Brahma Sutras - Wikipedia

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BrahmaSutras
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TheBrahmastras(Sanskrit:)isaSanskrittext,attributedtoBadarayana,estimatedtohavebeen
completedinitssurvivingformsometimebetween450BCEand200CE.[1][2]Thetextsystematizesand
summarizesthephilosophicalandspiritualideasintheUpanishads.[3]Itisoneofthefoundationaltextsofthe
VedntaschoolofHinduphilosophy.[3]
TheBrahmasutrasconsistsof555aphoristicverses(sutras)infourchapters.[4]Theseversesareprimarilyabout
thenatureofhumanexistenceanduniverse,andideasaboutthemetaphysicalconceptofUltimateRealitycalled
Brahman.[3][5]ThefirstchapterdiscussesthemetaphysicsofAbsoluteReality,thesecondchapterreviewsand
addressestheobjectionsraisedbytheideasofcompetingorthodoxschoolsofHinduphilosophiesaswellas
heterodoxschoolssuchasBuddhismandJainism,[6]thethirdchapterdiscussesepistemologyandpathtogaining
spirituallyliberatingknowledge,andthelastchapterstateswhysuchaknowledgeisanimportanthumanneed.[7]
TheBrahmasutraisoneofthreemostimportanttextsinVedantaalongwiththePrincipalUpanishadsandthe
BhagavadGita.[8][9]IthasbeeninfluentialtovariousschoolsofIndianphilosophies,butinterpreteddifferentlyby
thenondualisticAdvaitaVedantasubschool,thetheisticVishishtadvaitaandDvaitaVedantasubschools,aswell
asothers.[9]SeveralcommentariesontheBrahmasutrasarelosttohistoryoryettobefoundofthesurviving
ones,themostwellstudiedcommentariesontheBrahmasutraincludethebhashyabyAdiShankara,[3]Ramanuja,
Madhvacharya,Bhaskaraandmanyothers.[10]
ItisalsoknownastheVedantaSutra(Sanskrit:),[3]derivingthisnamefromVedantawhichliterally
meansthe"finalaimoftheVedas".[11]OthernamesforBrahmaSutraisSarirakaSutra,[note1]whereinSariraka
means"thatwhichlivesinthebody(Sarira),ortheSelf,Soul",[12]andBhikshusutra,whichliterallymeans
"Sutrasformonksormendicants".[8]
Contents
1 Authorandchronology
2 Structure
3 Contents
3.1 Chapter1:WhatisBrahman?
3.2 Chapter2:Reviewofcompetingtheories
3.3 Chapter3:Themeanstospiritualknowledge
3.4 Chapter4:Thebenefitsofspiritualknowledge
4 Commentaries
4.1 Exegesis
4.2 Translations
5 Influence
6 Notes
7 References
8 Externallinks
Authorandchronology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahma_Sutras 1/15
TheBrahmaSutrasorBrahmasutraareattributedtoBadarayana.[13]Insometexts,Badarayanaisalsocalled
Vyasa,whichliterallymeans"onewhoarranges".[13]
BdaryanawastheGuru(teacher)ofJaimini,thelattercreditedwithauthoringMimamsaSutrasoftheMimamsa
schoolofHinduphilosophy.[13]Thisislikely,giventhatbothBadarayanaandJaiminiquoteeachotherasthey
analyzeeachother'stheories,BadarayanaemphasizingknowledgewhileJaiminiemphasizesrituals,sometimes
agreeingwitheachother,sometimesdisagreeing,oftenantithesisoftheother.[14]
TheBrahmasutratextisdatedtocenturiesthatfollowedBuddhaandMahavira,becauseitmentionsandcritiques
theideasofBuddhismandJainisminChapter2.[15]Thetext'srelativechronologyisalsobasedonthefactthat
BadarayanaquotesallmajorknownorthodoxHinduschoolsofphilosophyexceptNyaya.[15][16]Theexactcentury
ofitscompositionorcompletioninfinalformisunknown,butscholarssuchasLochtefeldsuggestthatthetext
wascompletesometimebetween500to200BCE,[7][17]whileSarvepalliRadhakrishnanandDasgupta
independentlysuggestthe2ndcenturyBCEasmorelikely.[1][13]PaulDeussenplacesitbetween200BCEand400
CE.[1]
HermannJacobiinearly20thcenturysuggestedthatMadhyamakaBuddhistconceptssuchasSunyavada,
acknowledgedintheBrahmasutras,maybealateinvention,andsuggeststhatbothSunyavadaandBrahmasutras
maythereforehaveemergedbetween200450CE.[1]DanielIngallsdisagreedwithJacobichronologyinhis1954
paper,critiquingJacobi'sassumptionsandinterpretationofsutras2.2.2832indatingtheentiredocument,and
statingthat"theBrahmasutracouldnothavebeencomposedlaterthanthestartofthecommonera".[18][19]
Accordingtoa2013reviewbyAndrewNicholson,theBrahmaSutraswerecomposedovermanycenturiesby
multipleauthors,andlikelycompleteinthecurrentformbetween450to400BCE.[2]Theexistenceofearlier
versionsoftheBrahmasutras,andmultipleauthorspredatingBadarayana,issupportedbytextualevidence.[20]
Somescholars,suchasSengakuMayeda,stateBrahmasutrathathassurvivedintothemoderntimesmaybethe
workofmultipleauthorsbutthosewholivedafterBadarayana,andthattheseauthorscomposedthecurrently
survivingBrahmasutrastartingabout300BCEthroughabout400450CE.[21][note2]Nakamurastatesthatthe
originalversionofBrahmasutraislikelyveryancientanditsinceptioncoincideswiththeKalpaSutrasperiod
(1stmillenniumBCE).[24]
NataliaIsaevastates,"onthewhole,scholarsareratherunanimous,consideringthemostprobabledatefor
Brahmasutrasometimebetweenthe2ndcenturyBCEandthe2ndcenturyCE.[1]
Structure
TheBrahmaStrasconsistof555aphorismsorstras,infourchapters(adhyya),witheachchapterdividedinto
fourparts(pda).[4]EachpartisfurthersubdividedintosectionscalledAdhikaraaswithsutras.[4]Somescholars,
suchasFrancisClooney,calltheAdhikaraasas"casestudies"withadefinedhermeneuticprocess.[25][26]
SutrasdistributionintheBrahmasutra[27]
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Section Total
Pada Pada Pada Pada
Adhyaya1 31 32 43 28 134
Adhyaya2 37 45 53 22 157
Adhyaya3 27 41 66 52 186
Adhyaya4 19 21 16 22 78
TotalSutras: 555
EachAdhikaraaofBrahmasutrahasvaryingnumbersofsutras,andmostsectionsofthetextarestructuredto
addressthefollowing:[4][28][note3]
1.Vishaya():subject,issueortopic
2.Vismaya():doubt,uncertaintyorperplexity
3.Purvapaksha():primafacieview,orpriorartandarguments
4.Siddhanta():theoryandargumentspresented,proposeddoctrine,orconclusions
5.Samgati():connectionbetweensections,synthesis,orcomingtogetherofknowledge
TheBrahmasutratexthas189Adhikaranas.[31][note4]Eachsection(casestudy)inthetextopenswiththeMukhya
(chief,main)sutrathatstatesthepurposeofthatsection,andthevarioussectionsoftheBrahmasutrasinclude
VishayaVakyas(citethetextsourcesandevidencetheyuse).[4]
TheSutrasofthetext,statesAdiShankarainhiscommentary,arestructuredlikeastringthattiestogetherthe
Vedantatextslikeagarlandofflowers.[4]
Contents
TheBrahmasutra,statesSengakuMayeda,distillsandconsolidatestheextensiveteachingsfoundinavarietyof
UpanishadsofHinduism,summarizing,arranging,unifyingandsystematizingtheUpanishadictheories.[21]Prior
tothecreationoftheBrahmasutras,theVedicliteraturehadgrownintoanenormouscollectionofideasand
practices,rangingfrompracticalrituals(karmakanda)toabstractphilosophy(jnanakanda).[21][32]Differentand
conflictingtheoriesonmetaphysicalproblems,diversemutuallycontradictingunsystematizedteachingsonrituals
andphilosophiesmultipliedinthefourVedas,creatingtheneedforconsolidatedandsystematizedcontent
summaryoftheSruti.[21][32]ThiswasachievedbyJaimini'sMimamsasutrawhichfocussedonexternalizedrituals
asthespiritualpath,whileBadarayana'sBrahmasutrafocussedoninternalizedphilosophyasthespiritual
path.[21][32]
Thetextreviewsandcritiquesmostmajororthodoxschoolsof
HinduphilosophyaswellasallheterodoxIndianphilosophies Theopeningsutra
suchasBuddhism,withtheexceptionofSamkhyaandYoga
philosophieswhichitholdsinhighregardsandrecurrentlyrefers
totheminallitsfourchapters,addinginsutras2.1.3and4.2.21 ThenthereforetheenquiryintoBrahman
thatYogaandSamkhyaaresimilar.[35]Thetextcitesandquotes Brahmasutra1.1.1[33][34]
fromthetenPrincipalUpanishadsoften,theKaushitaki
UpanishadandtheShvetashvataraUpanishadinseveralsutras,
butalsomentionsUpanishadsnowunknownandlost.[35]Thecontentsofthetextalsoacknowledgeandanalyze
thevariousVedicschools,andmentionstheexistenceofmultiple,divergingversionsofthesameunderlying
text.[36]
ThesutrasoftheBrahmasutraareaphorisms,whichPaulDeussenstatestobe"threadsstretchedoutinweavingto
formthebasisoftheweb",andintelligible"whenthewoofisadded"withacommentary.[37]
Chapter1:WhatisBrahman?
ThefirstchapterisregardedinVedantatraditionasSamanvaya(Harmony),becauseitdistills,synchronizesand
bringsintoaharmoniouswholetheseeminglydiverseandconflictingpassagesinvariousSrutitexts.[38][39]It
consistsof134sutras,withelevenAdhikaranasinthefirstPada,sevenAdhikaranasinsecond,fourteen
Adhikaranasinthird,andeightinthefourthPada.[40]ThedifferentsubschoolsofVedantahaveinterpretedthe
sutrasinthelastPadadifferently,andsomecountonlysevenAdhikaranasinthefourthPada.[40]
ThisBrahmasutrachapterassertsthatalltheUpanishads
primarilyaimandcoherentlydescribetheknowledgeand
Perception,InferenceandWord
meditationofBrahman,theultimatereality.[42]Brahmanisthe
sourcefromwhichtheworldcameintoexistence,inwhomit
inheresandtowhichitreturns.Theonlysourceforthe Ifitbesaidthatacontradictionwillresultin
regardtoWord(Vedas),wesaythatitisnotso
knowledgeofthisBrahmanistheSrutiortheUpanishads.[43] becausetheoriginationofeverythingisfrom
perceptionandinference.
Thesutras1.1.511quotestheSamkhyaschool'sviewthatthe AdiShankaracommentary:"Perceptionmeans
Principleoftheworldisunconscious,andinsteadassertsthatthe Srutiforitsvalidityitisnotdependenton
PrincipleoftheworldisconsciousandtheBrahmanitself.The anythingelseinferenceisSmriti".
remainingsutrasinPada1.1,allsutrasof1.2and1.3assertthat Brahmasutra1.3.28[41]
BrahmanistheprimaryfocusoftheUpanishads,isvarious
aspectsofempiricalreality,quotingvariousversesinsupport,
fromTaittiriyaUpanishad,ChandogyaUpanishad,KaushitakiUpanishad,MundakaUpanishad,KathaUpanishad,
BrihadaranyakaUpanishadandPrashnaUpanishad.[44][45]
Thefirstchapterinsutras1.4.115presentstheSamkhyatheoriesonPrakriti,andpresentsitsargumentsthatthese
areinconsistentandmisinterpretationoftheKatha,Brihadaranyaka,ShvetashvataraandTaittiriyaUpanishad.[44]
Sutras1.4.23through1.4.27statethatBrahmanistheefficientcauseandthematerialcauseoftheworld.[44]The
lastsutraofthefirstchapterstatesthattheargumentsontherefutationofSamkhyatheoriesalsoapplytothe
atomists(VaisheshikaschoolofHinduphilosophy).[44]
Chapter2:Reviewofcompetingtheories
Secondchapter(Avirodha:nonconflict,noncontradiction):discussesandrefutesthepossibleobjectionsto
Vedntaphilosophy,andstatesthatthecentralthemesofVedantaareconsistentacrossthevariousVedictexts.[4]
TheBrahmasutrastates,examinesanddismissestherefutationsraisedbyotherschoolsofthoughts,thosenow
classifiedunderHinduism,JainismandBuddhism.[46]Thesecondchapterconsistsof157sutras,withthirteen
AdhikaranasinthefirstPada,eightinsecond,seventeenAdhikaranasinthird,andnineinthefourthPada.[47]
ThesecondBrahmasutrachapterhasbeenvariouslyinterpretedbyvariousmonist,theisticandothersubschools
ofVedanta.[42][48]TheAdvaitaschoolforexample,statesFrancisClooney,assertsthatthe"identityofAtmanand
Brahman"basedAdvaitasystemisthecoherentsystemwhileothersystemsconflictwiththeUpanishads,orare
internallyinconsistent,orincoherentwithobservedrealityandcosmos.[42]Thetheisticsubschoolsinterpretthe
texttobestatingthatAtmanisdifferentthanBrahman,andthereaftereachexplainshowothersystemsconflict
withtheUpanishadsorareincoherent.[48]
ThePada2.1openswithAdhikaranaonSamkhyaandVaisheshikaschoolsargumentsthatSmritisshouldbea
basisforexaminingtheconceptofBrahman,andtheirobjectionstotheVedantatheoryofreflection.The
Brahmasutraassertsin2.1.13through2.1.20thatthesubjectandobjectareoneinBrahman,thatagreeswith
Samkhyathereisanidentityincauseandeffect,addingthattheBrahmanandtheempiricalworldaretherefore
one.[49]Thesutras2.1.21through2.1.36presenttheproblemofevil,offeringitsowndoctrinetoaddressit,
assertingthatBrahmanisneitherunjustnorcruel,andthatinequalityandevilexistsintheworldbecauseofwill,
choicesandcircumstancescreatedbyactionsoflivingbeingsovertime.[50]
ThesutrasinPada2.1arevariouslyinterpretedbyAdvaita,Dvaita,Vishishtadvaitaandothersubschoolsof
Vedanta.[50][51][52]ThemonistAdvaitaschoolholdsthatignoranceorAvidya(wrongknowledge)istherootof
"problemofevil"incontrast,dualisticVedantaschoolsholdkarmaandsamsaratobetheroot.[53][note5]
TheatomisticphysicotheologicaltheoriesofVaisheshikaandSamkhyaschoolarethefocusofthefirstseventeen
sutrasofPada2.2.[54]ThetheoriesofBuddhismarerefutedinsutras2.2.18through2.2.32,[note6]whilethe
theoriesofJainismareanalyzedbythetextinsutras2.2.33through2.2.36.[6][56]
Thetheoriesofotherorthodoxtraditionsarediscussedin2.2.37through2.2.45.[57]RamanujaandShankara
disagreeintheirformulationaswellascritiqueofthenextantorthodoxtraditions,intheirrespective
commentaries,butbothagreethatthetheoryonemergenceofPradyumna(intellect)inthecompetingorthodox
systemistheprimaryflaw.[58]
ThefirsteightcasestudiesinthethirdPadaofchapter2discusswhethertheworldhasanoriginornot,whether
theuniverseiscoeternalwithBrahmanorisaneffectofBrahman(interpretedasdualisticGodintheisticsub
schoolsofVedanta),andwhethertheuniverserefundsintoBrahmanperiodically.[59]ThelastnineAdhikaranasof
thethirdPadadiscussthenatureofsoul,whetheritiseternal,issoulanagent,soul'srelationshiptoBrahman,and
statesitsproofthatthesoulexistsandisimmortal.[60][61]
ThelastPadaofthesecondchapterextractsandsummarizesthetheoriesofhumanbody,sensoryorgans,action
organsandtheirrelationshiptoPrana(vitalbreath)inthevariousVedicBrahmanasandUpanishads.[62][63]The
Brahmasutrastatesthattheorgansinsidealivingbeingareindependentprinciples,intheseventhandeighth
AdhikaranaofthefourthPada.[63][64]ThevarioussubschoolsofVedantainterpretthesutrasinthefourthPada
differently.[63]
Chapter3:Themeanstospiritualknowledge
Thirdchapter(Sdhana:themeans):describestheprocessbywhichultimateemancipationcanbeachieved.The
topicsdiscussedarediverse.[67]Thethirdchapteristhelongestandconsistsof186sutras,withsixAdhikaranasin
itsfirstPada,eightinsecond,thirtysixinthird,andfourteenAdhikaranasinthefourthPada.[68]
ThethirdBrahmasutrachapterfocusesonthenatureofspiritualknowledgeandepistemicpathstoit.[42]The
theoryofdeathandrebirth,[69]karmaandimportanceofconductandfreewill,[70]andtheconnectionbetween
Atman(Self,Soul)andtheBrahmanarediscussedinsections3.1and3.2ofthetext.[42][71]

And(Brahmanisapprehended)inperfectmeditationalso,
accordingtoperception(Sruti,Pratyaka)andinference
(Smriti,Anuma).

Andasisthecaseof(physical)lightandthelike,thereisthe
nondistinction(oftwoSelves),thelight(Self)byitsactivity,
onaccountofrepeateddeclarations(intheScripture).

Therefore(theindividualsoulentersintounity)withthe
infinite(thehighestSelf),forthus(isthescriptural)indication.
Brahmasutra3.2.243.2.26,[72][73]
Sections3.3and3.4describetheneedforselfstudy,reflectionoftexts
TheVedantatexts,statesutras3.1.14
read,meditation,[74]stepsasonemakesprogressandtheroleofsannyasa
and3.3.519ofBrahmasutra,
(monk,mendicant)inthepursuitofspiritualknowledge.[42] describedifferentformsof
meditation.Theseshouldbe
Meditation
combined,mergedintooneand
Thethirdpada,statesGeorgeThibaut,opensanewsectionandthemein practiced,becausethereis
chapter3oftheBrahmasutras,assertingthatmeditationiscentraltothe nondifferenceoftheirbasicimport,
Vedictexts,andsummarizingtheVedictheories,fromdifferentShakha thatofSelf,mind,knowledgeanda
(Vedicschools),on"howtheindividualsoulisenabledbymeditationon state. [65][66]
Brahmantoobtainfinalrelease".[75]Thesesutrasconstituteasignificant
partofthetext,extensivelyrefertotheoldestUpanishads,andtheircommentariesbydifferentVedantasub
schoolshavebeenextensive,signifyingthelargehistorictraditionaroundmeditation,andacceptanceofYoga
sutrasteachingsinVedanta.[76][77]
MeditationisdefinedinVedantatextscommentingontheSutras,statesKlausWitz,as"acontinuoussuccessionof
comparablebasicconceptions,beliefs,notinterspersedwithdissimilarones,whichproceedsaccordingtothe
scripturesandrelatestoanobjectenjoinedinthescriptures".[76]ItisdescribedbyVedantinsasapracticeof
concentratingonanobjectofmeditation,statesWitz,astateof"absorptionorimmersionintoessentiallyasingle
thought"and"concentratingonit,excludingconventionalnotions,tilloneifascompletelyidentifiedwithitas
withone'sbody".[76]WhilethispracticeisdiscussedinVedictexts,theirformulationsweredifferentlydescribed
bydifferentVedicschools.TheBrahmasutra,inAdhikaranasofthirdandfourthpada,statesThibaut,assertthat
thereisnocontradictionintheseteachingsandthat"thedifferentUpanishadshavetobeviewedasteachingthe
samematter,andthereforetheideasmustbecombinedinonemeditation".[75]

FortheTruearesoon(indifferenttexts),areoneandthesameknowledge.
Brahmasutra3.3.38,[78][79]
ThemostreferredtotextsinthesesectionsaretheBrihadaranyakaUpanishad,theChandogyaUpanishad,the
KaushitakiUpanishad,theKathaUpanishad,andthenonUpanishadicpartsofShatapathaBrahmanaandAitereya
Aranyaka.[75]Thetopicofmeditation,statetheBrahmasutras,isthespiritualknowledgeofBrahmantheobject
ofthisknowledge,statesThibaut,is"BrahmanviewedastheinnerSelfofall".[80]TheBrahmaSutras,inaddition
torecommendingmeditation,suggestthatritualsandritesareunnecessarybecauseitisknowledgethatachieves
thepurpose.[81]
Andforthisveryreasonthereisnoneedofthelightingofthefireandsoon.
Brahmasutra3.4.25,[81][82]
Insutras3.4.26and3.4.27,thetextaddsthatrituals,however,canspirituallyprepareamind,removeimpurities
within,empowercalmnessanddistractionsfromsensorypursuits,andthereforeassistinitsabilitytomeditateand
gaintheultimateknowledge.[83]Thetextalsodiscusses,insutras3.4.28to3.4.31whethertherearerestrictionson
food(meat)onecaningest,duringthespiritualjourney.Thesutras,translatesThibaut,derivefromtheVedictexts
thatthereis"aprohibitionofdoingharmtoanylivingcreature",however,thescripturesstate,"onlyindangerof
life,incasesofhighestneed,foodofanykindispermittedtobeeaten".[84][85]
Thelastthreesutrasofthechapter3assertthataperson,pursuingmeanstospiritualknowledge,shouldseeka
childlikestateofinnocence,apsychologicalstatethatisfreeofanger,selfcenteredness,prideandarrogance.[86]
ThetextdeclaresthataccordingtotheVedicliteratureknowledgeispossibleinthislife,thatoneisone'sown
obstructioninthisjourney,thatliberationandfreedomisthefruitofknowledge.[87][86]
Chapter4:Thebenefitsofspiritualknowledge
Fourthchapter(Phala:thefruit):talksofthestatethatisachievedinfinalemancipation.Thisistheshortest
chapterwith78sutrasand38adhikaranas.[67]ThelastchaptercontainsfourteenAdhikaranasinitsfirstPada,
eleveninsecond,sixinthird,andsevenAdhikaranasinthefourth.[88]ThelastchapteroftheBrahmasutra
discussestheneedandfruitsofselfknowledge,thestateoffreedomandliberation.[42]
Theopeningsutrasofchapter4continuethediscussionofmeditationasmeanstoknowledge,withsutra4.1.3
summarizingittobethestatewherethepersonaccepts,"IamBrahman,notanotherbeing"(AdiShankara),as
"ThouindeedIam,Oholydivinity,andIindeedthouart,Oholydivinity"(Jabalas),and"Godistobe
contemplatedastheSelf"andtheindividualisasthebodyofGod(Ramanuja).[89][90][91]
OntheSoul'shavingattainedtheHighestlight,thereismanifestationofitsrealnature,asweinfer
fromthewordown.
TheSelfwhosetruenaturehasmanifesteditselfisreleasedaccordingtothepromise(madeby
scripture).
ThelightintowhichthesoulentersistheSelf,owingtothesubjectmatterofthechapter.
ThereleasedsoulabidesinnondivisionfromthehighestSelf(Brahman),becausethatisseen.
Brahmasutra4.4.14.4.4,[92][93]
Theliberatedsoul,assertstheBrahmasutra,isofthenatureofBrahman,withinnerpowerandknowledge,free
fromevil,freefromgrief,freefromsuffering,oneofblissand"forsuchthereisfreedominallworlds".[93][94]
Commentaries
NumerouscommentarieshavebeenwrittenontheBrahmasutratext,butmanysuchasthatofBodhayana,[note7]
Upavarsa,[note8]andeighteenoutoftwentyonementionedbyNarayanainMadhvavijayabhavaprakashikaare
consideredlost.[96]Ofthesurvivingcommentaries,theearliestextantoneisbyAdiShankara.[96]
ThediversityofBrahmasutracommentariesbyvarioussubschoolsofHinduism(seetable)atteststothecentral
importanceoftheUpanishads,thatthetextsummarizes.[96]
SomecommentariesonBrahmasutra
Scholar Century School Theme/Influence[96][99]
Shankara[100] 8thcentury Advaita IdealistMonism
Bhaskara,[101]
10thcentury Bhedabheda Bhaktimovement
YadavaPrakasha[102]
QualifiedAdvaita
Ramanuja[103] 12thcentury Vishishtadvaita
Vaishnavism[104]
Madhva,alsoknownas
PurnaprajnaandAnanda 13thcentury Dvaita Dualism
Teertha[105]
Nimbarka[106] 13thcentury Dvaitadvaita Differentialmonism
Kashmir/Pashupata TheisticMonism
Srikantha[107] 13thcentury
Shaivism SaivaSiddhanta[108][109]
Vallabha[110] 16thcentury Shuddhadvaita Purenondualism
Shuka[111] 16thcentury Bhedavada Reviseddualism
Acintyabhedbheda
InconceivableOnenessand
BaladevaVidyabhushana 16thCentury
(GaudiyaVaishnavism) Difference
Exegesis
Thesutrasinthetextcanbe,andhavebeenreadindifferentways.[38]Somecommentatorsreadeachline
separately,whileotherssometimesreadtwoasonetreatingsomesutrasascontextuallyconnected.[38]Creative
readershavereadthelastwordofasutraasthestartingwordforthenext,sometreatagivenverseasPurva
paksha(priorart,oropposingviewpoint)whileothersreadthesameverseasSiddhanta(proposeddoctrine,or
conclusion).[38]Forexample,statesGregoryDarling,AdiShankarainhiscommentaryonsutra4.3.14considers
sagunaBrahmanmentionedthereinasPurvapaksha,butacknowledgesthatsomescholarsinterpretthissutraasa
Siddhanta.[38]
Translations
TheBrahmaSutrahasbeentranslatedintoGermanbyPaulDeussen,andinEnglishbyGeorgeThibaut.[112]The
Thibauttranslationis,stateDeBaryandEmbree,"probablythebestcompletetranslationinEnglish".[112]
Influence
ThetextispartofthePrasthanatrayi,orthethreestartingpointsfortheVedantaschoolofHinduphilosophy.[8]The
BrahmasutrasconstitutetheNyyaprasthna()or"startingpointofreasoningcanonicalbase",while
thePrincipalUpanishadsconstitutetheSrutiprasthnaor"startingpointofheardscriptures",andtheBhagavad
GitaconstitutestheSmritiprasthnaorthe"startingpointofrememberedcanonicalbase".[8]TheBrahmasutras
theyarealsoreferredtoastheYuktiprasthna,sinceYukti()alsomeansreasoningorlogic.
ThenatureandinfluenceofBrahmasutra,statesPaulDeussen,"standstotheUpanishad'sinthesamerelationas
theChristianDogmaticstotheNewTestament:itinvestigatestheirteachingaboutGod,theworld,thesoul,inits
conditionsofwanderingandofdeliverance,removesapparentcontradictionsofthedoctrines,bindsthem
systematicallytogether,andisspeciallyconcernedtodefendthemagainsttheattacksoftheopponents".[113]
TheVedas,accordingtoVedanta,consistsoftwoparts,statesDeussen,whichshow"farreachinganalogywiththe
OldandNewTestaments",aPartofWorks(karmakanda)whichincludesthebenedictorymantras,sacrificesand
ceremoniesliketheOldTestament,andaPartofKnowledge(jnanakanda)whichfocusesonmetaphysical
questionsabouttheworld,creator,soul,theology,moralsandvirtuesliketheNewTestament.[113]Therespective
influenceofthetwodocuments,oftheNewTestamentonChristianity,andtheBrahmasutraonHinduismhas
beenverysignificant.[113]Thisanalogyofinfluencehasmanycommonelementsbut,statesArvindSharma,there
aredifferencesintheroleandinfluenceofNewTestamentinChristianityandtheBrahmasutraintheHindu
traditions,becauseinHinduismtextswereneverconsideredasclosed,themeansandthemeaningofsoteriology
differed,andadiversityofideasondualityandmonismaswellasGodwasaccepted.[114]
TheimpactofBrahmasutratextonVedanta,andinturnHinduism,hasbeenhistoricandcentral,states
Nakamura:[115]
TheprevalenceofVedantathoughtisfoundnotonlyinphilosophicalwritingsbutalsoinvarious
formsof(Hindu)literature,suchastheepics,lyricpoetry,dramaandsoforth.Whatisespecially
worthyofattentionisthattheHindureligioussects,thecommonfaithoftheIndianpopulace,looked
toVedantaphilosophyforthetheoreticalfoundationsfortheirtheology.TheinfluenceofVedantais
prominentinthesacredliteraturesofHinduism,suchasthevariousPuranas,Samhitas,Agamasand
Tantras.ManycommentariesonthefundamentalscriptureofVedanta,theBrahmasutra,werewritten
bythefoundersorleadingscholarsofthevarioussectsofHinduism,andtheyaretransmittedtothis
dayasdocumentsindispensableintherespectivesectariantraditions.Themajorityofthetraditional
andconservativescholarsinIndiatoday,calledPandits,arestudentsofVedanta,andanoverwhelming
numberbelongtothelineageofShankarafivesixthsofallPandits,accordingtosomeauthorities.
HajimeNakamura(2004),AHistoryofEarlyVedntaPhilosophy,Volume2[115]
FrithjofSchuonstatestheroleofBrahmasutrainHinduismasfollows,
TheVedantacontainedintheUpanishads,thenformulatedintheBrahmaSutra,andfinally
commentedandexplainedbyShankara,isaninvaluablekeyfordiscoveringthedeepestmeaningof
allthereligiousdoctrinesandforrealizingthattheSanatanaDharmasecretlypenetratesalltheforms
oftraditionalspirituality.
FrithjofSchuon(1975),OneoftheGreatLightsoftheWorld[116][117]
Notes
1.ThenameSarirakaSutrasisfound,forexample,intheworksofAdiShankara.[8]
2.BelvalkarsuggeststhatthereonceexistedBrahmasutrastyletextsforallmajorUpanishadsandHindutexts,suchasthe
BrihadaranyakaUpanishad,theChandogyaUpanishadandtheBhagavadGita.[22]Thecurrentlysurvivingversionof
Brahmasutraisacompositeversion,statesBelvakar,withtheoldestlayerconsistingofChandogyaBrahmasutrathe
secondlayerthatconsolidatedvariousBrahmasutrasintoonedocumentandaddedtheSmritispadasandTarkapadas
andthethirdstratumofthetextwaschronologicallyaddedlast,defendingtheVedantaphilosophyfromthenewtheories
fromopposingheterodoxschoolsofIndianphilosophies.[22]About15sutrasoftheBrahmasutramaybeverylate
insertions,statesBelvalkar.[22]J.A.B.vanBuitenen,wrotein1956,thatBelvakartheoryisplausible,butdifficultto
prove.[23]
3.TheearliestknownrootsofthismethodologyisdescribedinJaimini'stextsonPurvaMimamsa.[4][29][30]
4.Themonist,theistandothersubtraditionsofVedantacountthenumberofAdhikaranasdifferently.Forexample,
Ramanujacountssutras2.2.28to2.2.32astwoAdhikaranas,whileotherscountitasone.Thus,thetotalnumberof
AdhikaranasintheBrahmasutratextvariesslightlyfrom189insomeVedantasubschools.SeepageliinThibaut's
Introduction.[31]
5.StephenKaplanwrites(abridged):"Avidyaisthefundamentalexistentialproblemandthefundamental
philosophical/theologicalproblemwithinAdvaitaVedanta.Itisthecauseoftheevilthatexistswithintheworld.Remove
ignoranceandonewillrealizethatatmanisBrahman.ItisalsothecrucialphilosophicalissuewithinAdvaitathought.
Advaitaneednotexplainwhyaperfectdeitywasmotivatedtocreatetheworld,norwhyanalllovingGodcreateda
worldwithevil.Ultimately,forAdvaita,thereisnocreation,noranyGodwhocreatestheworld.Thehighesttruthis
Brahman,onewithoutasecond,thetrueself,atman."[53]
6.Thesutras2.2.18to2.2.27stateandrefutethe'persistenceofsubjectandsubstance'theory,andsutras2.2.28to2.2.32
stateandrefutethe'everythingisvoid'theoryofBuddhism.However,theargumentsofferedbymonistandtheisticsub
schoolsofVedantadiffer,particularlythoseofShankara,MadhvaandRamanuja,withthelattertwoalsorefutingthe
argumentsofShankarainthissection.[6]Forasutrabysutraanalysis,bythethreescholars,seeGregoryDarling.[55]
7.Bodhayana'scommentaryonBrahmasutra,alongwiththoseofTanka,Dramida,Bhartriprapanca,Bhartrimitra,
Bhartrihari(5thcentury[95]),BrahmadattaandShrivatsankaarementionedby12thcenturyRamanujaand11thcentury
Yamunacharya'sSiddhitraya,allofthesecommentarieslikelymucholderthanAdiShankara'scommentary.[96][97]
8.UpavarsaisareveredscholarwhosecommentaryonBrahmasutrawaspossiblytheearliest,andonewhoisreveredby
differentandantagonisticsubschoolsofVedantaheismentionedbyShankara,Bhaskaraandevenbyscholarsofnon
VedantaschoolsofHinduphilosophies.[98]
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312
330
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Externallinks
Translationsandtransliteration
TheVedantaSutras(https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50Vols
MaxMuller/34.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v34.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankar.p1.Oxf.189
0.#page/n11/mode/2up)Part1,TranslatedbyGeorgeThibaut(English,1890,AdiShankaraExegesis,
Theisticinterpretation)
MaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1
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MaxMuller/48.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v48.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedanSut.CommRam.p3.Oxf.1904.#p
age/n9/mode/2up)TranslatedbyGeorgeThibaut(English,1890,RamanujaExegesis,Theisticinterpretation)
BrahmaSutra,ThePhilosophyofSpiritualLife(English)(https://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishn
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RatnaPrabha.Bhamati.and.NyayaNirnaya)atarchive.org
BrahmasutraSankaraBhashya,withBhamatiofVachaspatiMisra,KalpataruofAmalanandaandParimala
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alpataru.and.Parimala)atarchive.org
AnubhashyaontheBrahmaSutrabyVallabhacharyawithCommentaries(4VolumesCombined)(Sanskrit)
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archive.org
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hasya.of.Sri.Madhvacharya.with.Glosses.Sanskrit)atarchive.org
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etails/VedantaparijatasaurabhaOfNimbarkaAndVedantakaustubhaOfSrinivasa)atarchive.org
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