Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat

Engineering

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Highway Engineering and

Highway Surveys and Location
Introduction
The beginning of road construction could be dated to the time of the Romans. With the advancement
of technology from carriages pulled by two horses to vehicles with power equivalent to 100 horses,
road development had to follow suit. The construction of modern highways did not begin until the late
19th to early 20th century.

The first research dedicated to highway engineering was initiated in the United Kingdom with the
introduction of the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), in 1930. In the USA, highway engineering
became an important discipline with the passing of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944, which
aimed to connect 90% of cities with a population of 50,000 or more. With constant stress from
vehicles which grew larger as time passed, improvements to pavement were needed. With technology
out of date, in 1958 the construction of the first motorway in Great Britain (the Preston bypass) played
a major role in the development of new pavement technology.

Design policies standards used in the United States are typically based on publications of the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials as well as research promulgated by the
Transportation Research Board, the Institute of Transportation Engineers, the Federal Highway
Administration, and the Department of Transportation. The most appropriate location, alignment, and
shape of a highway are selected during the design stage. Highway design involves the consideration of
three major factors (human, vehicular, and roadway) and how these factors interact to provide a safe
highway. Human factors include reaction time for braking and steering, visual acuity for traffic signs
and signals, and car-following behavior. Vehicle considerations include vehicle size and dynamics that
are essential for determining lane width and maximum slopes, and for the selection of design vehicles.
Highway engineers design road geometry to ensure stability of vehicles when negotiating curves and
grades and to provide adequate sight distances for undertaking passing maneuvers along curves on
two-lane, two-way roads

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Transportation systems analysis

Overview
Mobility is a basic human need. From the times immemorial, everyone travels either for food or
leisure. A closely associated need is the transport of raw materials to a manufacturing unit or finished
goods for consumption.

Transportation fulfils these basic needs of humanity. Transportation plays a major role in the
development of the human civilization. For instance, one could easily observe the strong correlation
between the evolution of human settlement and the proximity of transport facilities. Also, there is a
strong correlation between the quality of transport facilities and standard of living, because of which
society places a great expectation from transportation facilities. In other words, the solution to
transportation problems must be analytically based, economically sound, socially credible,
environmentally sensitive, practically acceptable and sustainable.

Alternatively, the transportation solution should be safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical,
and ecofriendly for both men and material.

Characteristics of Transportation

The characteristics of transportation system that makes it diverse and complex are listed below:
1. Multi-Modal: Covering all modes or transport; air, land, and sea and both passenger and
freight.

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2. Multi-Sector: Encompassing the problems and viewpoints of government, private industry,
and public.
3. Multi-Problem: Ranging across a spectrum of issues that includes national and international
policy, planning of regional system, the location and design of specific facilities, carrier
management issues, and regulatory, institutional and financial policies.
4. Multi-Objective: National and regional economic development, urban development,
environment quality, and social quality, as well as service to users and financial and economic
feasibility.
5. Multi-Disciplinary: Drawing on the theories and methods of engineering, economics,
operation research, political science, psychology, other natural and social sciences,
management and law.

Major Disciplines of Transportation

Transportation engineering can be broadly consisting of the four major parts:
1. Transportation Planning
2. Geometric Design
3. Pavement Design
4. Traffic Engineering
A brief overview of the topics is given below: Transportation planning deals with the development of a
comprehensive set of action plan for the design, construction and operation of transportation facilities.

1. Transportation Planning
Transportation planning essentially involves the development of a transport model which will
accurately represent both the current as well as future transportation system.

Current statue Future Solution

2. Geometric Design

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Geometric design deals with physical proportioning of other transportation facilities, in contrast with
the structural design of the facilities. The topics include the cross-sectional features, horizontal
alignment, vertical alignment and intersections. Although there are several modes of travel like road,
rail, air, etc... The underlying principles are common to a great extent. Therefore emphasis will be
normally given for the geometric design of roads.
3. Pavement analysis and design
Pavement design deals with the structural design of roads, both (bituminous and concrete), commonly
known as (pavements and rigid pavements) respectively. It deals with the design of paving materials,
determination of the layer thickness, and construction and maintenance procedures. The design mainly
covers structural aspects, functional aspects, drainage. Structural design ensures the pavement has
enough strength to withstand the impact of loads, functional design emphasizes on the riding quality,
and the drainage design protects the pavement from damage due to water infiltration.
4. Traffic Engineering
Traffic engineering covers a broad range of engineering applications with a focus on the safety of the
public, the efficient use of transportation resources, and the mobility of people and goods. Traffic
engineering involves a variety of engineering and management skills, including design, operation, and
system optimization. In order to address the above requirement, the traffic engineer must first
understand the traffic flow behaviour and characteristics by extensive collection of traffic flow data
and analysis. Based on this analysis, traffic flow is controlled so that the transport infrastructure is
used optimally as well as with good service quality. In short, the role of traffic engineer is to protect
the environment while providing mobility, to preserve scarce resources while assuring economic
activity, and to assure safety

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The Importance of Highway Transportation

The importance or necessity of highway transportation can be easily judged from the following
purposes or advantages of roads:-

1. They facilitate conveyance of people, goods, raw-materials, manufactured articles, etc.

speedily and easily in the different parts of a country.
2. They act as the only source of communication in regions of high altitude i.e in mountainous
regions.

3. They help in growth of trade and other economy activities in and outside the villages and
towns by establishing contact between towns and villages.

4. They help in providing efficient distribution of agricultural products and natural resources all
over the country.

5. They help in price stabilization of commodities due to mobility of products all over the
country.

6. They help in social and cultural advancement of people and making the villagers active and
alert members of the community.

7. They help in promoting the cultural and social ties among people living in different part of a
country and thus strengthen the national unity.

8. They help in providing improved medical facilities quickly to human beings, especially to
those who live in rural areas.

9. They provide more employment opportunities.

10. They enhance land value and thus bring better revenue.

11. They serve as feeders for Airways, Waterways and Railways.

12. They help in reducing distress among the people, caused due to famine, by supplying them
food and clothing quickly.

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13. Lastly, it can be sad that roads are the symbol of country's progress and thus development made
by any country can be judged by the quality and network of its road system.

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Highway Surveys and Location

The aim of location survey is to select a route with the following points kept in mind.

With reasonable economy it should meet the minimum requirement regarding curvature and
grades.
To produce an easy riding (travelling), free flowing traffic artery that has a high capacity and it
meets all the safety standards.

The location survey should recognize and evaluate the routes impact on already existing industries,
business, and residential values and on future development.

Before field survey for any highway location is started, tentative decision, regarding the design speed
of the route, its cross-section, and the maximum grade must be made. These decision made are based
on the;
Estimated of amount, character and hourly distribution of traffic, along with Knowledge of the
area is traversed
Available funds.
Location of proposed highway is an important first step in its design. Particular
location is based on:
Topographic and geological maps.
Stream and drainage basin maps.

Climatic records.

Traffic surveys and capacity studies.

Soil characteristics
Environmental factors such as noise and air pollution
Economic factors
Techniques for highway surveys
Surveys usually involve measuring and computing horizontal and vertical angles, vertical

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Heights (elevations) and horizontal distances. Data from surveys are used to produce maps with

contour lines and longitudinal cross sections.

Surveying Techniques:
Ground surveys
Remote sensing
Computer graphics
Ground Surveys
Transit: Used for measuring angles in both vertical and horizontal planes
Level: Used for measuring changes in elevation
Measuring tapes: Used for measuring horizontal distances (Nowadays Electronic Measurement
Devices (EDMs) are used)
Modern transit frameworks can do all three (vertical and horizontal angles, distance and elevation
measurements)

Ground Surveys Remote Sensing (air surveying )

Remote Sensing
Measurement of distances and elevations using devices located above the earth such as:
Airplanes (aerial photography or photogrammetric)
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) using orbiting satellites

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Computer Graphics
The combination of photogrammetric and computer techniques. Information obtained from
photogrammetric is stored in a computer which allows plotting the highway route, make changes very

easily and realize the effects of the change immediately.

Principles of Highway Location

Four different faces for the location of a highway:
1. Office study (existing information)
2. Reconnaissance survey
3. Preliminary location survey
4. Final location survey

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1. Office Study
Obtain available data relating to the following:
Topography, geology, climate and traffic volumes
Social and demographic, land use and zoning patterns
Environmental issues (wildlife, historic and archeological sites, effects on air, noise and water
pollution)
Economic (unit costs for construction and trend of agricultural, commercial and industrial
activities)
2. Reconnaissance Survey
Identify several feasible routes using aerial photographs and taking into account the following:

Total length of line.

The elevation of main and intermediate summit

All adverse grades.

Stream crossing.

Nature of construction.

Right of way circumstances.

Soil conditions and terrain

Unusual or troublesome condition.

Directness of the route

crossing of other transportation facilities (rivers, railroads or other highways)

Serviceability to industrial and populated areas

Approximate estimate of cost.

3. Preliminary Location Survey

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Feasible routes are set as closely as possible and preliminary vertical and horizontal alignments
determined. All feasible routes are evaluated for:

Economics
Environmental impact
Conventionally the baseline of preliminary survey i.e. P-line should follow as closely as possible
to the expected final line.

The surrounding are then related to this P-line.

Elevations - At 30 m and at breaks in the ground provide data for profile and serve as starting point
for cross-sections that covers a strip of land on each side of P-line.

Cross-section - are of width 30 to 250 m, depending upon;

Standard of accuracy

Speed of work and instrument used.

4. Final Location Survey:

Final location is essentially fixing of the details of the projected highway.

Permanently establishing the centreline.

Collecting information necessary for preparation of plans for construction.

The line should be established as closely as is practical to the line drawn on the preliminary
map. It should conform the major and minor control points and the alignment that was
previously determined.

Staking out on the ground of the centerline of the projected road provides opportunity for
minor correction like small shift of the line.

It is useful to make a new profile and accurate cross-section from which excavation and
embankment quantities can be measured.

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Sufficient points of curvature and tangency, BMs at relatively close interval and in position
free from disturbance by construction activities.

Direction of all property lines, distance to property corners and location of building, fences and
other improvements.

It is important to keep notes on alignment and levels i.e. notes taken in field during the final
location survey usually becomes part of permanent record.

Detailed layout of selected route. Final horizontal and vertical alignments determined and final
positions of structures (bridges, tunnels etc) located.
Set out of points of intersection (PI) of straight portions of the highway and fit horizontal
curves between them
The fitted curve is determined through trial and error for best alignment based on both
engineering and aesthetic factors (easier with computer techniques)
The final location survey is complete when all necessary information in available and ready for
designer to use. It in insured that all information required preparation of complete construction.

All information pertaining to

1. Alignment
2. Topography

3. Bench mark levels

4. Cross sections

5. Section corner ties and other land ties

6. Drainage and utilities

Bridge Location
Highway location determines bridge location, not the reverse. Only in cases where the bridges need to
be skewed or foundation problems exist, the location of the bridge can be a factor in highway location
due to higher costs associated with the above mentioned bridge conditions.

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