowance for a particular metal to be cast.
Add machining allowances as per the requirements.
Depending upon the method of molding, provide the
draft allowance.
Pattern Construction:
Study the pattern layout carefully and establish,
a. Location of parting surface.
b. No. of parts in which the pattern will be made.
Using the various hand tools and pattern making

machines fabricate the different parts of the pattern.
Inspect the pattern as regards the alignment of different
portions of the pattern and its dimensional accuracy.
Fill wax in all the fillets in order to remove sharp
corners.
Give a shellac coatings(3 coats) to pattern.
Impart suitable colors to the pattern for identification
purposes and for other information.
Pattern Colors:
o Patterns are imparted certain colors
and shades in order to:
i. Identify quickly the main body of pattern and
different parts of the pattern.
ii. Indicate the type of the metal to be cast.
iii. Identify core prints, loose pieces, etc.,
iv. Visualize the surfaces to be machined, etc.

Pattern Colors:
The patterns are normally painted with contrasting
colors such that the mould maker would be able to
understand the functions clearly.
The color code used is,
1. Red or orange on surface not to be finished and left as
cast
2. Yellow on surfaces to be machined
3. Black on core prints for un-machined openings
4. Yellow stripes on black on core prints for machined
openings
5. Green on seats of and for loose pieces and loose core
prints
6. Diagonal black strips with clear varnish on to
strengthen the weak patterns or to shorten a casting.
Patterns:
Pattern types may depend on a simple materials
classification.
a. Some patterns of the utilitarian type may be made of

wood. Both soft- and hardwoods, such as Norwegian
pine, mahogany, and cherry, are used.
b. Some patterns, especially those intended for long

production and machine applications, are made of
cer-tain metallic alloys. Aluminum, magnesium, copper,
and ferrous alloys may be used.
c. Some patterns may be made of anyone of the several

plastics.
Pattern Materials:
Patterns may be constructed from the following
materials. Each material has its own advantages,
limitations, and field of application.
Some materials used for making patterns are:
Wood,
Metals and alloys,
Plastic,
Plaster of Paris,
Plastic and rubbers,
Wax, and resins.
Pattern Materials:
To be suitable for use, the pattern material should
be:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined
2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in
temperature and humidity
7. Available at low cost.
Patterns:
Selection of Pattern materials:
1. The selection of pattern material depends on number or
quantity of castings to be produced, both at first and in future
orders. This is largely related to economic factors.
2. Pattern material for castings up to 600 mm on the major
dimension may be selected according to the following
production criteria:
Production Material
1 99 Wood (soft or hard) patterns and core
boxes
100 499 Hardwood or metal patterns and core
boxes
500 and up Metal patterns and core boxes
It is common procedure to reinforce or face wood patterns
and core boxes with metal at localized wear points in place
of using a metal pattern or box.
Patterns:
3. Some important pattern-materials characteristics are
compared in the following table to illustrate
problems of selection:
Pattern allowances and factors involved:
1. Patternmaker's shrinkage is an allowance added to
the pattern to compensate for the metal contraction
occurring during cooling after solidification. All
metals except bismuth and gallium shrink.
a. The amount of contraction varies with the

composi-tion of the metallic alloy.
b. Contraction takes place in direct proportion to

the drop in temperature while the alloy is still
molten.
Pattern allowances and factors involved:
2. Some of the typical cast alloys and the approximate
shrinkage allowance used for each.
a. Gray iron commonly contracts 10 mm per meter
of dimension.
b. Steel commonly contracts 20 mm per meter, or
twice as much as cast iron.
c. Malleable iron commonly has a net contraction of
10 mm per meter. When cast as white iron it
contracts 6 mm, but subsequent heat-treatment
(annealing) causes an expansion-resulting in the net
contraction given above.
d. Aluminum and magnesium alloys commonly
Molding materials
2.1.2 Molding materials:
o Molding sands,
o Molding sands properties and sand testing;
o Grain fineness;
o Moisture content,
o Clay content and

Molding sands:
Major production of castings is in sand molds.
About 4 to 5 tons of molding sand may be required to

produce 1 ton of castings.
Poor molding sand ------ poor castings.
Attention to preparing, controlling, handling, and

properly using the sand.
Several different types of molding sands are used.
Usually green sand.

Molding sands:
Composition of molding sand:
o Molding sands are mixtures of three or more
ingredients.
o A green sand contains
Principal sand constituent, SiO2.
Binder such as clay
Water
o These three components provide the bulk and

plasticity required of the molding sand.
o Other materials may be added to the sand
Sand:
o Sand is defined as the granular particles resulting
from the breakdown of rocks.
o Granular particles of sand, SiO2, principally,

comprise 50 to 95 percent of the total material in a
moulding sand.
o The rest being the other oxides such as alumina,

sodium ( Na2O + K2O ) and magnesium oxide (MgO
+ CaO).
o These impurities should be minimized to about 2

% since they affect the fusion point of the silica
Sand (Cont..):
o In different molding sands, the sand particles may
differ in the following ways:
1. Average grain size( micrometer to millimeter),
2. Grain size distribution, (Grain sizes range from less than

53 microns to as large as 3,360 microns.
3. Grain shape( round, sub-angular, angular, very angular)
4. Chemical composition
5. Refractoriness and thermal stability.

Sand (Cont..):
o Zircon sand is basically zirconium silicate (
ZrSiO4).
o The typical composition is ZrO2 66.25 %, SiO2-
30.96 %, Al2O3 1.92 %, Fe2O3 0.74 % and traces
of other oxides. It is very expensive.
o The advantages are high fusion point (24000C), low
coefficient of thermal expansion, high thermal
conductivity, high chilling power, high density, and
requires a very small amount of binder (3 %).
o It is generally used to manufacture precision steel
castings requiring better surface finish and for
Clay:
o Molding sands may contain about 2 to 50 per cent of
clay.
o With suitable water content, it is the principal source

of the strength and plasticity of the molding sand.
o Clay is thus the bond or binder of molding sands.
o In some mineral deposits, clay and sand occur in

mixed proportions, so that the sand can be mined
and used directly for molding.
Clay (Cont..):
o Clays are defined as essentially aggregates of
extremely minute crystalline, usually flaked shaped
particles that can be classified on the basis of their
structure and composition into a few groups which
are known as clay minerals.
o Some clays are composed of particles of a single
mineral, whereas others are mixtures of clay
minerals or contain admixtures of quartz, pyrite,
organic matter, etc.
o Types of Clay
1. Fire clays or Kaolinites ( Al2O32SiO22H2O)
Clay (Cont..):
Kaolinite has a melting point of 1750 to 17870 C and
Bentonite has a melting temperature range of 1250 to 13000 C.
Of the two, Bentonite can absorb more water which increases
its bonding power.
There are two types of Bentonite available, one with sodium
as adsorbed ion which is often called western Bentonite (
volume increases some 10 to 20 times, high dry strength
which lowers the risk of erosion, better tolerance of variations
in water content, low green strength, high resistance to burn
out, which reduces consumption) and the other with calcium
ion called southern Bentonite( low dry strength, high green
strength).
The clay chosen for moulding sand should give it the requisite
strength for the given application taking into consideration the
metal being cast and thickness of the casting.
Water:
o Water, present in amounts of about 1.5 to 8 percent,
activates the clay in the sand, causing the aggregate
to develop plasticity and strength.
o Water in molding sand often refers to as tempering
water.
o The water is adsorbed by the clay up to a limiting
amount.
o Only that water rigidly held by the clay appears to
be effective in developing strength.
o Additional water, however, can act as a lubricant,
and makes the sand more plastic and more moldable,
though the strength may be lowered.
Special Additives:
Besides the three basic ingredients, other materials may be
present in molding sands.
They often referred to as additives and are used to develop
some specific property.
Cereals:
It acts as binder and is finely ground corn flour or gelatinized
and ground starch from corn. Cereals may be
used in molding sands for increased green or dry strength or
collapsibility in amounts up to 2 percent.
Ground Pitch:
Pitch is a by-product of coke making, being distilled from soft
coals at about 3500 C and above. Pitch is
used in amounts up to 3 percent to improve hot strength or
finish on ferrous castings.
Special Additives (Cont..):
Asphalt:
It is a by-product of the distillation of petroleum. It is used for
the same purpose as pitch.
Sea Coal:
It is a finely ground soft coal used in molding sand for cast
irons, principally for the purpose of improving the surface
finish and ease of cleaning the castings. It is usually ground to
fineness similar to that of the molding sand in which it is used.
Percentages employed in sands are about 2 to 8 percent.
Graphite:
Synthetic or natural graphite may be used in percentages of
0.2 to 2.0 percent for the purpose of improving
the mouldability of the sand and surface finish of the castings.
o Fuel Oil:
o It is sometimes used in very small percentages, 0.01
to 0.10 per cent, and seems to confer improved
moldability to the sand.
o Wood Flour:
o Ground wood flour or other cellulose materials such
as cob-flour, cereal hulls, and carbonized cellulose
may be added in amounts of 0.5 to 2.0 per cent to
molding sands. They may function to control the
expansion of the sand by burning out at elevated
o Silica Flour:
o Pulverized silica, finer than 200 mesh, is called
silica flour. It may be used in amounts up to 35
percent for the purpose of increasing hot strength of
the sand. It also increases the density of the sand for
resisting metal penetration.
o Iron Oxide:
o Fine iron oxide is used in small percentage in some
sands to obtain added hot strength.
o Perlite
o It is an expanded aluminium silicate mineral, useful
o Molasses, Dextrin:
o Cane molasses, unrefined and containing 60 to 70
per cent sugar solids, may be used for increases dry
o strength of the sand and edge hardness of moulds.
Dextrins may be used for the same purpose.
Binders:
Binders for Carbon Dioxide Molding:
In this process sodium silicate (water glass, SiO2 Na2O) acts
as binder.
This is essentially a quick process of mold preparation.
The mold is prepared with a mixture of sodium silicate and
sand and then treated with carbon dioxide for two to three
minutes such that a dry compressive strength of over 1.4 MPa
is arrived at.
The carbon dioxide is expected to form a weak acid which
hydrolyses the sodium silicate resulting in amorphous silica
which forms the bond.
The introduction of CO2 gas starts the reaction by forming
hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 + H2O).
This gelling reaction increases the viscosity of the binder till it
becomes solid.
The compressive strength of the bond increases with standing
time due to dehydration.
Binders (Cont..):
Binders for Shell Molding:
The dry and fine sand (90 to 140 GFN) which is completely free of
the clay is used for preparing the shell molding sand.
The synthetic resins used in shell molding are essentially
thermosetting resins which get hardened irreversibly by heat.
The resin most widely used, are the phenol formaldehyde resins.
Combined with sand, they have very high strength and resistance to
heat.
The phenolic resins used in shell molding usually are of two stage
type, that is, the resin has excess phenol and acts like a
thermoplastic material.
During coating with the sand the resin is combined with a catalyst
such as hexamethylenetetramine (hexa) in a proportion of about 14
to 16 % so as to develop the thermosetting characteristics.
The curing temperature for these moulds is around 1500 C and the
time required would be 50 to 60 seconds.
Binders (Cont..):
Binders for Core Sand:
The core sands need to be stronger than the molding sand and
therefore the clay binder used in molding sands is not enough
but somewhat better binders need to be used.
The normal binders are organic in nature, because these would
be burnt away by the heat of the molten metal and thus make
the core collapsible during the cooling of the casting.
The amount of binder required depends to a great extent on
the fineness of the sand grains.
The amount of clay left in the sand increases the consumption
of the binder.
The binders commonly used are linseed oil, core oil, resins,
dextrin, and molasses, etc.
Core oils are mixtures of linseed, soya, fish, petroleum oil and
coal tar.
A Typical Composition of Molding Sand:
Molding sands properties or characteristics:
The properties that are generally required in molding
materials are:
Permeability:
a. Permeability is a condition of porosity and thus is related
to the passage of gaseous materials through the sand.
b. Granular particles (grains) of various sizes and shapes
provide variable interstices (voids) and thus affect the degree of
permeability.
(1) Grain sizes range from less than 53 microns to as large as
3,360 microns.
(2) Recognized sand-grain shapes are round, angular, sub-
angular, or compound.
Fig. Sub-angular sand grains. Fig. 3.3. Round sand grains

(Courtesy of New Jersey Silica Sand Co.)
c. Compactness or density of the sand grains is related to
permeability through the interstitial structure.
d. Moisture content in the molding sand affects
permea-bility, since excess moisture tends to collect in
the interstices.
e. Bond content of the molding sand affects permeability
through a similar result.
Cohesiveness:
a. Cohesiveness can be defined as the holding together
of sand grains or strength of the molding sand.
b. Molding-sand strength is measured in many ways.
(1) Green strength under compression, shear, transverse load,
and tension are measurable.
(2) Green compression strength is the most used test on green
sand.
(3) Other strength tests include green deformation, dry or
baked tensile, shear and transverse, and Hot compression.
Fig. Schematic illustration of sand grains as they may appear under magnification.
c. Grain size and shape affects strength characteristics of

the sand to considerable extent.
d. Mixtures of various-size grains, called distribution, has
considerable effect on strength.
e. Bond content as well as type of bonding material
affects molding-sand strength:
f. Moisture content is a major factor in strength of sand
Green Strength:
The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The
green sand particles must have the ability to cling to each other to impart
sufficient strength to the mold. The green sand must have enough
strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape.
Dry Strength:
When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold
cavity is quickly converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand
evaporates due to the heat of the molten metal. At this stage the molding
sand must posses the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the
mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to withstand the
metallo-static pressure of the liquid material.
Hot Strength:
As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high
temperature when the metal in the mold is still in liquid state. The
strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is
called hot strength.
o Refractoriness:
o It is the ability of the molding material to resist the
temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so that
it does not get fused with the metal. The
refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.
o Collapsibility:
o The molding sand should also have collapsibility so
that during the contraction of the solidified casting it
does not provide any resistance, which may result in
cracks in the castings. Besides these specific
TESTING SAND PROPERTIES
Testing sand properties:
o The molding sand after it is prepared, should be

properly tested to see that the requisite properties are
achieved.
o These are standard tests to be done as per Indian
o Sample preparation:
o Tests are conducted on a sample of the standard
sand.
Sampling of Sand for Testing:
o A. The fundamental criterion is a random
representative sample of the parent material.
o B. This usually requires three I-quart samples:

one each from the front, center, and rear of the
sand heap, at a depth of not less than 6 inches,
to yield one representative sample when mixed.
o C. These samples may also be taken directly

from the Muller, conveyor belt, or hopper of
sand system.
o D. Alternate shovel, quartering, or the use of a

Moisture content determination:
o Moisture is an important element of the molding
sand as it affects many properties.
o Moisture content determination by heating:
o To test the moisture of molding sand a carefully
weighed sand test sample of 50g is dried at a
temperature of 105o C to 110o C for 2 hours by
which time all the moisture in the sand would have
been evaporated.
o The sample is then weighed. The weight difference
in grams when multiplied by two would give the
percentage of moisture contained in the molding
Moisture content determination by a chemical reaction:
Moiture Teller method (Mechanical method):
In this sand is dried by suspending the sample on a fine
metallic screen and allowing hot air to flow through the
sample.
This method of drying completes the removal of
moisture in a matter of minutes compared to 2 hours as
in the earlier method.
Moiture Teller method (Chemical method):
Another moisture teller utilizes calcium carbide to
measure the moisture content.
A measured amount of calcium carbide ( a little more
than actually required for complete reaction) in a
container along with a separate cap consisting of
measured quantity of moulding sand is kept in the
moisture teller.
Care has to be taken before closing the apparatus that
carbide and sand do not come into contact.
o The apparatus is then shaken vigorously such that
the following reaction takes place:
o CaC2 + 2 H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
o The acetylene ( C2H2) coming out will be collected
in the space above the sand raising the pressure.
o A pressure gauge connected to the apparatus would
give directly the amount of acetylene generated
which is proportional to the moisture present.
o
o It is possible to calibrate the pressure gauge directly

read the amount of moisture.
o Moisture content is read directly from a calibrated
scale on the instrument.
o The instrument used is known as the Speedy

moisture tester.
a. Test made with this device is not affected by other

volatile materials.
b. Test is fast, is reasonably accurate, and requires a

minimum of skill.
Moisture content determination:
o Other methods of determining moisture content.
o 1. Special equipment has been developed
which can be used to measure moisture content of
sand by utilizing the electrical conductivity of the
moist sand.
o 2. Other special devices may rely on
evaporation, chemical reaction, or conductivity,
but they speed up theFig.
testSome
by sand-testing
one means or
another. equipment. (a) Laboratory sand
sifter; (b) laboratory sand
washer. (Courtesy of Harry W.
Dietert Co.)
Clay Content:
o The clay content of the molding sand is determined
by dissolving or washing it off the sand.
o To determine the clay percentage a 50 g sample is
dried at 105 to 1100 C and the dried sample is taken
in a one litre glass flask and added with 475 ml of
distilled water and 25ml of a one percent solution of
caustic soda (NaOH 25 g per liter).
o This sample is thoroughly stirred.
o After the stirring, for a period of five minutes, the
sample is diluted with fresh water up to a 150 mm
graduation mark and the sample is left undisturbed
Clay Content (Cont..):
o The sand settles at the bottom and the clay particles
washed from the sand would be floating in the
water. 125 mm of this water is siphoned off the flask
and it is again topped to the same level and allowed
to settle for five minutes.
o The above operation is repeated till the water above
the sand becomes clear, which is an indication that
all the clay in the molding sand has been removed.
o Now, the sand removed from the flask and dried by
heating.
Fineness and grain-size distribution:
o Fineness and grain-size distribution are determined
using the residue from the preceding test.
o 1. Fineness is measured in terms of grain
sizes and distribu-tion.
a. Sand-grain particles range in size from 53 to 3,360
microns.
b. Pan-size particles (silt) range from 20 to 53 microns.
c. Clay particles are less than 20 microns in size.
o 2. The objective is to determine the per cent

of different sizes of sand, silt, and clay.
o
Fineness and grain-size distribution:
o 3. A stack of sieves in a shaker device provide
a continuum of decreasing mesh sizes from top to
bottom.
a. Mesh numbers are 6, 12, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, 100, 140,
200, and 270.
b. Smaller particles passing 270 mesh are caught in a pan

at the bottom of the stack.
o 4. Residue from clay-content test is placed in

top sieve, device is shaken according to
instructions, and per cent of material retained on
each sieve is determined.
Fineness or Sand Grain Size:
o To find out the sand grain size, a sand sample which
is devoid of moisture and clay such as the one
obtained after the previous testing is to be used.
o The dried clay free sand grains are placed on the top
sieve of a sieve shaker which contains a series of
sieves one upon the other with gradually decreasing
mesh sizes.
o The sieves are shaken continuously for a period of

15 minutes.
Fineness or Sand Grain Size (Cont..):
o The sand retained on each sieve expressed as a
percentage of the total mass can be plotted against
sieve number.
o But more important is the Grain Finesses Number

(GFN) which is a quantitative indication of the grain
distribution.
o To calculate the GFN each sieve has been given a

weightage factor as given in the Table IV.
o GFN is the average grain size and corresponds to a

sieve number through which all the sand grains
would pass through, if they were all of the same
size.
o GFN value varies between 40 and 220 for those

o Though the sand properties depend on both the grain

size and the grain size distribution, GFN is a very
convenient way of finding the sand properties since
it takes both into account.
Example:
GFN 41 : steel castings 50 Kg and
more;
67 : Small steel castings ;
105: Light cast iron and copper
castings;
150: Aluminum alloy castings.
Permeability determination (Cont..):
o A. Permeability is expressed as the volume of
air in cubic centi-meters that will pass per minute
under a pressure of 1 gram per square centimeter
through a specimen of sand 1 square centimeter
in cross-sectional area and 1 centimeter in height.
o 1. There are four recognized conditions of
permeability.
o a. Base permeability is the permeability
measured with a specimen of packed dry sharp
sand.
o b. Green permeability is the permeability
measured with a specimen made of moist
o d. Baked permeability is the permeability
measured with a specimen made of sand with
thermosetting binders and baked at some
temperature above 110 C.
o 2. This test is made with the specimen, usually about
50 X50 mm size, still in the specimen tube.
o 3. The tube with specimen is placed in the
instrument cup which provides a mercury seal, and a
selected amount of air is forced through the
specimen under controlled conditions.
o a. The rate of flow of the air is timed to
The rate of flow of air passing through a standard specimen
under a standard pressure is termed as permeability number.
The standard permeability test is to measure time taken by a
2000 cm3 of air at a pressure typically of 980 Pa to pass through
a standard sand specimen confined in a specimen tube.
The standard specimen size is 50.8 mm in diameter and a length
of 50.8 mm.
Then, the permeability number, P is obtained by
P = (Vx H) / x A x T
Where V = volume of air = 2000 cm3
H = height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm
p = air pressure, g/cm2
A = cross sectional area of sand specimen= 20.268 cm2
T = time in minutes for the complete air to pass through.
o Inserting the above standard values into the
expression, we get =501.28/P x A
Fig. One type of permeability

Figure: Permeability measuring meter. (Courtesy of Harry W.
set up Dietert Co.)
Preparation of Standard Test Specimens:
A. A mass of molding sand rammed to specified
size is called a standard test specimen.
o 1. One standard is the 2-inch-long by 2-
inch-diameter specimen.
o 2. Another standard is the 2-inch-long by
11/8-inch- diameter specimen.
o 3. Other specimens of selected shape and size
are used in special tests.
Preparation of Standard Test Specimens (Cont..):
o B. Diameter or other outside shape is controlled by
size of specimen tube or other container.
o 1. Specimen tube is closed at one end with a
pedestal; a quantity of sand is placed into the
assembly and rammed according to procedure for
the specimen being made.
o 2. Specimen rammer is a device that
provides a controlled weight falling a
prescribed distance in order to ram sand in the
tube. Exact procedure and other details vary
with the type of specimen being made.
Preparation of Standard Test Specimens (Cont..):
o 1. Stripping post fits

inside the tube to push
specimen out when so
desired.
o 2. Stripped
specimen may be baked
and tested for various
conditions as a core
specimen.
Figure : Sand rammer for
specimen preparation
Strength determination:
Measurement of strength of moulding sands can be
carried out on the universal sand strength testing
machine.
The strength can be measured in compression, shear

and tension.
The sands that could be tested are green sand, dry

sand or core sand.
The compression and shear test involve the standard

Strength determination (Cont..):
Green Compression Strength:
o Green compression strength or simply green
strength generally refers to the stress required to
rupture the sand specimen under compressive
loading.
o
o The sand specimen is taken out of the specimen tube

and is immediately (any delay causes the drying of
the sample which increases the strength) put on the
strength testing machine and the force required to
cause the compression failure is determined.
o Green to the above test, a different adapter is fitted
in the universal machine so that the loading now be
made for the shearing of the sand sample.
o The stress required to shear the specimen along the
axis is then represented as the green shear strength.
o It Shear Strength with a sand sample similar may
vary from 10 to 50 KPa.
Dry Strength
o This test uses the standard specimens dried between
105 and 1100 C for 2 hours. Since the strength
increases with drying, it may be necessary to apply
larger stresses than the previous tests.
o The range of dry compression strengths found in
Figure : Sand strength testing set up

Figure 1.4.5: Universal sand strength measuring set up

Mould HardnessTesting:
The mould hardness is measured by a method
similar to the Brinell hardness test.
A spring loaded steel ball with a mass of 0.9 Kg is

indented into the standard sand specimen prepared.
The depth of indentation can be directly measured

on the scale which shows units 0 to 100.
When no penetration occurs, then it is a mould

hardness of 100 and when it sinks completely, the
Mould HardnessTesting (Cont..):
Figure : Mould and core hardness tester
o Besides these, there are other tests to determine

such properties as deformation, green tensile
strength, hot strength, expansion, etc.
Core materials
&
Core making
CORES & COREMAKING:
Introduction (Definition, requirements, Types &
use)
Core Design (Design, core materials, & core
supporting in mold)
Core Frames &Reinforcement
(Cores reinforcement , lifting & Supports)
Hand Core Making, Core Venting & Core Boxes.
Machine Core Making ( Core Jolter, Core
Blowers, Core Shooters & Core Extrusion
machine)
Core Handling & Core Baking or Drying
Introduction:
Core Definition:
Cores are sand (Refractory materials) bars or items
designed to form holes, slots recess and cavities in
castings and also to shape outer surfaces of cast pieces.
Core Materials:
Core sands
Core Binders, oil, clay & Resin binders, Synthetic Resin
Binders.
Core cements to join split cores.
Core box parting sand, powders & Dust.
Cores Requirements:
Cores have to resist high temperature, chemical
reaction with molten metal, metal penetration,
hydraulic pressure of molten metal, permit escape of
gases evolved from molten metal etc.
General Properties of Cores :
o High gas permeability
o Strength
o Good deformability
o Collapsibility
Core Design Considerations:
To mold a casting with holes and cavities of the desired dimensions, as specified in
the casting drawing, it is necessary to properly lo-cate the core in the mold, apart
from making it to accurate geometri-cal size.
For this the core must have a sufficient number of core extensions of certain length.
Also they must have such a shape as to exclude any shifting of the core.
Core Design Considerations:
The criterion for dimensioning core extensions is the least core
bearing surface which enables the pressure acting on the mold
portion at the junction with the core extension not to exceed
50 to 75 % of the sand compression strength c . The surface
area of a drag print depends on the core mass .
After pouring the metal into the mold, the core may be
regarded as a body submerged into a liquid. Then the upward
force of the core that acts on the cope is to be considered.
Knowing the number of cope prints and the compression
stress permissible for the cope, we can calculate the minimum
bearing surface for cope prints.
If the calculations show that the number of prints and their
surface area are insufficient and it is impossible to extend the
prints, the use of metal chaplets (same or similar metal of
casting) installed in the mold to support the core in the desired
position can remedy the situation.
Relation of Core Section with other sections of
Foundry:
Classification of Cores:
Cores are classified according to geometrical
dimensions, configuration, operating conditions in
the casting mold.
Class I:
This class includes the cores of intricate
configuration, and skeleton type cores with small
core prints. These cores form cavities to be-left as
cast, the surface finish of which must meet high
requirements. Cores for casting the parts of internal
combustion engines are a11-example of the cores of
Class III:
These class of cores comprise the cores of
moderately complex configuration, which do not
have too thin members with massive core prints.
These cores form cavities whose as-cast
surface finish must satisfy rather high
requirements.
Class IV:
These class of cores consist of the cores of simple
configuration. They form surfaces both subject and
not subject to machining, the roughness of which
Fig. Classification of cores
Characteristic of Classes of Cores:
The requirements placed on physico-mechanical properties of cores depend on the class of
the cores.
The cores of classes I and II must show high strength and gas permeability, low gas evolution
capacity, good deform ability and collapsibility.
A core sand in the green condition must display good flowability, that is, readily fill in
intricate pockets of the core boxes.
Class I & II ,Cores may have a somewhat lower strength, because gases can leave the cores
through well developed core prints. These cores must exhibit sufficient deformability and
collapsibility.
In the initial state, the sands for class III cores may have a lower flowability than the sands
for class I cores.
The cores of classes IV and V may have a substantially lower strength and gas permeability
than class I cores (one-half or -one-third the values for the latter cores) because such cores
have massive bodies and core prints. But these cores must feature good deformabi-lity and
collapsibility because they usually form large and long cavities in the castings.
The above requirements placed on the physico-mechanical properties of cores can be
satisfied by choosing the requisite composition of the core sand and the core production
method, the choice being independent on the character of production (either piece, batch, or
mass production). The rational choice of the core sand and the production technology secures
a high quality of castings and the efficiency of production.
Types of Cores:
a. Cores are usually classified by the material
from which they are
made.
(1) Green-sand cores, with the relatively
low strength
of green sand.
(2) Dry-sand cores, made with sand and
special binders
which develop strength when baked.
b. Cores may also be classified by their position

Types of Cores (Cont..):
Types of Cores (Cont..):
Core Frames:
These are the reinforcement means molded into cores to increase strength. The
frames are made from wire or shaped cast iron plates. The core reinforcement must
fulfill the following requirements: give sufficient strength and rigidity to the core,
not spring or come off the core sand (soft, annealed wire will do for the purpose),
deform readily to allow for contraction of the casting, not stand in the way of vent
holes being made, and permit easy shakeout of the core from the casting.
Thin cores are reinforced with 1 or 12-mm wire inserted into the core boxes during
core molding.
Small and moderately sized cores are made with 6 to 10-mm wire frames whose
separate parts are fastened with a thinner wire. The reinforcement means for large
sand-clay cores are iron and steel cast frames with 6 to 10-mm cast-in wire inserts.
The framework for medium-sized and large cores includes lifting arrangements by
which the cores are suspended on the crane for de-livering them to the assembly
site. Fig. shows wire and cast frames made in various shapes. Wire frames are laid
along the length of the core. They should terminate at least 2 or 3 mm short of the
core ends. The frame should pass into the prints to add to the core strength. If the
core has two prints located opposite each other, the frame should extend into both.
Core venting:
While pouring the mold with molten metal,
mold walls and cores heat up rapidly and give off a
large volume of gases. Since the molten metal has a
particularly strong effect on cores, these must have
vent holes.
The venting consists in making holes with a
vent wire, with steel rods or pipes molded into the
cores and subsequently removed after core molding,
by inserting wicks (which form holes after wax
melting and cord removal), Capron (name of town)
mesh tubes, straw braids (in casting pipes and
cylinders), and by packing up coke ash inside large
Fig. Layout of the vents in
cores and in the mold for an
iron casting
1-core plugs;
2-vertical vents;
3, 5, 6, 7-cores;
4, 8-inclined and horizontal
vents
Finishing of cores:
After the corns are baked a certain number of

operations are performed on them before they can
be set in the mold.
These operations are termed as Core finishing.
Finishing work may be classified as follows:
Cleaning
Sizing (making it dimenssionally accurate)
Core assembly
Finishing of cores (Cont..):
Cleaning operations:
Cleaning operations include all work done on the core except sizing or
assembly of cores.
Work included in this category is trimming, brushing, venting,
coating, and mudding.
Trimming consists of removing fins, bumps or other sand projections
by rubbing them or filing; with an emery stone, core file, or other
abrasive tool.
Fins arise from loose joints or loose piece in the core box.
Blow holes and vent plugs often leave marks on the core which must
smoothed off.
Brushing cores with a brush of moderate stiffness is performed to
remove looee sand.
Brushing is required on core which, before baking, have been bedded
in sand rather than on a core drier.
Cores coatings:
Cores may be coated with refractory or protective
materials which improve their resistance to molten
metal or produce a better casting.
These coatings may be applied by spraying, dipping,

or swabbing.
Mudding is a localized coating used to make the

core completely smooth.
Graphite or red talc moistened with water to a putty

consistency may be used to fill up any cavities,
Cores coatings(Cont..):
Another mud consists of 94% silica flour, 3%

western bentonite, and dextrin moistened to a putty
with water.
The mud is applied by hand, rubbed into the

cavities, and smoothed off. Core which have been
coated or rubbed may cause trouble with defects in
the casting because of steam evolution when the
metal is poured.
Drying in a core oven for 20 min to 1 hr can

Venting of cores:
Venting of core is sometime included as a cleaning

operation.
Baked cores which are to be assembled may be

vented into the core prints by scratching grooves on
the surfaces to be joined.
More often groove or vent holes are put into the core
before it is baked.
Venting of cores (Cont..):
o Then it may be desirable to inspcet the vents to see

that they are open.
o Small holes may he reamed open with a wire or rod.
o Wax vent holes are made by ramming up a string of

wax in the core.
o The wax melts out when the core is baked and

leaves a vent hole.
o It is frequently necessary during cleaning to open

Sizing Operation:
o Sizing is done to make cores dimensionally
accurate.
o Sizing usually involves gauging the core to see if its
size is correct and then removing material.
o Sizing thus is part dimensional inspection.
o Gauges may be used to check critical dimensions.
o Templates, pieces of sheet metal cut out to the
contour required of the core, may be used to
determine whether the core has sagged or slumped
Sizing Operation (Cont..):
In some cores with large flat surfaces exact height is necessary so that
casting-wall thickness and location are accurate.
Such cores may be made slightly oversize and ground to correct
height.
This may be done by hand filiug with a scraper or on a core-grinding
machine. In either ease the core is put into a fixture which positions
the core and the exccss material is removed.
Hand-sizing operations may be performed on cores which arc slightly
out of shape.
Crooked core plates or driers, vibration during baking. and weak
sands or ramming may cause cores to be off dimenntion and are good
reason for gauging and sizing.
Core Assembly:
o Some cores are of one piece and may be set directly
into the mold after cleaning and sizing.
o Other cores are assembled of two or more pieces
before they can be used. Core assemblies may be
held together by pasting, bolting, or leading.
o Pasting is rnostly commonly used on small work.
o A corc paste, usually a proprietary mixture of talc,
dextrin, flour, molases, water, or other ingredients, is
applied to the surfuces to be joined.
o The paste may be put on with a paste bulb, brush,
the finger, or by means of dipping with a pasting
fixture.
o A pasting fixture consists of a metal rack which is
Core Assembly (Cont..):
o Care must be exercised to avoid sealing off vent
hole and grooves when cores are pasted.
o The parted surfaces are pressed together and allowed
to dry so that a strong assembly results.
o Often it is desirable to mud the jotnt lines to prevent
metal penitration and give a smoother castig surface.
Pasted and mudded cores are best if dried to avoid
the danger of blow defects in the castings.
o Cores may be bolted together if pasting does not
producc a sufficiently strong assembly. Bolting is
useful in larger core work. Recessed holes are left in
the cores so that they may be bolted together. The
bolt and nut heads are covered over with a core plug
or mud.
The gating system of a mold:
. The gating system of a mold (Cont..):
The gating system of a mold is made up of various openings
and passages which serve to deliver metal to the mold cavity.
1. The pouring cup, often called a pouring basin, is a flared
section of the top of the down sprue.
Pouring basin is a term often used with the larger
openings, while pouring cup applies to a smaller
opening serving the same purpose.
2. A vertical, usually tubular opening through the cope is
referred to as a down sprue, downgate, or sprue.
3. Metal, as it leaves the down sprue, is channeled through
runners, sometimes called cross gates, horizontally and
toward or around the mold cavity.
4. The ingate, or gate, is the opening, usually horizontal,
which carries the metal from the rumier to the mold
cavity.
The gating system of a mold (Cont..):
5. The riser, or feedhead, is an opening through the
cope- often directly above the cavity-whose main
purpose is to feed metal to the casting as it
solidifies.
a. Risers and feedheads are not usually
considered part of the gating system,
although they may be placed in similar
fashion in some instances.
b. Riser requirements depend chiefly on the
metal alloy being poured and the
shrinkage values thus encountered.
c. Metal in a riser must be the last to solidify;
hence the riser must be larger than the
Types of gates:
1. Runners and gates which are formed at the parting plane
of the mold are known as parting-line gates.
a. Parting-line gates are the most frequently used. They
may be cut manually or formed with gate patterns on a
match plate.
b. Parting-line gates take on many variations designed
to properly feed the casting, help control shrinkage, and
clean the metal as it flows into the cavity.
2. Top gates, which open directly into the cavity from above,
are not used so often as parting-line gates but on occasion
serve to feed the casting more efficiently. Com-mon
variations are wedge gates, finger gates, and pencil gates.
3. Bottom gates feed the metal into the cavity near the
bottom. A horn-shaped gate stick may be built into the
mold and carefully removed to form a horn gate carrying
metal to the bottom of the cavity, while ceramic gate
tubes or special-sand cores serve to form other types of
bottom gates.
Molds & Molding
Classification of casting Processes:
Casting processes can be classified into following FOUR
categories:
1. Conventional Molding Processes
a. Green Sand Molding
b. Dry Sand Molding
c. Flask less Molding
2. Chemical Sand Molding Processes
a. Shell Molding
b. Sodium Silicate Molding
c. No-Bake Molding
3. Permanent Mold Processes
a. Gravity Die casting
b. Low and High Pressure Die Casting
4. Special Casting Processes
a. Lost Wax
b. Ceramics Shell Molding
c. Evaporative Pattern Casting
d. Vacuum Sealed Molding
e. Centrifugal Casting
Conventional Molding Processes:
Green Sand Molding:
Green sand is the most diversified molding method
used in metal casting operations.
The process utilizes a mold made of compressed or
compacted moist sand.
The term "green" denotes the presence of moisture
in the molding sand.
The mold material consists of silica sand mixed with
a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) and moisture.
Green Sand Molding:
Advantages:
Most metals can be cast by this method.
Pattern costs and material costs are relatively low.
No Limitation with respect to size of casting and type of metal
or alloy used.
Disadvantages:
Surface Finish of the castings obtained by this process is not
good and machining is often required to achieve the finished
product.
Applicationof Green sand moulding:
a. Green-sand molds may be used when casting

practically all of the ferrous and nonferrous
alloys.
b. Green sand may be used when making small,

medium, and often large molds.
c. Various kinds of green sand are used more

extensively than any other type of molding
sand.
Skin-dry molds:
1. A sand mold with a dry-sand facing and a green-
sand backing is called a skin-dry mold.
2. Applications:
a. Skin-dry molds may be used when casting

practically all of the ferrous and
nonferrous alloys.
b. Skin-dry molds are more common in large

molds, since smaller molds may be made
Skin-dry molds (Cont..):
Advantages:
a. Skin-dry molds are less expensive to construct
than dry-sand molds but more expensive than
green-and molds of a given size.
b. Less equipment is needed than for making a
dry-sand mold.
c. The materials required for skin-dry molds are
cheaper than fot dry-sand molds.
d. Skin-dry molding takes less time than dry-
sand mold-ing.
e. Less floor space is needed in skin-dry molding
Skin-dry molds (Cont..):
Disadvantages:
a. Skin-dry molds are not so strong as dry-sand

molds.
b. Since moisture may migrate through the dry skin,

these molds cannot be stored for later pouring.
Dry-sand molds:
l. A sand mold made entirely with sand that does not re-
quire moisture to develop strength (the binder makes the
difference) is called a dry-sand mold.
2. Applications:
a. Dry-sand molds may be used for many alloys but are
more common in the casting of steel.
b. Dry-sand molds are used most in small and

medium-sized operations, although for larger operations
dry-sand molds may be made in sections and assembled
after the baking.
Dry-sand molds (Cont..):
3. Advantages:
a. Dry sand tends to resist metal erosion.
b. Molds made of dry sand are stronger and may be handled
more easily and with less damage.
c. Dry sand eliminates the tendency for moisture-related
defects to occur.
4. Disadvantages:
a. Dry-sand molding requires extra operations, equipment, and
space not needed in green-sand and skin- dry work.
b. Dry-sand molding materials are more expensive.
c. Labor costs may -run higher in dry-sand molding, since the
work requires more time.
Cement-bonded molds:
1. Silica sand bonded with portland cement is used as the
molding material. It dries in air.
2. Applications:
a. Can be used for casting any alloy but most commonly
used in very large ferrous work.
b. Can be used in pit molding and other cases where
baking is impossible.
3. Advantages:
a. Cement-bonded sand develops strength by air drying.
b. Cement-bonded sand generally provides the
advan-tages of dry sand.
Cement-bonded molds:
4. Disadvantages:
a. Cement-banded-sand molds require storage space for

the air-drying operation.
b. The materials used in cement-banded-sand molds are

less reusable than materials used in molds made with
other types of sand.
Sand-molding methods:
1. Bench molding:
a. Relatively small molds made at a convenient

bench are called bench molds.
b. Green-sand, dry-sand, or skin-dry molds may be
made by bench molding.
c. Bench molding is usually slow and laborious,
since hand ramming with loose patterns is frequently
used.
2. Machine molding:
a. Small, medium, and large molds may be made
with the aid of a variety of machines.
b. Green-sand, dry-sand, and skin-dry molds can be
Fig. A Penn State molding bench and tools.
Molding & Mechanization machines:
Semi-automatic coremaking machine

Molding & Mechanization machines:
Sand sliger machine Jolt squeeze roto-lift machine

Ramming or Compacting Molding Machines:
Fig. Molding-sand hoppers and mold conveyors. (Courtesy at National Engineering Co.)
Sand-molding methods:
3. Floor molding:
a. Medium and large molds made directly on
the foundry floor are called floor molds.
.
b. Green-sand, dry-sand, or skin-dry molds
may be made on the floor with the proper
flasks.
c. Floor molding is slow and laborious, since
it usually requires hand ramming with loose
patterns.
4. Pit molding:
2.2 Casting practices:
2.2.1 Fundamental of metal casting, Sand casting,
Shell-Mold casting, Mold casting (plaster and
ceramic), Investment casting, Vacuum casting,
Permanent mould casting, Slush casting, Pressure
casting, Die casting, Centrifugal casting, Continuous
casting, Squeeze casting, Casting alloys.
2.2.2 Casting defects.
2.2.3 Design of casting, Gating system design, and
riser design.
2.2.4 Melting furnaces-rotary, Pit electric, Tilting and
cupola.
2.2.1 Fundamental of metal casting:
o Sand casting,
o Shell-Mold casting,
o Mold casting (plaster and ceramic),
o Investment casting,
o Vacuum casting,
o Permanent mould casting,
Slush casting,
Pressure Die casting,
o Centrifugal casting,
o Continuous casting,
o Squeeze casting,
Shell-molding Process
Shell-molding Process:
A. Since its introduction this process has been called the Croning
process, C process, and finally shell process, or shell molding.
B. This process concerns making a mold that has two or more
thin, shell-like parts consisting of thermosetting resin bonded
sand.
1. The shells are single-purpose in application.
2. Shells are usually 3 to 6 mm thick, hard, and easily handled
and stored.
3. Shells are made so that matching parts fit together easily,
held with clamps or adhesives and poured in either a vertical or
horizontal position.
4. The shell molds may be supported in racks or in a mass of
bulky permeable material such as sand, steel shot, or gravel.
Shell-molding Process (Cont..):
C. Shell-molding patterns.
1. Patterns for the production of shells must be metal, since they are heated
to temperatures approaching 540 C.
2. The patterns must have some provision, in the form of ejector pins, for the
removal of the shells from the surface of the pattern.
D. Shell-molding materials.
1. Clean, dry silica sand is the bulk material used in the making of shell
molds. Grain size and distribution can vary with use.
2. Various thermosetting synthetic resins serve as the sand binder.
a. The resins include the phenol formaldehydes, urea formaldehydes, and
others.
b. From 3 to 10 per cent of the resin by weight is mixed with the sand.
c. Some resins may be used as dry mechanical mixes, while others
lend themselves to a pre-coating process that has the advantage of
non segregation during the molding process.
E. Procedures and alloys that can be cast:
1. The sand-and-resin mix or coated sand is caused to fall against, or
is blown against, a heated metal pattern or core box.
Temperature of die pattern ranges from 75 to 315 C.
2. Contact with the hot pattern causes an initial set and thus an
adhering layer of bonded sand in from 5 to 20 seconds.
3. The pattern, with this adhering layer of sand, is placed in an oven,
and the shell is cured by heating to proper temperature from 1 to 3
minutes. Time depends on resin type and shell thickness.
4. Assembly is removed from the oven and the shell stripped from
the pattern by ejector devices. Stripping may be a problem arid
can be aided by the use of a silicone parting agent.
5. All commonly cast metallic alloys can be cast" in these shell
molds.
Fig. Shell-molding equipment.
F. Advantages and disadvantages:
1. Advantages:
a. Shell-cast parts can be produced with dimensional tolerances of
0.002 to 0.015 cms per cms, depending on casting size and other
factors.
b. Surface finish is an advantage, since a very smooth surface is generally
obtained.
c. The dimensional accuracy and smooth surfaces possibly reduce cleaning
and machining costs.
d. Major savings in space, materials handling, and storage are possible
with shell-molding.
e. Cured resins do not absorb water during storage, and this ease of storage
permits a more flexible scheduling of production.
f. Shell-molding techniques are readily adaptable to mass production
by using automatic equipment that requires a minimum of skilled labor.
2. Disadvantages:
a. Initial cost of metal patterns and other

specialized equipment can be a disadvantage.
b. The resin binder is more expensive than other

binders,
although the over-all materials cost is not a
major Issue.
c. In general, a size limitation is apparent. This

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hAHj2MoSBYs
The Plaster Mold Casting Method
The Plaster Mold Casting Method:
This method is a method of producing Aluminum, Zinc or such low
melting point alloys by pouring liquid metal into plaster (70 to 80
%gypsum i.e. CaSO4 & 20 to 30 % strengthener plus water) molds.
Procedural Steps:
Step 1.Model or Master Pattern Making.
Step 2 Foundry Equipment for Patterns & Cores.
Step 3 Plaster Mold Making.
Step 4 Pour Molten Metal for making Casting.
Step 5 Secondary Operations.

Procedural
Step 1.ModelSteps:
or Master Pattern Making:
This is made from CAD file or Drawing.
Using the dimensional data of CAD file or
Drawing, pattern is made of wood.
Model is engineered to include following
A. Metal shrinkage
B. Mold taper if required.
C. Machining allowance or stock.
Step 2 Foundry Equipment for Patterns & Cores
1. Negative molds are made from the model
2. Core plugs are made from negative molds
3. A positive resin cope and drag patterns are made from the negative
molds.
4. Core boxes are made from the core plugs
5. Gating, runner system and flask are added as necessary.
6. Duplicate sets of the tooling can be made from the master negative.
Step 3 Plaster Mold Making
1. A liquid plastic slurry is poured around the cope & drag patterns
and in to the core boxes.
2. The plaster mold is then removed from the cope & drag patterns.
3 The plaster mold & cores are then baked to remove moisture.
Step 4 Pour Molten Metal for making Casting
1. Molten metal is prepared, degassed and sample of molten metal
taken for chemical analysis using spectrography.
2. The molten metal is then poured into the assembled plaster mold.
3. The plaster is removed by mechanical knocked-out & high pressure
water jet.
4. When the casting is cooled the runners & gates are then removed.
Step 5 Secondary Operations
1. The raw castings are inspected and labeled.
2. Flash & excess metals are removed by snagging.
3. Casting may be sent for following, if required,
a. Heat treatment, b. X-Ray testing c. Dye Penetration test.

4. After inspection the castings are ready for following,
a. Machining b. Surface treatment such as plating or coating.
c. Assembly. D. Packing or placing on form Gasketing.
Ceramic mold casting:
Similar to plaster mold casting, except that ceramic material is
used (e.g. silica or powdered Zircon ZrSiO4). Ceramics are
refractory (e.g. the clay hotpot used in Chinese restaurants to
cook some dishes), and also have higher strength that plaster.
- The ceramic slurry forms a shell over the pattern;
- It is dried in a low temperature oven, and the pattern is
removed
- Then it is backed by clay for strength, and baked in a high
temperature oven to burn off any volatile substances.
- The metal is cast same as in plaster casting.
This process can be used to make very good quality
castings of steel or even stainless steel; it is used for parts such
as impellor blades (for turbines, pumps, or rotors for motor-
boats).
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xPSI1wUOBnk&feature=PlayList&p=E1B44A
F847FF7D99&playnext_from=PL&playnext=1&index=34
Precision Investment Casting
Process
This process is variously called precision-investment casting,
Precision
precision Investment
casting, Casting
or the lost-wax Process:
process.
B. The process concerns making a one-piece mold from which
the pattern is removed by a procedure which melts the
pattern.
1. The molds are single-purpose molds.
2. The elimination of all parting planes provides improved
dimensional tolerances.
3. By using alined-particle-size investment material,
smooth,
accurate surfaces can be produced.
4. Since the pattern is removed by melting or burning out,
casting
precision is increased through eliminating draft, rapping,
and
shifts.
Precision Investment Casting Pattern Materials:
C. Pattern materials commonly used are:
1. Various waxes in a wide range of types and grades are the most
common pattern material.
2. Certain plastics that burn without residue are used.
3. Some low-melting-point metallic alloys can be used as pattern

materials.
4. One investment process, called Mercast, uses mercury in a frozen

condition as the pattern material.
5. Patterns must be formed anew each time by casting or forging the

pattern material in dies made of metal, plastic, rubber, or wood.
Precision Investment (Slurry) Materials:
1. There are a number of materials applicable as investment
materials.
2. Fine-grain silica sand with a suitable binder is often used.
3. Plaster of paris and other gypsum products serve well as the
binder for investment molds used in the casting of nonferrous
alloys.
4. Other binders may include sodium silicate and various
organic or inorganic chemical substances which satisfy
specific applications.
5. The investment materials are usually mixed into a fairly fluid
slurry which is poured into place and vibrated to promote
uniform packing and removal of air bubbles.
6. Investment molds as well as the materials from which they
are made are single-purpose and therefore cannot be reused.
Alloys that can be investment-cast and procedures:
1. With the proper investment material, all of the

commonly cast alloys can be formed in
investment molds.
2. Investment molds may be poured in three

different ways.
a. They may often be filled under simple
gravitational force such as is used with common
sand molds.
b. They may also be filled with metal under the
force of applied air pressure.
Advantages of Precision Investment Casting:
a. In general, investment casting provides for extreme
precision to tolerances as low as 0.00025 mm per
mm.
b. Tolerances of 0.004 mm per mm. are easily
maintained in average work.
c. Extremely smooth surfaces are easily produced in
investment-cast parts.
d. Investment casting makes possible the elimination
of most machining operations including thread
cutting and gear-tooth forming.
e. This process generally provides for an increased
yield.
Disadvantages of Precision Investment Casting:
a. The investment-casting technique is often more

costly, since materials as well as molds are
single-pur-pose.
b. In investment-casting work, the larger objects

are impractical owing to equipment-size limits.
c. In this process the operators must be more

skilled and more technically trained.
d. There is a slower production cycle that makes

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Yvm6fUXf1U&feature=channel
Hard Mould Or
Permanent Mould
Casting Process
Hard or Permanent Mould Casting Process :
Metal mould casting processes :
Permanent mould casting.
(i) Gravity Die Casting.
(ii) Low pressure casting.
(iii) Slush casting.
(iv) Die casting, die casting machines.

Permanent mould casting or Gravity Die Casting:
A casting made by pouring molten metal into a mould made of some metallic alloy
or other material of permanence is known as a permanent-mold casting.
Casting in metal molds or permanent molds is one of the techniques of manufacture
of castings with
close tolerances and
smooth finishes.
In contrast to sand molds which require fracturing after the production of every
casting, permanent molds can be poured repeatedly to obtain a few hundreds of
castings and even a few tens of thousands of castings.
The cavity of a permanent mold can be made to a high dimensional accuracy and
with a low surface roughness, so that the castings have accurate dimensions and
good surface finish in the cast state.
A high thermal conductivity of the mold material greatly facilitates the solidification
and cooling of the casting and in the main has a positive effect on its mechanical
properties. The permanent-mold process is 2 to 5 times as effective as the sand
casting process (at the same floor area of the shop).
Besides, this process secures a higher casting yield because it decreases machining
allowances and, in general, effects savings in metal, cuts down the cost of castings
and reduces the consumption of molding sands, makes itself available for
mechanization and automation, and improves the working conditions.
A high cost of metal molds, however, makes permanent
molding economically unfeasible in piece production.
Also, the process tends to form hard spots in iron castings,
the elimination of which calls for annealing of the cast products.
Economic and technical factors which govern the choice
of this process include the durability and design of' permanent
molds, the degree of mechanization and automation, and also the
nature of production (mass batch, or piece production).
Permanent mold casting makes an advantageous process
if it justifies expenses involved in the production of castings
including the cost of molds, machining costs, and the cost of
waste metal.
Casting in permanent molds proves profitable if each
mold gives not less than 200 to 400 small castings and 50 to 200
large castings. The entire production process involves the
following stages:
Steps in Permanent Mold Casting:
1. Preparation of molds, which includes cleaning and
heating operations and application of facings and
paints to the working surfaces of molds.
2. Assembly of molds, which requires setting the
cores in a mold
closing it and fastening the entire mold or kept
under pressure.
3. Pouring of liquid metal into molds to fill the cavity
by gravitational force and solidification of castings.
4. Ejection of castings after cooling by opening the
Permanent mould casting: The Mould
Permanent mould casting: The Mould:
Permanent molds are generally made of
Cast iron
Steel
Aluminum
Copper
Gray iron used for the production of molds

must have a pearlite- ferrite structure without traces
of free cementite since, otherwise, the iron of the
mold filled with liquid metal will undergo structural
transformation under heat of molten metal poured,
which may lead to warping of the mould.
The moulds used for ferrous metal are sand
lined, similar to
Permanent mould casting:
Advantages:
Permanent Molding produces a sound dense
casting with superior
mechanical properties.
The castings produced are quite uniform in shape
have a higher
degree of dimensional accuracy than castings
produced in sand
The permanent mold process is also capable of
producing a
consistent quality of finish on castings.
Low Pressure Permanent Mold Castings:
Similar to the Permanent Mold Casting process, the Low
Pressure Permanent Mold Casting process uses a permanent
mold made of iron or steel to produce a variety of aluminum
castings.
Instead of using the force of gravity to allow the metal to

flow into the cavity, a low amount of atmospheric gas or air
pressure is applied to the molten metal, which is contained in an
airtight chamber.
This pressure causes the metal to be forced into the mold

cavity. With the assistance of the added pressure, the metal fills
the mold and compensates for any possible shrinking and
casting defects.
Low Pressure Permanent Mold Castings:
Some Advantages of Low Pressure Permanent
Mold Castings:
Thin walled casting can be produced.
Mechanical properties are increased about 5% over
Permanent Mold
Castings.
Excellent process for creating intricate designs such
as circular
patterns.
Increased surface finish of as-cast castings.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6MKbSxQRaA&NR=1
Slush Casting
Slush Casting:
Definition: A variation of permanent mold casting involving mold
inversion before the castings have completely solidified which
allows molten metal to pour out and leave a hollow-shell casting.
Slush Casting:
Slush casting is a variant of the Permanent Mold casting process
for making hollow articles by inverting the mold after partial
freezing on the surface in order to drain out the still liquid metal
at the center.
Solidification begins at the walls because they are relatively cool
and works inward, so the thickness of the shell is controlled by
the amount of time allowed before the mold is drained.
This is a relatively inexpensive process, however only low
melting point alloys with narrow freezing ranges can be used and
it is a slow method, requiring close temperature control of the
liquid metal.
Metals casted by this method are Lead, Zinc and other low
melting point alloys.
The die cost is relatively low resulting in an advantage over other
permanent mold casting methods.
Procedural Steps for Slush Casting of Metals:
1. Clean the mold and apply a light coat of mould
release, if ejecting pins are not provided. Close the
mould parts placing cores, if any.
2. Quickly pour molten metal in to the mold.
3. After predetermined time, pour out the excess

molten metal form the mold.
4. Longer time may be permitted for freezing for

heavier wall thickness.
5. Remove the part from the mold. Do not use metal

tools for part removal or the mold surface may be
Procedural Steps for Slush Casting of Plastic Materials:
1. Clean the mold and apply a light coat of mould release.
2. Preheat oven to 200 C.
3. Place the mold in the hot oven for 10minutes. Use protective
gears.
4. Remove the hot mold from the oven. Place it over heat resistant
surface and quickly pour plastisol in to the mold.
5. After 5 minutes, pour the excess plastisol form the hot mold.
6. Set the oven to 175 C.
7. Return the mold to hot oven for 20 minutes. Steps 4 to 7 may be
repeated if heavier wall thickness is required.
8. Remove the hot mold from the oven and quench it in water.
9. Remove the part from the mold. Do not use metal tools for part
removal or the mold surface may be scratched.
10. Repeat the entire process to find the effect of longer preheat time
or greater temperature.
Slush Casting for Plastic Parts:
Similar to Rotational Molding
Slush (instead of powder) poured into
mold
Slush is made from a mixture of resin
and plastisols
Mold rotated and tipped
Part forms on surface of mold
Extra slush poured free
Part removed
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QvW2ytWKEus
Pressure Die Casting

Pressure Die Casting:
A. Die casting may be defined as the use of a
permanent mold ( die) into which molten metal is
introduced by means of pressure.
1. The term gravity die casting is another name for
the process already defined as permanent-mold
casting, whereas the process defined under (A) may
be called pressure die casting.
2. The pressure may be obtained by application of
compressed air or by pneumatically or hydraulically
operated pistons.
Types of Die Casting:
Hot Chamber Die Casting
Hot Chamber Pressure Die Casting:
B. Hot-chamber die casting.
1. The melting unit is an integral part of the hot- chamber
machine, and molten metal is introduced directly from this
melting unit by means of a plunger mechanism into the die
cavity. The process is further characterized by a normal amount
of superheat in the metal and the need for a commensurately lower
casting pressure.
2. Pressure on the molten metal in hot-chamber die-casting
machines may vary from approximately 3.450 to 41.400 MPa.
An average of approximately 13.800 to 17.250 MPa is common.
a. Air-injection pressures are normally limited to about 4.10
MPa.
b. Piston-type plunger-injection pressures of from 10.350 MPa
and
up provide optimum soundness and good mechanical
properties.
c. Die segments must be securely locked in closed position in
order to withstand the fluid pressure exerted.
Hot Chamber Pressure Die Casting:
3. Eighty per cent by weight of all die castings are
zinc-base-alloy castings produced by the hot-
chamber method.
(C) Gooseneck or Hot Chamber Die casting Machine operated with direct air
pressure
(d) Hot Chamber Die casting Machine operated with air operated ram.
Cold Chamber Pressure Die Casting:
1. The melting unit is usually separate, and molten metal must be transferred to
the injection mechanism by ladle.
Further distinctive characteristics of the process are very high metal pressures
and the fact that the casting alloy may be at a temperature somewhat less than
normal superheat; the melt may even be in a semi-molten condition.
2. Pressure on the casting metal in cold-chamber die-casting machines may vary

from 20.70 to as high as 172.50 MPa and in some cases may reach 690.0 MPa.
a. Metallic alloys cast in a semi-molten condition require greater pressures to
compensate for the reduced fluidity resulting from low pouring temperatures.
b. Lower working temperatures and higher pressures produce castings of dense
structure, free of blowholes and porosity related to dissolved gases.
c. A piston-type plunger mechanism is commonly used to force the semi-molten
alloy, which has been introduced through the injection port, into the die cavity.
d. The lower temperatures of the melt reduce the possi-bility of excessive
damage to machine parts from thermal shock.
Cold Chamber Pressure Die Casting:
(a) Cold Camber Machine

(b) Cold Chamber Machine showing how metal actually squirts (to eject liquid
in a jet from a narrow orifice) in to the mould.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1AgDGLNE6Es&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W6VgCaRozq8&feature=related
Metal alloys cast by die casting Techniques:
1. As of the present time no ferrous alloys have been
die cast.
2. Alloys of zinc, aluminum, copper, magnesium, lead,
and tin are the materials commonly die-cast. They are
in approximate order of their commercial importance
as die-casting alloys.
3. Zinc alloys are the most widely die-cast alloys.
a. They permit longer die life since they are
easily die- cast at low temperatures.
b. Relatively high strength can be obtained in
zinc alloys. Tensile strength second only to copper-
base alloys, running to about 310.50 MPa, is possible.
Metal alloys cast by die casting Techniques (Cont..):
4. Aluminum alloys are very popular especially in cold chamber
applications.
a. They are, as a class, among the lightest alloys.
b. Aluminum alloys have good corrosion resistance along with
relatively low melting temperatures of about 650 C.
c. The chilling action of the dies promotes a fine grain
structure, which improves the mechanical properties of the
alloy. Strengths of from 138.0 to 276.0 MPa are common.
5. Copper base alloys-the brasses and bronzes-possess some

outstanding properties when die cast.
a. Tensile strength of from 379.50 to 690.0 MPa, along with
good corrosion resistance, is. common in copper base alloys.
b. Fluidity is generally quite low, and therefore higher
temperatures are needed. This reduces die life.
6. Magnesium alloys are noted for their extremely light
weight, about two-thirds that of aluminum.
a. They possess approximately the same mechanical
properties as aluminum alloys, and are cast in similar dies
and at similar temperatures.
b. Magnesium alloys are more valuable where higher
strength- weight ratios are required.
c. These alloys have lower corrosion-resistance features, and
material costs are higher.
7. Lead alloys enjoy a limited production for specialty items
such as X- ray equipment and bearings.
a. Lead alloys generally possess relatively low tensile
strengths- from 62.10 to 96.60 MPa, approximately.
b. Cost factor tends to place lead in a subordinate position to
zinc.
c. Lead and its alloys must be handled with considerable
care owing to their toxicity.
8. Tin alloys are generally comparable to lead
alloys as regards die-casting and physical
properties.
a. Tin alloys, have high corrosion-resistance
properties, excellent bearing properties, and can
be cast to close tolerances.
E. Dimensional tolerances possible in die casting.

1. Dimensional tolerances can be held to within
0.001 to 0.003 mm per mm, when all conditions
are ideal.
Advantages of Die Casting Techniques:
a. Production rates may be decreased over those generally maintained in other
casting processes.
b. Die casting requires less floor space than is required by other casting
processes, for equivalent production.
c. Die casting generally provides for precision of manufacture with a
consequent reduction in machining costs.
d. Die casting makes possible the casting of thin sections in fairly complex
shapes.
e. In actual casting there is a low labor cost per casting along with a minimum
of job training.
f. Die casting provides for greatly improved surface finish when compared with
most other casting techniques.
g. Castings produced in the die-casting process are usually less defective, owing
to increased casting soundness.
h. The increased soundness and reduction of defects provides increased yield.
Disadvantages of Die Casting Techniques:
a. The relatively high die and equipment cost.
b. There is a rather limited range of nonferrous

alloys that can be used for die castings.
c. There are many complex features which limit the
application of die castings.
d. Die castings are definitely limited in size.
e. Die casting necessitates special skills in the
maintenance and supervisory personnel.
Comparison of Die Casting Methods:
Clamp force Max. shot volume Clamp stroke Min. mold thickness Platen size
Type
(tone) (ml) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Hot chamber 100 2100 275 150 625 x 600
Hot chamber 200 3500 400 250 750 x 750
Hot chamber 400 7500 550 300 950 x 950
Cold chamber 100 1050 300 150 575 x 575
Cold chamber 400 5000 550 300 950 x 950
Cold chamber 800 11750 750 400 1300 x 1300
Cold chamber 1600 31700 1000 500 1850 x 1975
Cold chamber 2000 45500 1250 640 2075 x 2075

Centrifugal-casting Processes:
A. Any process in which molten metal is poured and
allowed to solidify while the mold is revolving is a
centrifugal-casting process.
B. Castings produced under this centrifugal force
are called centrifugal castings.
C. There are three recognized centrifugal casting
processes.
True centrifugal Casting
Semi-Centrifugal Casting
Centrifuging Casting
Truecentrifugal
True centrifugalcasting:
casting is that process wherein the
castings are made in a hollow, cylindrical mold
rotated about an axis common to both casting and
mold.
a. Cast-iron pipe is commonly made by this process.
b. The mold used may be either a permanent mold or a
sand-lined mold.
c. In true centrifugal casting, the axis of spin may be
horizontal, inclined, or vertical.
d. The centrifugal force will form a cylindrical center-
line hole without the use of sand or permanent
True centrifugal casting:
f. The length and outside diameter are formed by the
shape of the mold, which is usually cylindrical.
g. The wall thickness can be controlled by the quantity

of metal that is introduced into the spinning mold.
h. In true centrifugal casting the inside circumference

is always circular.
i. When the mold is rotated on a horizontal axis, a true

cylindrical inside surface is produced; if rotated on a
vertical axis, a parabolic inside surface is produced.
Semi-centrifugal or profiled-centrifugal casting:
Semi-centrifugal or profiled-centrifugal casting is
similar to the true centrifugal method, except that a
central core is used to form the inner surface or
surfaces.
The casting is not dependent upon centrifugal force
for its shape.
a. A good example of semi-centrifugal work is a cast
wheel-like casting.
b. The axis of spin for semi-centrifugal work is always
vertical.
c. Although the yield is better than with static casting.
it is not so high as in true centrifugal casting.
Centrifuged
Centrifuged or Pressure
or pressure castingcasting:
is applied to nonsymmetrical
castings.
The mold cavity is not rotated about its own axis but about the
axis of a
central down sprue common to the axis of spin, which feeds
metal into
the mold cavity under centrifugal force.
a. Centrifuging can be done only about a vertical axis.
b. Centrifugal force provides high fluid pressure to force the

molten
alloy into the mold cavity.
Characteristics of Centrifugal Casting:
1) The casting is relatively free from defects.

2) Non metallic impurities which segregate toward the bore can be
machined off.
3) Less loss of metal in tundish compared to that in gating and
risering in conventional sand casting.
4) Better mechanical properties.
5) Production rate is high.
6) Can be employed to manufacture bimetallic pipes.
7) Centrifugal casting process can be used for fabricating
functionally gradient metal matrix composite material.
Molds for centrifugal-casting applications:
Centrifugal molds may be made of sand, metal (permanent), graphite and
combinations of the three materials.
Metal molds are frequently made of commercial grades, of carbon steel or alloy steel.
Metal molds, tending to chill the poured metal, increase rate of solidification and
thus increase production rates.
The life of metal molds may be increased with proper coating of surfaces, which
coating provides a smoother casting surface.
The rapid solidification that metal molds promote introduces metallurgical factors that
mayor may not be advantageous.
One of the most successful metal-mold applications for the manufacture of cast-iron
pipe is called the DeLavaud method.
Molds for Centrifugal-Casting applications (Cont..):
3. Sand molds for centrifugal casting are produced by
conventional molding techniques in special flasks.
a. Both green-sand and dry-sand mixtures may be used,
depending on the product and other factors.
b. Sand molds generally provide a much slower cooling
rate and thus do not create the metallurgical problems of
chilling.
c. Since sand molds may be made to collapse, the hazards
of pre-stressing or tearing of the casting are reduced.
d. Sand molds lend themselves to the casting of more
complex shapes.
e. Like all sand molds, they are single-purpose molds and
thus must be remade for each casting.
Molds for Centrifugal-Casting Applications Cont..):
4. Graphite molds are usually formed by machining from
commercially available stocks of compressed graphite.
a. One source of graphite for this purpose is electrodes used
in electric-furnace melting.
b. The cooling rate in graphite molds is between that of sand
molds and metal molds.
c. Under favorable casting conditions, graphite molds may
be used several times before they must be re-placed.
d. The ease with which graphite may be machined and the
relatively high strength of the mold provide the major
economy.
e. Graphite-mold surfaces are resistant to wetting by most
metals and are thus more durable.
f. This type of mold is not applicable to the casting of alloys
such as the ferrous alloys, which react with or dissolve
carbon.
Molds for Centrifugal-Casting Applications Cont..):
5. Mold washes are generally used on all types of

molds used in centrifugal-casting processes.
a. Mold washes tend to improve casting finish,

increase mold life,
aid in removal of the casting, and reduce
cooling rate.
b. Washes commonly consist of fine silica and

Speed & Its Calculations:
E. Speeds employed in the centrifugal-casting
processes decides following:
Strength of the casting.
Structure of the casting.
Distribution of slag inclusion.
Distribution of gas & shrinkage cavities.
Segregation in alloy castings.
Factors affection selection of speed:
The position of the axis of rotation.
Metal or alloy to be casted.
Casting dimensions.
Speed Calculations:
1. Spinning speeds will vary considerably according
to the application; speed is governed by the casting
to be produced.
2. Common practice favors a centrifugal force of
between 50 to 100 times the force of gravity G, with
75G very common.
3. Centrifugal force acting on a rotating body is
proportional to the radius of rotation and to the
square of the velocity,
where,
m mass (kg), V peripheral speed (m/s), r radius
Speed Calculations:
Solving, further we get

N = 42.3 (G factor/D)
Thornton suggested 50 100 G speed range for
die cast (metal mould) and 25 50 G for sand
cast pots and shaped castings.
Too high speed results in excessive stresses and

hot tears in outside surfaces.
Speed Calculations & Applications of Centrifugal Castings:
F. Centrifugal casting can be used to produce parts

made of both the ferrous and the nonferrous-alloys
groups.
1. Cast-iron pipe, gun barrels, automotive-cylinder
walls, jet-engine rings, piston rings, and brake
drums are common parts centrifugally cast.
G. Investment molds are frequently poured by

adapting them to centrifugal-casting techniques.
H. Advantages and disadvantages of centrifugal

casting.
ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL CASTING:
Improved physical properties
Formed under pressures many times that of gravity combined with directional
solidification, two unique characteristics of the centrifugal casting process, the
products exhibit a denser, closer grained structure, with absolutely no porosity.
Because of high structural uniformity, physical properties such as tensile
strength, yield strength, elongation, reduction of area, and other desirable
properties are improved by up to 30% over conventional gravity or static
casting methods.
Longer Life
Parts made from centrifugal process, with the castings closer grained, denser
structure provide more reliable service life and withstand greater stress and
impact without fracturing.
Due to higher reliability and life of the components produced using this
process, total costs over the life of the end product is much lower due to fewer
end-of-life/failure situations and lower maintenance.
Competitive Product Pricing and lower lifetime costs
Centrifugal casting process coupled with inherently low metal wastage
characteristics of this process allow to produce highly reliable products at
competitive pricing as compared with traditional casting methods such as sand
casting.
ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL CASTING:
Faster Delivery
Due to the short mold set up and preparation time required for
centrifugal castings, delivery can be scheduled to meet the customers
needs. The customer benefits from reduced manufacturing lead time
and avoids the high cost of maintaining inventory.
Minimum Developmental Lead-time and Expense
The molds are made in-house, which minimizes the lead time in
developing new items and on continuous off take the customers are
free of developmental expenses.
Reduced Rejects
As the molten metal is poured, centrifugal forces distribute the molten
metal against the walls of the mold with tremendous force, thereby
displacing the lighter oxides and impurities, causing them to surface
on the inside diameter of the hollow cylinder being cast. The trapped
oxides and impurities are easily removed in the machining process.
Production Flexibility
The centrifugal process allows economical production of a diversified
range of sizes, shapes and quantities.
COMPARISON with Sand Casting:
Centrifugal Casting
Sand / Static Casting Dense & Even micro structure.
Spongy and uneven Radial & uniform grain flow.
micro structure. Better tensile strength.

Hardness is more & uniform.
Linear & non-
Withstands impact loads.
uniform grain flow. No effect of aggregation.
Low tensile strength. Pattern is not required.

Excellent surface finish.
Low and non-uniform Free from micro porosity.
hardness. Life is better.
Doesn't sustain
impact loads.
Segregation is
Conventional static casting defects like internal shrinkage, gas porosity and
Defects in Centrifugal Casting:
nonmetallic inclusions are less likely to occur in centrifugal casting.
Hot Tears Hot tears are developed in centrifugal castings for which the highest
rotation speeds are used.
Longitudinal tears occur when contraction of casting combined with the

expansion of the mould, generates hoop stresses exceeding the cohesive strength
of the metal at temperatures in the solidus region.
Segregation - Centrifugal castings are under various forms of segregation thus

pushing less dense constituents at centre.
Banding Sometimes castings produce zones of segregated low melting point

constituents such as eutectic phases and sulphide and oxide inclusions. Various
theories explain this, one states vibration is the main cause of banding.
CONTINUOUS CASTING
Principles of Continuous Casting:
Definition: Continuous casting is the process
whereby molten metal is solidified into a "semi-
finished" billet, bloom, slab or beam blank.
Prior to the introduction of continuous casting in the
1950s, steel was poured into stationary moulds to
form "ingots".
Since then, "continuous casting" has evolved to
achieve improved yield, quality, productivity and
cost efficiency.
Nowadays, continuous casting is the predominant
way by which steel is produced in the world.
Principles of Continuous Casting (Cont..):
Figure: Schematic representation of the continuous casting process

In the continuous casting process, illustrated in
Figure, molten metal is poured from the ladle into
the tundish and then through a submerged entry
nozzle into a mould cavity.
The mould is water cooled so that enough heat is
extracted to solidify a shell of sufficient thickness.
The shell is withdrawn from the bottom of the
mould at a "casting speed" that matches the inflow
of metal, so that the process ideally operates at
steady state.
Below the mould, water is sprayed to further extract
heat from the strand surface, and the strand
eventually becomes fully solid when it reaches the
''metallurgical length''.
To start a cast, the bottom of the mould is sealed by a steel
dummy bar. This bar prevents liquid metal from flowing out
of the mould and the solidifying shell until a fully solidified
strand section is obtained.
The liquid poured into the mould is partially solidified in the

mould, producing a strand with a solid outer shell and a liquid
core.
In this primary cooling area, once the steel shell has a

sufficient thickness, the partially solidified strand will be
withdrawn out of the mould along with the dummy bar at the
casting speed.
Liquid metal continues to pour into the mould to replenish the

withdrawn metal at an equal rate.
Upon exiting the mould, the strand enters a roller

containment section and secondary cooling
chamber in which the solidifying strand is
sprayed with water, or a combination of water
and air (referred to as "air-mist") to promote
solidification.
Once the strand is fully solidified and has passed

through the straightener, the dummy bar is
disconnected, removed and stored.
Tundish
The shape of the tundish is typically rectangular.
Nozzles are located along its bottom to distribute
liquid steel to the mould. The tundish also serves
several other key functions:
- Enhances oxide inclusion separation.
- Provides a continuous flow of liquid steel to the
mould during ladle exchanges.
- Maintains a steady metal height above the
nozzles to the mould, thereby keeping steel
Mould
The main function of the mould is to establish a solid shell sufficient in strength
to support its liquid core upon entry into the secondary spray cooling zone.
The mould is basically an open-ended box structure, containing a water cooled
inner lining fabricated from a high purity copper alloy.
The inner face of the copper mould is often plated with chromium or nickel to
provide a harder working surface, and to avoid copper pickup on the surface of
the cast strand, which can otherwise facilitate surface cracks on the product.
Mould oscillation is necessary to minimize friction and sticking of the solidifying
shell, and avoid shell tearing, and liquid steel breakouts, which can wreak havoc
on equipment and machine downtime due to clean up and repairs.
Friction between the shell and mould is reduced through the use of mould
lubricants such as oils or powdered fluxes.
Oscillation is achieved either hydraulically or via motor-driven cams or levers
which support and reciprocate (or oscillate) the mould.
Product Types
Depending on the design of the casting machine, the as-cast
products of the continuous cast process are slabs, blooms, billets,
or beam blanks. The cross sections of these products are shown
in Figure in the next slide.
Billets have cast section sizes up to about 200 mm square.
Bloom section sizes typically range from approximately 200 mm
to 400 mm by 600 mm.
Round billets include diameters of approximately 140 mm to
500 mm.
Slab castings range in thickness from 50 mm to 400 mm, and
over 2500 mm wide.
The aspect ratio (width-to-thickness ratio) is used to determine
the dividing line between blooms and slabs.
An aspect ratio of 2.5:1 or greater constitutes an as-cast product
PrinciplesFigure
of Continuous
: ContinuouslyCasting (Cont..):
cast sections
By casting
The theOf
Benefits steel directly into
Continuous semi-finished shapes, the
Casting:
following steps are eliminated:
ingot teeming,
stripping, and transfer,
soaking pits,
primary rolling.
Other benefits are:
Considerable energy savings
Less scrap produced, i.e. improved yield
Improved labor productivity
Improved quality of steel
Reduced pollution
Reduced capital costs
Increased use of purchased scrap when
Output is maximized.
Comparison of Casting Processes:
Surface
Type of Labour cost Equipment Minimum
finish Accuracy - mm
Process per unit Cost Section mm
m CLA
Sand (green) Medium low 500 -1000 2.5 5.0
Shell low medium 100 -300 0.25 2.5
Centrifugal low medium 100 -500 0.7 8.0
Investment high medium 25 -125 0.06 - 25mm sect 0.6
Die casting
low medium 100 -250 0.4 +.05 per 25mm 2.5
Gravity
Die casting 0.05 + 0.05 per

low high 40 -100 1.2
Low Press 25mm
Die casting 0.05 + 0.05 per

very low very high 40 -100 0.5
Pressure 25mm
Continuous low high 100 -200 0.12 per 25mm 8.0

http://www.youtube.com/profile?user=CorusBCSATraining#p/u/65/d-72gc6I-_E
Squeeze casting
Squeeze casting :
o Squeeze casting or squeeze forming or liquid metal
forging is a combination of casting and
forging process.
o Squeeze casting is a process in which liquid melt is
metered into the permanent mould cavity usually
made of metal and pressure applied through the
upper punch on the solidifying molten metal so as to
produce good soundness and dimensionally accurate
product .
o Squeeze casting consists of two stages:
The first of which is mould filling-the mould is filled with the
required quantity of molten metal;
Squeeze casting (Cont..):
o Working of Squeeze Casting Process:
o * The process makes use of two dies bottom die and top die, cast
and machined in such a way that upon melting leaves a cavity similar
to the shape of the desired casting.
o
* The bottom die is preheated around 200 - 250 OC with the help of a torch
and sprayed by a water based graphite lubricant to facilitate easy removal of
casting after solidification.
o
* Measured quantity of molten metal is poured into the bottom die. As the
metal starts solidifying, pressure is applied to the top die casting it to move
rapidly towards the bottom die. This causes molten metal to get squeezed
and fill the mould cavity.
o
* The squeezing pressure is applied until solidification is completed.
o
* The casting is ejected by operating the lift pin provided in the bottom die,
o Controlling both stages is of major importance for obtaining
sound parts with the required geometry and mechanical
properties.
o The prediction of temperature distribution and solidification rate
in metal casting is very important in modern foundry
technologies.
o This helps to control the fundamental parameters such as the
occurrence of defects, as well as, the influence on final properties
of cast products and the mould wall / cast metal interface contact
surface.
o The rate at which molten metal solidifies affects the grain size
that forms. A slow cooling rate that leads to a small degree of
under-cooling at the onset of solidification yields a large grain
size. A rapidly cooling rate on the other hand leads to a high
degree of under-cooling, leading to the formation of small grains.
o The grain size of squeeze cast specimen is small as
compared to that of sand casting. Sand casting cools slowly,
due to the insulating properties of the sand mould. Squeeze
casting solidifies quickly because of the contact of the molten
metal with the metal mould. Heat is rapidly dissipated to the
steel mould in contact with the molten metal, which is
convected out at the outer surface of the steel mould.
o Squeeze casting parameters that can be controlled for the
production of sound products include; melt quality, pressure
level and duration, time of pressure application, press speed,
molten metal temperature, tooling temperature.
Squeeze casting is commonly used for casting aluminum and
magnesium alloys, cores can be used in this process to
o Advantages of Squeeze Casting:
o * Metal which has poor fluidity characteristics can be cast by
this process.
o * Low shrinkage and gas porosity, due to the applied pressure during
solidification.
o * Enhanced Mechanical properties because of fine grain structure
caused by rapid solidification.
o * Good Surface Finish.
o Disadvantages of Squeeze Casting:
o * Process is costlier. Manufacturing dies to accurate dimensions
involves complex processes.
o * Accurate metering of molten metal is a slight difficult problem.
o * Un-economical for small quantity production.
Squeeze casting :
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CYXUfXsDh5I
Casting Defects:
o Definition: Casting defects may be defined as those
characteristics which create a deficiency or imperfection exceeding
quality limits imposed by design and service requirements.
o Casting defects may be classified into three basic types.
o 1. The major, or most severe, defects, which result in scrap-

ping of the casting.
o a. Metal penetration and rough surfaces that
interfere with machining and finishing operations
are included in this group.
o b. A casting that fails to meet physical
requirements, by reason of pour short or misrun, is usually
scrapped.
o c. A casting that fails to meet functional
Casting Defects (Cont..):
o 2. Intermediate defects, which permit salvaging of the
casting, providing the cost of necessary repairs is not
pro-hibitive.
o 3. Minor defects, which permit the casting to be easily and
economically repaired. Salvage is always an expense, and
economical salvage means that a profit is still realized.
o 4. The elimination and control of casting defects is a
problem that the foundry engineer may approach in several
ways.
o a. The common procedure is to rely on salvage
techniques that appear to provide immediate
savings.
o b. Remedial procedures in the molding, core
o 1. A shift results in a mismatch of the sections of
a casting, usually at a parting plane.
o a. Misalignment of pattern parts, due to
worn or dam- aged patterns, may cause shifts.
o b. Misalignment of flask equipment is
another likely cause of shifts.
o c. Shifts may be caused by poorly fitting
mold jackets and improper handling of molds
while they are being jacketed or poured.
o A core shift is an abnormal variation of the
dimensions which are dependent on core position.
o a. Core shifts may be caused by
misalignment of cores in assembling cored
molds.
o b. Core shifts are also the result of
undersized and over- sized core prints.
o c. If the incorrect-size chaplet is used, a
core shift will result.
o A swell is an enlargement of the mold cavity by
metal pressure resulting in localized or general
enlargement of the casting.
o a. Swells may be caused by insufficient
ramming of the sand.
o b. If the molten metal is poured too rapidly
or too hard, a swell may also occur.
o c. Excessive pressure of the metal may
result from a sprue height too great for proper
functioning of other forces and a swell will be
caused.
o Shrinkage is a void in the casting or a dishing on the surface of a
casting resulting from concentrated contrac-tion of the metal during
solidification.
o a. Shrinks may be caused by improperly located and/or improperly
sized gates and runners.
o b. Inadequate risers or lack of risers when needed will cause shrink
cavities.
o c. Poor design, such as abrupt changes of section thick-ness, may
result in shrink defects.
o d. Inadequate or improper filleting of corners may cause shrinkage.
o e. A general lack of directional solidification will pro-mote shrinkage
defects.
o f. Incorrect metal composition and other similar factors will contribute
to shrink defects. ,
o g. Improper pouring temperatures will contribute to shrink defects.
o A blow may take the form of an internal void,

dispersed internal porosity, or a surface depression,
as the result of excessive gaseous materials that
cannot escape.
o a. Excess moisture, hard ramming, or other factors
that reduce the permeability of the molding sand
may cause blows.
o b. Excess carbonaceous or other organic material in
the molding or core sand can create gases that may
cause blows.
o c. Excess gas dissolved in the melt may be rejected
dur-ing solidification and cause some types of
o A hot tear is an internal or external ragged
discontinuity in the metal casting resulting from
hindered contraction occurring just after the metal
has solidified.
o a. Poor design as evidenced by abrupt changes in
section, inadequate filleting of inside corners, and
im-proper placement of chills may cause hot tears.
o b. Poor collapsibility of mold and core materials will
place extra stress on certain details and cause hot
tears.
o c. Improper metallurgical and pouring temperature
o Cold cracks are similar to hot tears except that

the discontinuity is less ragged and the defect occurs
below about 265 C.
o a. Most of the causes mentioned for hot tears are
also causes of cold cracks in some castings.
o b. Severe handling of the casting prior to stress
reliev-ing will promote cold cracks.
o c. Some poor design features will contribute to the
for-mation of cold cracks.
o d. Sudden chill due to too rapid removal of castings
o Misruns and cold shuts occur when the mold cavity
is not completely filled and an incomplete casting
results. The cold shut is an extreme limit of a misrun
in which the metal fronts kiss but do not fuse
properly.
o a. Low metal fluidity, caused by low tapping and
pour-ing temperature, improper alloy analysis, and
similar factors are the chief cause of misruns and
cold shuts.
o b. Slow pouring and/or small gates may contribute
to misruns and cold shuts.
o c. Poor design in the form of thin casting sections or
o Pour short: When a mold cavity is not completely

filled because of insufficient metal, it is called a
pour short.
o a. Interruptions during the pouring operation may
re-sult in a pour short.
o b. Insufficient metal in the ladle or ladles being used
to pour the mold will obviously result in pour short.
Metal penetration results when the alloy being cast

tends to penetrate the interstices of the sand grains and
causes a fused aggregate of metal and sand on the
sur-face of the casting.
a. Soft rammed sand may promote metal penetration.
b. Molding sand and core sand that is too coarse will

promote metal penetration.
c. Improper use of mold and core washes will cause
penetration.
d. Excessive metal temperature and other factors that
cause increased fluidity of the metal will promote
penetration.
o Runouts and bust-outs permit drainage of the metal from
the cavity and result in incomplete castings.
o a. A pattern that is too large for a given flask or a pattern placed
too close to the flask edge may result in a weak spot and a
consequent runout.
o b. Match-plate surfaces that are out of parallel or un-even may
result in a poorly formed parting plane and cause a runout.
o c. Inadequate mold weights or clamps will permit cope lift,
which results in runout.
o d. Improper sealing of mold joints or foreign particles that
serve to wedge the mold joints will promote runouts.
o e. Excessive pouring pressures caused by any of several
factors will cause runout.
o f. Misalignment of cope and drag or shift of cope due to poorly
Rough surface finish, not to be confused with
penetration, is merely lack of sufficient smoothness
in the as cast condition.
a. Soft ramming and/or coarse sand, to a lesser degree
than in penetration problems, will cause rough
surfaces.
b. Rough surfaces are sometimes a result of hard

pouring or too high metal fluidity.
c. Improper use of mold and core washes will often

promote rough casting surfaces.
Fin or Flash: A thin projection of metal not

intended as part of the casting is called a fin. Fins
usually occur at the parting of mold or core sections.
a. A runout may often be considered as the extreme limit
of a fin.
b. Poor fitting mold and core sections will cause fins.
c. Poor kiss of the parting plane of a mold will cause a
partial runout and result in a fin.
d. High metal pressures due to high sprue, hard pouring,
and insufficient weights or clamps will promote
formation of fins.
o Gas Defects
o These defects are due to lower gas passing
tendency of the mould which is caused by lower
venting , lower permeability of the mould and
improper design of the casting.
o The lower permeability of the mould is due to
use of finer size grains of sand, higher percentage of
clay & moisture and excessive ramming of the
mould.
o Rat tail: It is a long shallow angular depression normally
found in a thin casting. The reason for its formation is the
same as that of buckles. Here, instead of the expanding sand
up heaving, the compressed layer fails by one layer, gliding
over the other.
o Scab: This refers to the rough thin layer of a metal,
protruding above the casting surface, on top of a thin layer of
sand. The layer is held onto the casting by a metal stringer
through the sand. A scab results when the upheaved sand is
separated from the mould surface and the liquid metal flows
into the space between the mould and the displaced sand.
o Swell: Under the influence of metallo-static forces, the
mould wall may move back causing a swell in the dimensions
of the casting.
o As a result of the swell, the feeding requirements of the
casting increase which should be taken care of by the proper
choice of risering. The main cause of this defect is improper
ramming of the mould.
o Drop: An irregularly shaped projection on the cope surface
of a casting is called a drop. This is caused by dropping of
sand from the cope or other overhanging projections into the
mould. An adequate strength of the sand and the use of
gaggers can help in avoiding the drops.
o Dross: Lighter impurities appearing on the top of a casting
are called dross. It can be taken care of at the pouring stage by
using items such as a strainer and skim bob.
o Dirt: Sometimes sand particles dropping out of the cope get
embedded on the top surface of a casting. When removed,
these leave small, angular holes, known as dirts.
o Hard spots:These are caused by the chilling of the
casting. For example, with grey cast iron having
small amounts of silicon, very hard white cast iron
may result at the chilled surface. This hard spot will
interfere with subsequent machining of this region.
Proper metallurgical control and chilling practices
are essential for eliminating the hard spots.
o The remedies of some defects are also causes of

others. Therefore one has to analyze the casting
from the viewpoint of its final application and thus
arrive at a proper moulding procedure to eliminate
Design of casting, Gating system design, and riser design.
Casting Pattern Design:
o The casting patterns must be designed in a way to enhance
the solidification and casting process reliability of the casting,
costs related to tooling and production are reduced, and stress
concentrators are condensed.
The casting pattern designer has to observe the flow of metal
into the mold to avoid turbulent flow and producing rapid fill.
During the process of solidification, a mold must have been
designed to suitably place the appropriate sized risers to
supply the molten metal into casting.
o The pattern engineer also has a responsibility of
determining the process of metal casting. He identifies the
original designs of the casting by making some
considerations. Once those considerations are identified, "a
required set of decision steps" are developed for a casting
design and a pattern design for creating the mold.
Casting Pattern Design: Decision steps required
To locate the direction of the parting line and adjust
the component within the mold.
Draft angles and radii of the sharp edges are
properly examined.
To recognize and abolish the hotspots within the
component.
To encourage the directional solidification in the
casting component.
Appropriately sized risers are placed in a way to
enhance sufficient metal feed throughout the process
of solidification.
To appropriately place and size the runners; and
Casting Pattern Design:
o The shape of the cast product is similar to the
sand casting pattern.
o The sand mold cavity is manufactured by
stuffing sand along the region of the pattern.
o Logically, pattern design can be defined as the
set of transformations beginning from the shape of
the product to obtain the final shape of the mold
cavity.
o A mathematical representation of this definition
would be:
Process of Pattern Design:
o Removing the holes : Removing all the holes
formed by cores from the product is required.
o Also, as the pattern design is required to produce
the cored characteristics in reference to the design of
the core support in the mold.
o The volume equivalent to the entire core is to be
added to the geometry of the pattern to achieve the
desired pattern shape.
Shrinkage solidification : Since the castings have a

tendency to shrink away from the wall of the molds,
this implies that internal dimensions of the castings
Process of Pattern Design:
o Machining allowance : This refers to
accumulating extra material to part the surface
direction with respect its normal direction. This
added amount of extra material depends on the final
tolerances of the process dimensions, quality of sub-
surface, size of the component and the kind of
machining required.
Draft : A draft angle is provided to all faces of the

product, which are parallel to the draw direction for
facilitating the process of withdrawal. Its value lies
between 0.5 Degrees to 3 degrees depending upon
Casting Core Design and Analysis:
o An expansion of the core body generally along
its axis is known as print.
o The design of this print is dependent upon the

axis direction and the quantity of openings present.
o Each of these opening for the core support, are

related to individual print.
Considerations for Core print design:
To hold the core in place during the mold assembly process, the
print design is required to maintain a balance in the body.
The print must be strong enough to resist the buoyancy force of
the molten metal during casting process.
The print should be stable enough during the process of filling
the mold.
The deflection of the core must be minimized.
The transfer of the heat from the core to the mold should be
maximized.
There should be a provision for escaping the internal gases
within the core.
To avoid inaccurate assembly structure, unsymmetrical holes
should have infallible prints.
Combining the prints of adjacent cores to form single structure.
Considerations for Core print design:
Furthermore, design of the core print depends on
the type of core classified as:
Horizontal simply supported core
Horizontal overhanging core
Vertical doubly supported core
Vertical hanging core
Vertical bottom core
The cored holes and undercuts increase the cost of the tooling
and production time; hence, they should be minimized in terms of
quantity.
Casting Core Design and Analysis: Quality problems & criterions to
avoid:
They also direct quality problems, which can be avoided
by tracking following criterions:
Diameter of the core :
The process of removing and cleaning small sand cores, generally
in thick sections of a casting, is a difficult process.
This is done by accumulation of high heat within the core
enclosed by molten metal.
In the process of die-casting, the molten metal contracts on to the
core of the metal, absorbing it tightly, and thus make it difficult to
remove the core.
Another important consideration is that it may lead to cost-
savings to machine small holes rather than producing them by cores.
The factor that affects the core size depends on the part, metal
casting process, measurement of thickness of the section, and the
length of the core.
Quality problems & criterions to avoid:
o Core aspect ratio :
o The cores having larger lengths as compared to
their diameter are likely to become distorted during
the process of mold filling, under high pressure.
o Sand cores, which are narrow in nature, may
even break down.
o The limiting aspect ratio of the cores depends on
the type of core, material of the core, cast metal and
pressure range while filling process.
Quality problems & criterions to avoid:
o Inter-core distance :
o There are many considerations affecting the
limiting distance between two or more cores.
o Too close holes lead to thin sections and thus
having following issues :
The metal may not completely fill the section.
Due to shrinkage porosity, hot spots may be formed.
A marginal shift in the cores positioning reduces the thickness
of the walls and hence exaggerating the above two issues.
The wall thickness of the sections should always be
greater than the diameter of the core.
Design of Gating & Risering
system for Iron
Design of Gating & Risering system for Iron:
o IRON CASTINGS
o Two types of gating systems are used in ductile
iron castings:
Pressurized
Non-pressurized.
o These are also known as gate-runner and

sprue-runner systems, respectively.
o The difference between the two systems is the
location of the choke, which is the minimum cross-
sectional area in the rigging system that determines
the mold-filling time.
o For gate-runner systems, the choke is located
Sprue-runner systems are used where a large number
of small castings are cast in the same mold with
small choke area requirements. In most other cases,
gate-runner systems are used.
o A combination of both sprue-runner and gate-

runner systems can be used for castings that require
a complicated runner system.
o Pouring time should be as fast as possible.

Figure 3 can be
o Parting Plane Rules:
1. Minimize the need for cores.
o 2. Place heavy sections in the drag.
o 3. Try to put all or most of the casting in the cope for

quiet mold filling.
o The disadvantage of this placement is that the

yield will be small for castings that require a short
o Sprue Rules:
1. Locate the sprue symmetrically.
o 2. For sprue-runner systems, the choke cross-sectional area can be
estimated using ghaphs of pouring weight to choke cross-sectional
area.
o For multiple casting molds, the total choke area is the sum of all
the choke areas downstream of the sprue.
o 3. Sprue should not act as choke.
o 4. The minimum sprue cross-sectional area can be calculated using
the following equation: Asprue = Achoke (H / h)
o where Asprue : cross-sectional area of the sprue
Achoke : total choke cross-sectional area
h : height of metal in the pouring basin
H : vertical height of molten metal in the sprue.
For downward tapered sprues, h is measured to the smallest
cross-section of the sprue.
5. For sprue-runner systems, the choke area can be located at the
bottom of the sprue for tapered sprues or between the sprue box
and the runner.
6. Sprue area calculated using Equation 9 can be taken as the

minimum cross-sectional area for upward taper, downward
taper and parallel sprues.
7. Avoid use of parallel sprues.

Riser Rules:
1. Risering should be designed one of three ways:
conventionally, as in steel castings; riserless23 with
multiple gates, for castings not poured in green sand; or
with a single riser and multiple gates.
2. Risering principles for green sand castings are presented
by Heine.
3. Minimize the number of risers by feeding multiple
sections of the casting with a single riser, if possible.
4. Sizing should be done using modulus calculations.
5. The M-C method can also be used for sizing the risers
Riser Rules (Cont..):
6. It is desirable to make the height of the riser larger than its
diameter.
7. Standard risers can be used to expedite the volume and
modulus calculations.
8. Break-off or Washburn cores are used to reduce the cost of
riser removal and cleaning.
9. Use blind risers.
10. Side risers should be connected to the casting with a short
passage choked at the middle section (riser contact).
11. Selection of the risering method (pressure control, directly
applied, or riserless) can be made using the casting modulus.
Gate Rules:
1. If multiple, identical castings are cast in the same mold,
gate all of them in the same manner.
2. Minimum gate length should be five times the gate
thickness.
3. Recommended gate thicknesses can be determined for a
given pouring temperature using graph of pouring
temperature vs minimum gate thickness.
4. For gate-runner systems, the choke area obtained from
ghaphs of pouring weight to choke cross-sectional area,
is the total choke area, i.e., the sum of the gate cross-
sectional areas.
For multiple chokes, each choke area is selected using
the weight calculated by dividing the sum of the weight
of the castings and risers by the number of chokes.
Gate Rules (Cont..):
5. For gate-runner systems, the junction between a gate and
a runner should be such that the bottom surface of the
gate should be placed on the same plane as the bottom
surface of the runner.
6. For gate-runner systems, gates should come off the runner at a

right angle.
7. For sprue runner systems, the gates bottom surface should be

placed on the top surface of the runner.
8. For gate-runner systems, the total area of gate overlap on the

runner should be about 10% more than the choke area.
9. For gate-runner systems, gate overlap on the runner is

slightly more than the height of the gate.
10. For gate-runner systems, two gates should not be

located on opposite sides of a runner at the same point.
11. For gate-runner systems, gates should be thin and wide.

A height-to-width ratio of 1:4 is reasonable.
12. For gate-runner systems, two thin and narrow gates
should be preferred to one thick and wide gate.
13. For gate-runner systems, the gates can be as long as
needed but the minimum gate length should be equal to
the gate width.
14. For gate-runner systems, the gates can be straight or
curved.
15. For sprue-runner systems, gates are always located in
the cope.
Runner Rules:
1. Avoid use of curved runners.
2. If curved runners are necessary, locate gates as far from

the curved sections as possible.
3. Avoid use of stepped runners.
4. For gate-runner systems, use tall, narrow runners. A
height to-width ratio of 2:1 is reasonable.
5. For gate-runner systems, the cross-sectional area of a
runner should be three to four times the sum of the
cross-sectional areas of the gates on that runner.
6. For gate-runner systems, the ratio of the runner cross-
sectionalarea to the choke area is between 4:1 and 2:1.
Runner Rules (Cont..):
7. For gate-runner systems, use tapered blind ends with
approximately 20% slope.
8. For gate-runner systems, a well can be employed at the
end of the blind end (runner well), which is of particular
use when there is not much space in the mold for proper
runner extension.
9. For gate-runner systems, the minimum distance between
the sprue and the first gate on the runner should be about
four times the height of the runner.
10. For gate-runner systems, the minimum blind-end
extension should be about four times the runner height.
Runner Rules (Cont..):
11.For gate-runner systems, the length of the runner
extension and the distance between the sprue and the
first gate are preferably the same. If this cannot be
attained, the latter can be made one-half of the former.
12. For sprue-runner systems, the runner cross section is
square at the choke section.
13. For sprue-runner systems, the runner is always placed
in the drag.
14. For sprue-runner systems, the runner is tapered such
that right after the choke, the runner height is four times
the height at choke, and past the last gate, it is equal to
the height at choke.
Melting furnaces
Melting furnaces:
Rotary
Pit
Electric
Tilting and
Cupola.
Rotary furnace:
o A rotary furnace consists of a refractory lined
rotating shell, which is rotated at very low rpm.
o The rotary furnace consists of a cylindrical body
with two conical ends.
o An electric motor drives two of the support rollers
which rotate the drum. Hydraulic cylinders enable
the furnace to he tilted forward or backward along
its longitudinal axis.
o Support rollers prevent the furnace from slipping in
the longitudinal direction charging is done through
the waste gas aperture, after the furnace has been
tilted forwards by 30 .
Rotary furnace (Cont..):
o Vibrating conveyors have proved to be successful
for charging, these being mounted above the furnace
may be used.
o The charged material is uniformly distributed by
tilting the furnace backwards. If necessary, this
position is also used for hot repairs to the lining.
o Heat is generated by burning liquid fuel inside the
shell. Waste products of combustion are used to
provide highly preheated combustion air to the
burner resulting in a high flame temperature.
o In this way fuel savings of 10% to 20% or more can
o As the volume of the molten charge increases, direct

heat transfer is reduced by the slag cover.
o As the heated refractory lining rotates under the
molten metal, heat is transferred by conduction and
convection.
o The rotation of the furnace provides a continuous,
uniform and rapid heat transfer to the metal and
insures a consistent temperature differential between
the refractory and molten metal.
o The life of the lining is usually long and frequent
o Melting losses of silicon and carbon can be as high
as 10% to 15% for each.
o The longer the metal is superheated, the higher will
be the carbon and silicon losses.
o When adding carbon to the furnace, there is about a
60% pickup.
o Tapping is through one of the two tap holes in the
front cone.
o The slag is first tapped out through the front
opening.
The melting capacity and energy consumption of a rotary
furnace are influenced by the following parameters:
o Tapping temperature
o Temperature of refractory lining
o Scrap lumpiness and specific surface
o Percentage of steel scrap
o Furnace geometry
o Degree of filling
o Flame temperature
o Furnace rpm
o Flame shape and length
o Fuel
o Carburization time.
o With an oxygen burner it is not possible to use both oil/natural gas
and propane as a fuel.
o The high percentage of radiated heat in the oxygen flame, at a
flame temperature of around 2800oC and the high emission
coefficients of the CO2 and H20 rich furnace atmosphere, permits
the use of natural gas and propane, which also minimizes pick up
of sulphur.
o The specific fuel and oxygen consumptions are reduced as the
charge weight increases. According to the charge weight, the
furnace efficiency (i.e. the relationship of utilized to input heat)
amounts to between 50 and 64%, which is very high.
o The rotary furnace is a closed melting facility where, for the same
melting capacity, the oxygen burner reduces the waste gas volume
to around 20% of that with a comparable air burner. Consequently,
dust removal from the flue gas is easier and more cost effective
than with the cupola and even the induction furnace
Crucible Furnaces:
Crucible furnaces are small capacity typically used for small
melting applications.
Crucible furnace is suitable for the batch type foundries
where the metal requirement is intermittent.
The metal is placed in a crucible which is made of clay and
graphite.
The energy is applied indirectly to the metal by heating the
crucible by coke, oil or gas.
The heating of crucible is done by coke, oil or gas. .
Crucible Furnaces:
Coke-Fired Furnace(Figure ) .
o Primarily used for non-ferrous metals
o Furnace is of a cylindrical shape
o Also known as pit furnace
o Preparation involves: first to make a deep bed
of coke in the furnace
o Burn the coke till it attains the state of
maximum combustion
o Insert the crucible in the coke bed
o Remove the crucible when the melt reaches to
desired temperature
Crucible Furnaces:
Figure : Coke Fired Crucible Furnace

Oil-Fired Crucible Furnace:
Primarily used for non-ferrous metals
Furnace is of a cylindrical shape
Advantages include: no wastage of fuel
Less contamination of the metal
Absorption of water vapor is least as the metal melts
inside the closed metallic furnace
Oil/Gas fired tilting crucible furnace:
Crucible Furnaces (Cont..):
o The crucible is lifted out and used as a ladle for pouring the
molten metal.
o Common fuels used in crucible melting are coke, gas, and oil.
o Crucible furnaces are most commonly used when melting the
various nonferrous alloys. Temperatures are sufficient to melt
some of the ferrous alloys.
o Crucible-furnace capacities are based on the approximate
weight of molten aluminum that the largest crucible which fits
the furnace will hold. Crucibles range in size from No. 1 (1.25
pounds of aluminum) to No. 400 (400 pounds of aluminum).
o Crucible melting is economical for the melting of relatively
small quantities of nonferrous alloys, and provides for close
control.
Electric Furnaces:
o Melting furnaces which utilize electricity as fuel are
called electric furnaces, regardless of construction
details.
o There are three major types:
Direct-arc,
Indirect-arc, and
Induction.
Electric Furnaces (Cont..):
1. This furnace gets its name from the fact that
carbon electrodes project vertically through the roof,
and an electric arc passes directly from them into the
metal bath.
2. Direct-arc furnaces range in size from a capacity

of a few pounds (laboratory sizes) to as much as 100
tons per batch. In the foundry industry, sizes from a
3- to 10-ton capacity are the most popular.
3. Acid melting (utilizing the common silica linings)

and basic melting (utilizing magnesite or dolomite
5. Among the advantages of direct-arc melting are
high melting rate, high pouring temperatures, and
excellent control of metal analysis.
6. The average time per heat in such furnaces ranges

from 20 to 70 minutes per ton of melt.
7. Duplexing and triplexing, wherein the melting is

done in a cupola and refinement is accomplished in
a second or third furnace, often employ direct-arc
furnaces as the final step.
1. The indirect-arc rocking furnace is a horizontal
barrel-like structure, lined with a suitable refractory
and designed to rock through a 1800 arc about its
horizontal axis.
2. Carbon electrodes project into the furnace from

both sides, and heat is obtained from an arc
maintained at the ends of the two electrodes. Some
of the heat is re-verberated from the furnace lining.
3. Indirect-arc furnaces vary from laboratory

models that melt a few pounds of metal to sizes that
o Induction furnaces may be used to melt relatively
small quantities of special alloys of any type, with a
minimum of contamination.
1. An induction coil is built in the furnace structure

around the crucible portion.
2. Both high-frequency and low-frequency types are

success-fully employed. High-frequency types
utilize electric current at 1,000 to 10,000 cycles,
while low-frequency types utilize electric current at
60 to 100 cycles.
The Cupola:
o The cupola is a 6 to 12 meter vertical cylindrical steel-plate
stack, lined with refractory material and provided with a means
of introducing a blast of air near the bottom.
o The cupola is used to melt most of the gray iron that is produced
in the United States and Canada. This amounts to more than 15
million tons annually.
o Several factors are responsible for the wide use of the cupola as
a melting furnace.
1. The cupola is very easy to operate and is the fastest of the
melting furnaces.
2. Cupolas are generally very economical, since installation,
maintenance, and operating costs are low.
3. The cupola method is the only method of melting that is
continuous' in operation. In this respect it is related to the
common blast furnace.
The Cupola (Cont..):
o Cupolas vary in size and production figures.
1. Shell diameters normally vary from 27 to 108 inches and
may be lined to diameters ranging from 450 to 3000 mm.
2. Since the cupola may be operated on different fuel-to-
metal ratios, available sizes are capable of producing from 1
to nearly 35 tons per hour.
o Special experimental cupolas are sometimes used for
demonstration and research. Such special cupolas may be
so small as to have a 150 mm inside diameter after lining.
o Among the smaller cupolas in existence is one at The
Pennsylvania State University which has an 200 mm inside
diameter with a melting rate of 10 kg of gray iron per hour.
Figure : Schematic of a Cupola

Operational cycle for cupola melting:
1. The cast-iron bottom doors are first closed and propped.
2. A sand bottom is rammed into place on these doors.
a. The bottom must be sloped 1 inch per foot toward the tap hole.
b. Bottom made of relatively low-strength molding sand with
increased coarse silica grains to improve permeability.
o Kindling of light-weight dry lumber is placed in an inverted, cone like
structure on the sand bottom. Gas, oil, or electric coke igniters are being
used more ex-tensively now, in place of the wood.
o Half of bed charge of coke is placed on the kindling or other coke-
igniting material or mechanism. Coke is ignited by method in use.
a. The total bed charge of coke is determined by the height it reaches
above the tuyeres (air inlets), and varies from 700 to 1325 mm depending
upon cupola size and other factors determined by experience.
b. After the first half of the coke is thoroughly ignited, the remainder of
the coke is added.
o When the coke has burned through, charges of iron, flux, and
additional coke are added in alternate layers.
a. The metal charge consists essentially of pig iron, scrap cast (either
domestic or purchased), and steel, in various proportions to meet the
approximate analysis prescribed by the metallurgist.
b. Pig iron provides the balance in the control of anal-ysis with respect
to such elements as silicon, manga-nese, and phosphorus.
c. The flux charge of limestone, fluorspar, or soda ash is generally
about 20 per cent of the coke charge by weight.
(1) Flux reacts with the slag to lower its fusion point, thus providing
for removal of the slag, which carries the impurities out.
(2) Natural slag formed from sand, dirt, iron oxides, coke ash, and
eroded lining has a very high melting point, and would readily freeze
in the cupola blast.
(3) If the slag is not removed it seals the coke from the air and lowers
the oxidation rate, thus caus-ing cold melting.
d. Iron-coke ratios of 6: 1, 8: 1, 10: 1 and 12: 1 by
weight are commonly used in cupola melting. The 8:
1 ratio is perhaps most typical.
e. The selection of coke of proper size is important.
A common rule to follow is to select coke that is
approximately *2 the diameter of the cupola. Coke
with a minimum of moisture and volatile material
is also desirable.
o A blast of air is introduced through the wind box and
tuyre located near the bottom of the cupola.
a. The function of the air is to react chemically with
c. The total tuyre area of the cupola is important, and this varies
from 1/8 to 1/4 the cross-sectional area of the cupola.
d. The air required to melt one ton of iron is approximately 10,000
cubic meter, and this figure is the basis for determining the
capacity of blowers needed in cupola work.
7. Soon after the blast is turned on, molten metal collects in the
cupola well and is tapped out into a receiving ladle.
a. The melting rate is partially governed by cross-sectional area,
and will range from 2 to 2.8 kg per square meter per minute, or
approximately 7.5 gm per square mm per hour.
b. As metal is tapped off and fuel consumed, new charges may be
added at the charging level to pro-vide a continuous operating
cycle.
8. At the end of the melting operation the air blast is shut off, and the
bottom doors are opened to allow all resid-ual materials left in the
9. The hot drop is removed from under the cupola, and the
inside lining is allowed to cool.
10. Major steps in maintenance involve repairing the
refractory lining where needed.
a. Spalling of refractories, slag reactions, adhering
aggregate of slag and extraneous materials, and eroded areas
produce an irregular lining surface usually just above the
tuyeres.
b. The cupola lining must be prepared for patching by
chipping away all this adhering slag and extraneous
material.
c. Patching over slag is useless, since the slag has a
lower melting point than the refractory and will cause
excessive spalling of patch during the next cycle.
12. Melting operations may be started several hours after patching has
been completed.
o Calculation of cupola charges.
1. The metal-charge make-up in common cupola melting.
a. Pig iron, product of the blast furnace, is available in
approximately ten grades and numerous sub-grades of known
analysis.
b. Domestic scrap cast includes sprues, risers, and scrapped
castings from previous operations. It also is of known analysis.
c. Purchased scrap, consisting of steel and cast-iron mate-rials
shipped in as needed, can be obtained in several grades. The
grades are based on the source and age of the scrap, and analysis
must be approximated.
2. Losses and pickup of various elements that occur during melting
operations.
a. Carbon up to the maximum of 4.3 per cent balances out, since
b. Silicon up to the desired maximum of 3 per cent
must be maintained. Oxidation loss of 10 per cent
occurs and can be compensated for by additions of
pig iron, ferrosilicon, or silicon briquettes.
c. Manganese normally varies between 0.5 and 0.75
per cent. Loss due to oxidation and reaction with
sulfur amounts to 20 per cent of original amount.
Compensation can be made by additions of pig iron,
ferro-manganese, or manganese briquettes.
d. Phosphorus, sometimes desirable to a maximum of
1 per cent, undergoes little change during melting.
Oxidation loss is negligible, and total amount
charged will be retained.
o Therefore, 0.04 X 0.005 X kg of coke will equal the weight
of the sulfur picked up.
o 3. The following is an example of cupola-charge
calculations using an approximation method:
Silicon: 6.5 -;- 300 X

100 = 2.17%
Manganese: 1.60 -;- 300
X 100 = 0.54%
Phosphorus: 1.40 -;- 300
X 100 = 0.47%
Sulfur: 0.14 -;- 300 X
100 = 0.048%

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Foundry Technology

Sub-Topics of Foundry Technology:

The metal casting process is a labor intensive

500 A.D. Cast crucible steel is first produced in

1455 Dillenburg Castle in Germany is the first to use

1750 Benjamin Huntsman reinvents the process of

1809 Centrifugal casting is developed by A. G.

1897 Investment casting is rediscovered by B.F.

1947 The Shell process, invented by J. Croning of

1953 The Hotbox system of making and curing cores in

Figure : Mold Section showing some casting terms

Melting and pouring

Pattern allowances and

Material used for patterns.

Fig. View in a pattern

Solid or Single Piece Pattern:

Fig. Portion of a large skeleton pattern under

o Cope and Drag Pattern:

It is arranged to rotate about a central axis.

2. Machining or finish allowance.

3. Draft of tapper allowances.

4. Distortion or chamber allowance.

5. Shake or rapping allowance.

6. Wall movement allowance.

2. Pouring temp. of the metal/alloy.

4. Casting design aspects.

5. Molding conditions(i.e., mould materials and molding

The contraction of metals/alloys is always volumetric, but the

i. Castings get oxidized in the mold and during heat

ii. It is the intended to remove surface roughness and

iii. It is required to achieve exact casting dimensions.

iv. Surface finish is required on the casting.

ii. Size and shape of casting.

iii. The type of machining operations to be employed for

iv. Casting conditions.

v. Molding process employed.

Figure (a) Pattern

Fig: taper in design

Using the various hand tools and pattern making

ii. Indicate the type of the metal to be cast.

iii. Identify core prints, loose pieces, etc.,

iv. Visualize the surfaces to be machined, etc.

a. Some patterns of the utilitarian type may be made of

b. Some patterns, especially those intended for long

c. Some patterns may be made of anyone of the several

a. The amount of contraction varies with the

b. Contraction takes place in direct proportion to

o Molding sands properties and sand testing;

o Clay content and

About 4 to 5 tons of molding sand may be required to

Poor molding sand ------ poor castings.

Attention to preparing, controlling, handling, and

Several different types of molding sands are used.

Usually green sand.

o These three components provide the bulk and

o Granular particles of sand, SiO2, principally,

o The rest being the other oxides such as alumina,

o These impurities should be minimized to about 2

2. Grain size distribution, (Grain sizes range from less than

3. Grain shape( round, sub-angular, angular, very angular)

5. Refractoriness and thermal stability.

o With suitable water content, it is the principal source

o Clay is thus the bond or binder of molding sands.

o In some mineral deposits, clay and sand occur in