ADDENDA

page 157, lines 11 to 17 to read;

Calculate the bore of the low pressure cylinder of the recip-

procating compressor to give the equivalent available energy for
purposes of supercharging when the stroke-bore ratio of the comp-
ressor is 1.5, the compressor rotates at 400 rev/min and delivers
air at 14 bar, 25 C from suction conditions of 1 bar, 25 C.
Take cp and cv for the exhaust gas as l. 25 and 0. 98 kJ/ (kg K)
respectively and assume a volumetric efficiency of 100%.

page 157, line 24 to read;

For air at 1 bar, 25 C

page 157, line 26 to read:

RT = 0 . 287 ~ X 298 K = 0 . 8553 m3

p kg K lOO kN kg
JiiT

page 158, lines 1 and 2 to read;

~ x
Vair = mair Vair = 0.211 s
m3
0.8553 kg= 0.1805 s
m3 7rD2LN
= -4-
m3
-X 4
or D = s (60 s]
0.152 m
400 str~ke[min
m1n
APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING
THERMODYNAMICS
APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING
THERMODYNAMICS
A tutorial text to Final Honours degree standard

G. Boxer
Senior Tutor in Mechanical Engineering
University of Aston in Birmingham
 G. Boxer 1979

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission.

First published 1979 by

THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
London and Basingstoke
Associated companies in Delhi Dublin
Hong Kong Johannesburg Lagos ~le !bourne
New York Singapore and Tokyo

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Boxer, George
Applications of engineering thermodynamics.
1. Thermodynamics - Problems, exercises, etc.
2. Heat engineering - Problems, exercises, etc.
I. Title
621.4'021'076 TJ265
ISBN 978-0-333-24354-1 ISBN 978-1-349-04041-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-04041-4

This book is sold subject to the standard conditions of the Net Book
Agreement.

The paperback edition of this book is sold subject to the condition

that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold,
hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior
consent in any form of hindi ng or cover other than that .in which it
is published and without a similar condition including this condition
being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
CONTENTS

Preface vii

Nomenclature X

A Fundamental Approach to the Solution of xiii

Thermodynamics Problems

1 Reciprocating Gas Compressors and Motors 1

Geometry - Work Transfer - Volumetric and Mechanical
Efficiencies

2 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines 12

Geometry - Mean effective Pressure - Fuel consumption -
Power output - Volumetric, Gravimetric and Thermal
Efficiencies - Supercharging

3 One-Dimensional Steady Flow in Ducts 28

Stagnation and Static conditions - Flow in Nozzles -
Critical flow

4 Radial Flow Compressors 42

Applications as Superchargers, in Refrigerators,
in Gas Turbine plant - Mach Number and Prewhirl
51
5 Axial Flow Compressors
Degree of Reaction - Number of Stages - Geometry -
Polytropic Stage Efficiency

6 Axial Flow Turbines 59

Impulse and Reaction Turbines - Geometry - Steam
and Gas Plant - Power Output - 'Leaving Loss' -
Reheat Factor - Polytropic Efficiency

7 Gas Turbine Plant 71

Closed and Open Circuit plant - Pressure Ratio,
Power Output and Thermal Efficiency - Limiting
Values

8 Turbo Jet Engine, Ramjet and Rocket 80

Ram effect - Thrust - Economy - Impulse -
Efficiency - Mach Number - Subsonic and
Supersonic Flow - Geometry

v
9 Variable Specific Heat Capacities 91
Analytical and Graphical Methods - Cycle Analysis -
Effect on Power Output and Mean effective Pressure -
Effect on Efficiency
10 Dissociation 105
Mol fractions in dissociation - Equilibrium Constant -
Isentropic Index calculation

11 Vapour Power Cycles 114

Reheat - Regenerative Feed Heating - Process Heat
Cycle - Nuclear Power Cycle - Power Output - Thermal
Efficiency
12 Vapour Compression Refrigerators 130
Single and Multi-stage Cycles - Coefficient of
Performance - Use of Pressure/Enthalpy Chart -
Geometry
13 Hygrometry, Air Conditioning and Evaporative Coolers 142
Absolute and Relative Humidities - Use of Psychrometric
Chart
14 Further Work on Availability and Combined Cycles 154
Irreversibility - Non-flow and Steady-flow calculations -
Component contributions to Irreversibility - Combined
Steam and Gas Turbine Plant - Diesel Engine and Vapour
Power Cycle for Recuperative Purposes

vi
PREFACE

This volume like its predecessor (Engineering Thermodynamics, The-

ory, Worked examples and Problems - Macmillan 1976) is a collection
of examples and worked solutions drawn mostly from the degree ex-
amination papers of London and Aston lli1iversities.
The earlier book was intended as an introductory tutorial vol-
ume for first year undergraduates and those studying the subject
at comparable level on other courses in which it was hoped that
the right habits could be developed in demonstrating a unified
approach to solving all problems in the subject. It included a
one-page questionnaire designed to instil into the minds of stu-
dents (by its continued use) the fundamental ideas so essential to
a correct understanding of the subject.
I make no apologies for repeating the questionnaire here since
it is equally relevant. This volume covers work up to final hon-
ours degree standard and the fundamental ideas of the subject do not
change between first and final years. Indeed once the fundamentals
are properly mastered the material of the succeeding years is very
much easier to assimilate than if no unified approach is adopted.
Thermodynamics should not be subdivided into packets of theory
as though they were seemingly unrelated and distinctive. The un-
derlying ideas of continuity of mass, energy and momentum are true
for all engineering applications and it is this that must first be
properly understood.
I stress again as in the earlier volume the paramount virtue of
attempting the problems without reference to the solution in the
first instance. This is most important if the student is to teach
himself and to find out where his weaknesses lie. The attractive
and easy path of reading problem and solution together does not
make for a ready understanding and must be avoided as only a fool's
paradise.
Language is crucial to all good teaching and it must be clear,
concise and consistent. One physical symbol should, as far as is
possible, represent one physical idea. The trouble is, of course,
that there are not enough symbols to go round so that some duplic-
ation is unavoidable. At this point I would apologise for two
aberrations which do not accord with best practice. One is the
use of 'd' rather than o for use in the differential form of the
energy equation with heat and work transfer:
i.e. dq- dw =de which would better be expressed as
oq - ow = de,
since heat and work transfers are not properties but interactions.
The second is the use of an upright suffix s relating to isentrop-
ic changes. This, of course, should have been an italics, as in
the main text, since this is a physical property of the system and
has dimensions. As far as I am aware these are the only departures
from what is now British Standard practice for the presentation of
physical equations.

vii
 Dimensional reasoning, as pointed out in the earlier book, is
vitally important, and again I stress the foolproof method of the
use of Unity Brackets as a means of resolving dimensions in a cal-
culation. Dimensions are by far more important than the numbers
preceding them and all teachers face the ever-present problem of
instilling into the minds of the students they take the vital need
to check the dimensional balance of the equations they use. A
physical equation is true in any system of units but a numerical
equation must be checked for dimensions as in the following exam-
ple.
ho = h + ~u 2 for deriving stagnation enthalpy of a compress-
ible fluid.
Assuming the fluid is a perfect gas and has a specific heat capac-
ity at constant ~ressure cp,
then To - T = ~~
Cp
and the normal substitution of dimensions in
SI gives mz
A number
52
To - T
kT
kg K
which is not obviously a change of temperature in this form.
However, with the use of Unity Brackets we can transform this cal-
culation quickly and unerringly so that it is so.
m2 kg K [N s 2 ] [ kJ ]
Thus To - T = A number 52 kT [kg m] [kN m]
1
A number x 1000 K (all others cancelling)

In this calculation it is the checking of dimensions which con-

firms that the method is correct since.K is the unit of change in
temperature. The system is foolproof and very powerful and is nev-
er vulnerable. It cannot be too strongly recommended and is used
throughout this book. To try to guess where the various correct-
ing factors are without the dimensions is to court disaster as the
work obviously gets more sophisticated as we proceed.
A word on the units used for specific entropy and specific heat.
These two have identical units but I feel it is worthwhile to dis-
tinguish between them by writing specific entropy in kJ/(K kg) and
specific heat capacities in kJ/ (kg K).
The use of kmol is now widespread and implies that mol refers to
gram mole and that further k still means kilo and can be cancelled
as in kg or kN. Thus mw has the units g/mol.
Having tried to emphasise the unified approach to the solution
of all problems in thermodynamics it may seem that I am splitting
up the general syllabus of the subject into the very familiar sec-
tions of theory that one sees in nearly all books on the subject.
We must remember, however, that the student needs some subdivision
of material for reasonable assimilation and to avoid mental indig-
estion but he/she should continually refer to the questionnaire
asking the fundamental questions about processes, the energy eq-
uation etc. on whatever the topic might be. Then the broad and
sound basis will become apparent and the subject will make sense -
much more sense than hitherto.

viii
 The solutions are very nearly exhaustive but some elementary
work is assumed as being first year level which can reasonably be
expected to be carried through at this stage.
The last chapter on availability and combined cycles covers ex-
amples of plant in current practice and does not examine the poss-
ible plant of the future. I have included one example on a fuel
cell since although only small scale units have been made so far,
the device holds out promise of rich rewards in the future.
Furthermore the type of combined plant that can be used in prac-
tice is very much a balance between capital and running costs and
matching the steam and gas turbine plant is extremely important
here. In all total energy systems the most effective use of fuel
will be achieved when the energy delivered is divided appropriate-
ly between process heat and electrical power, the subdivision vary-
ing with each plant.
The advent of fluidised bed combustion boilers gives an opport-
unity to effect heat transfers at considerably lower temperatures
with obvious benefits in corrosion but suffering the penalty inas-
much as it is 1 Anti-Can10t 1 It is a very active research area at
present.
Most other attempts (e.g. Organic Rankine cycle) whicn aim at
raising the availability output and reduce the inefficiency and
therefore running costs suffer from the considerable increase in
capital costs due to the expensive fluids involved.
Once again the choice of question and solution for such a book
as this is a compromise between that which will adequately cover
a reasonable range of material and that which will not prove too
expensive to purchase.
I must mention here the omission of any heat transfer calculat-
ions since these form a subject in their right and have their own
distinctive laws of radiation, conduction and convection.
Further reading around the subject is always advisable when att-
empting tutorial work both for consolidation and final revision and
there is a wide choice among the several notable text books that
have been published in the last ten years or so in England and in
the Systeme International. Among these, those by Rogers and Mayhew
and by Goodger are both excellent.
The University of London have once again been kind enough to
allow me to draw on the examination papers of the now discontinued
external degree in engineering and the responsibility for the sol-
utions is my own.
Inevitably, I presume, there will be errors, particularly, as
has been pointed out to me in the past, when a work of this kind
is attempted single-handed. The ideal way is of course to use
only problems which have been tried by a large body of students
and are fully warranted as a result. Unfortunately, the time-scale
for this book has not permitted this. I will, tnerefore, be most
grateful for any correction that comes to light in the use of this
volume. I would add that I am already in debt to those who have
been good enough to send me their suggestions on the introductory
volume and I hope that the second edition of this will embrace all
of these.
My thanks go to Dr.J .R.Howard for an illuminating discussion on
combined cycles and to Professor K.Foster for his encouragement and
patience in a time of most pressing developments in our department.

ix
NOMENCLATURE

A Non flow availability or Area

a Non flow specific availability (i.e. per unit mass)
B Steady flow availability
b Steady flow specific availability
cp Mass isobaric specific heat capacity
cv Mass isochoric specific heat capacity
cp Molar isobaric specific heat capacity
ev Molar isochoric specific heat capacity
d change in
E Internal energy
e Specific internal energy
g Gravitational acceleration or specific Gibbs function
H Enthalpy
h Specific enthalpy
h' Specific enthalpy of two-component fluid
L Length
H Mach number
m Mass
mw Relative ~olar mass
m Mass flow rate
N Rotational speed
n Polytropic index of number of mols
P Perimeter
p Pressure
0 Heat transfer
0 Rate of heat transfer
q Specific heat transfer
R Gas constant
Ro Universal gas constant
r Compression or expansion ratio
s Entropy
s Specific entropy
T Temperature
t Time
u Velocity
v Volume
V Rate of volume flow
v Specific volume
li Work transfer
t Rate of work transfer or power
w Specific work transfer
x Dryness fraction (quality) or mol fraction
z Datum height

X
Suffices
a Dry air
c Compressor
f Liquid state (saturated)
g Vapour state (saturated)
i Constituent or intermediate
m Moist air
o Reference state (also as a superscript)
p Pressure constant
s Entropy co~stant or steam
t Total
v Volume constant
w Water

a Absolute velocity angle

~ Relative velocity angle
'Y Ratio of specific heat capacities
e Electrical potential difference
11 Efficiency
8 Temperature change due to fluid deceleration
A Degree of reaction
p. Chemical potential
p Density
u Slip factor
w Angular velocity or absolute humidity
1: Sum of
~ Sum of round a cycle
~ Relative humidity
A FUNDAMENTAL APPROACH TO THE
SOLUTION OF THERMODYNAMICS PROBLEMS
The following is an attempt to assist students in adopting a ration-
al approach to the solution of all problems in thermodynamics. If
the following questions are correctly answered each and every time
a problem is attempted there should be no fundamental difficulty in
obtaining a solution.

1. What kind of process? (a) Flow or (b) Non-flow?

To answer this it is necessary to define the system boundary

and/ or the control surface and then decide whether mass crosses
the latter.

2. What kind of fluid?

(a) Liquid?
(b) Liquid/Vapour Mixture?
(c) Saturated Vapour?
(d) Superheated Vapour?
(e) Perfect Gas?
(f) Semi-perfect Gas? (i.e. with variable cp and cv sometimes
referred to as an ideal gas)

3. Have you drawn a state diagram(s)?

Have you drawn a flow diagram in the steady flow case?
It is vi tally important to get a picture of events.

4. Which form of the energy equation is required?

(a) Non-flow?
(b) Steady-flow? (remembering also the reduced form which
is most common i.e. 1q2 - 1w2 = h2 - h1)
(c) Unsteady flow?

5. Do you need to use the Mass Continuity equation?

mv = uA

6. Do you need to use the momentum equation?

7. Have you used the correct language? (i.e. symbols AND units)

e.g. win kJ/kg, win kJ, ~in kW, etc.

8. Always put in dimensions with the numbers in your reasoning.

Dimensions are a vi tal check on your arguments and are more

important than the numbers in front. Use Unity Brackets to ration-
alise the dimensions.

9. Do not effect numerical calculation until you have to.

1 RECIPROCATING GAS COMPRESSORS AND
MOTORS

These are process, as distinct from cyclic, devices in which

the fluid undergoes a state change, not a cyclic process. Only in
the finite clearance case does a small proportion of air continually
undergo cyclic changes, without affecting the state of the processed
fluid in any way.
1. The following data refer to a two-stage double-acting recip-
rocating air compressor fitted with an intercooler.
Air temperatures: Atmospheric
Inlet to int.ercooler
Inlet to h.p. cylinder
Air pressures: Atmospheric 1.0 bar
Inter-cooler 3.25 bar
Delivery 7. 9 bar
Compressor shaft speed 6.3 rev/s
The diameters of the low and high pressure cylinders were 550 mm
and 310 mm respectively and the common stroke was 230 mm.
The relationship between the pressure p and volume v for the air
in each cylinder during the compression and expansion processes,
which may be assumed to be reversible, was pV" = constant where n
had the same value for each stage.
When the free air delivery was 0.58 m3 /s the compressor shaft
torque was 4. 7 kN m.
Determine:
(a) the volumetric efficiency,
(b) the air delivery temperature, and
(c) the mechanical efficiency.
Neglect changes in air pressure over all inlet and delivery valves
and over the intercooler, changes in air temperature during the
induction and delivery processes in each stage and the cross-sect-
ional areas of the piston rods.
Assume air to be a perfect gas for which R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K).
(London University 1971 Pt. II modified)

Figure 1 .1 refers.

In the figure T1 2 85 K, Ta = 345 K, Tb 295 K.

Ta
Ti" =
(&.)'
P1
where r = n - 1
n

or r = ln ( Ta /Tl) ln (345/285) 0.162

ln (Pa/Pl) ln 3.25

1
 p/bar

7.9

3.25 figure 1 .1

1.0

'---+----.,.---- v
1 Vs 1
"'(LP cyl)
or n = 1.193
Thus T2 = Tb (p2f pb )' 295 K (7.9/3.25) 0 ' 162 = 340.6 K (b)

L.P. swept volume ~ x 0.275 2 m2 x 0 23 __m

____ x 2 stroke
" stroke cycle
0.109 m3 /cycle

Vswept = 0.109 ~ x 6.3 cycle = 0.689 m3

cycle s s
But free air delivery = 0.58 m3 /s

Thus l'lvol ~:~: 9 = 0.842 (a)

Now
.
Wind
n r n r
mr~RTl[(pa/Pl)- 1] + mrn:-fRTb[(p2/Pb)- 1]

100 kN X 0.58 ~
And mr= PlVasp_ = ~ s = 0. 709 ~
RTl 0.287 k~JK X 285 K s
. 0.709 ~(1. 193 ) 0.287 ~} 285 K(3.25 162 1)
kg K I
Thus Wind X -
s \0.193
+ 29 5 K [ ( 7 . 9 I 3 . 25) 0 1 6 2 - 1] f
132.8 kW
rev [2TI rad]
Also Wshaft = 4.7 kN m x 6.3 s X
[--reY]
186.0 kW
132.8
Thus l'lmech = 186 0 = 0.714

2. A two-stage single-acting reciprocating air compressor, incor-

porating an intercooler, delivers air at a pressure of 8.5 bar.
The diameter of the low pressure cylinder is 300 mm and for each
cylinder the piston stroke is 160 mm and the clearance volume 4% of
the swept volume. The speed is 400 rev/min.
When atmospheric temperature and pressure are 15 C and 1 bar,
the temperature and pressure of the air in the low pressure cylinder
at the beginning of the compression stroke are 25 C and 0.96 bar,
the intercooler pressure is 3 bar, and the air temperature at inlet

2
to the high pressure cylinder is 30 C.
The delivery process in the low pressure cylinder and the induc-
tion and delivery processes in the high pressure cylinder are iso-
thermal. Pressure losses except during induction in the low press-
ure cylinder are negligible.
The relationship between pressure p, and volume v, for the com-
pression and expansion processes in each cylinder, which may be ass-
umed to be reversible, is pv 1 28 =constant.
Determine:
(a) the Free Air Delivery (i.e. the air volume flow rate at inlet
to the compressor)
(b) the compressor shaft power, for a mechanical efficiency 75%,
(c) the diameter of the high pressure cylinder.
(London University 1973 modified)

~
P2

Pi figure 1.2

Pl 1
~---------------v

.Vswept
Figure 1.2 refers.
= TI x 0.15 2 m2 x 0.16 ~l = 0.01131 m3 (L.P.stage)
eye e cycle
m3
Vc = 0.04Vswept = 0.04 x 0.01131 = 0.000452 - -1- (L.P. stage)
eye e
m3
Vswept + Vc = 0.01176 - -1-
cyc e

Now ?lvol 1 - ___.!_ [(Pi I p

Vswept
d'" - 1] = l - 0. 04 [ ( 3/0. 96) 0 7 81 - 1]

0.943 (referred to suction conditions)

0 . 94 x 01.0
96 x 298
288 = 0.875 (referred to atmos.conditions)

Thus free air delivery 0. 875 X 0.001131 --X

m3 400 ~1
cycle min
m3
= 0.396 min

96 kN X 0.943 m3
Pl Vasp = m2 0.875 x 0. 396 min
Also mr=
RT1 0.479 ~
min (at Pl, Tl)
0.287 k~JK X 298 K
Thus Wind
n
= me~ R { T1 [(P,/pt)'- 1] + T; [ (pzl P,t - 1)}

and r = E......:_!_= 0.28

1. 28 = 0.21'9
n

3
Thus
.
Wind 0.479 ~X
m1n ---
1---
0.219 X ~{298
0.287 kg K K((3/0.96) 0 219 - 1]

+ 303 K[(8.5/3) 0 ' 219 - 1]}

101.7 kW
lOl.? = 135.7kW
shaft = """"0:75
Thus W
96 ~ x 0.01176 m3
Now m1 PIVI = m 0.0132 kg mb
RT! 0. 287 k~J K x 298 K
kJ
mRT. 0.0132 kg X 0.287 r-:K X 303 K
Thus vb =~= 0.00383 m3
Pb 300 kN
m2
~4 x 0.00383 m3
and Dhp =l 1T x 0.16 m 0.174 m

3. Compressed air enters the cylinders of a reciprocating air

motor at a pressure of 3.5 bar and a temperature of 32 C. The air
temperature and pressure remain constant at these values up to the
point of cut-off. From the point of cut-off to the end of the out-
ward stroke the air expands reversibly. During this expansion the
relationship between the pressure p, and the volume v, of the air is
given by the expression pv 1 3 =constant. At the end of the expan-
sion, when the exhaust valve opens, the temperature of the air is
4 C.
During the inward stroke the pressure of the air in the cylinder
is constant and equal to 1 bar and at the end of the stroke the tem-
perature of the air in the clearance volume is 2 C. The clearance
volume is equal to 6% of the swept volume.
The air mass flow rate is 4.5 kg/min, the mechanical efficiency
of the motor is 88% and the net heat transfer between the motor and
the surroundings is negligible. The effects of fluid velocity may
be neglected.
Sketch the indicator diagram that would be obtained from such a
motor and determine:
(a) the point of cut-off as a proportion of the outward stroke,
(b) the indicated power, and
(c) the mean temperature of the exhaust air.
Assume air to be a perfect gas for which R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K) and
ep= 1.005 kJ/(kg K) (London University 1966)
Figure 1. 3 refers.

1.3

4
 n
If !I = ii'"-=""T for expansion

Pl(~~) = y
... .,~:t ..,vZ) ,.....,..,
P2 = 3.5 bar(:277 33
= 2.307 bar

Vs = 0.06V2 - 0.06Vs
v5 = ~:~:v2 = o.064v2 (= o.088v1)
Thus v2 - v 5 = (1 - 0.064)V2 = 0.936V2

V1 v2 1
And V2 - Vs = T:3'7'8 x 0.936V2 = O. 775 (a)

!!.....:__!. = ln Ts/T,.
n ln PsiP'+
ln ( 305 1275 )
ln 3.5
0.0826 (since p,.v,." = PsVs")
n = 1.09

Wind = Pl cV1 )
- Vs +
(P1vn1 -_ P
1
v2) - v,.)
- Ps (V3 _fpsvs
\ _ p,.v,.'\
n - 1 l
v,. = vs(~)'" o.o88h(3.5) 0 917 = o.278h
.
Wind 350 ( 1 _ 0 . 088 )v1 + [350vl - 230.6(1.378vl)]
0.3
- loocl.378 - o.278)vl
[(350 x o.o88v1) - c1oo x o.278vl)]
+ 0.09
kN m
319.2vl + 107.4vl - 11o.ov1 - 33.3vl = 283.3vl min
4.5 ~X 0.287 ..!:!__X 305 K
h _ Vs = lllaspRl'1 = mm kg K
P1 350 kN
m2
aspirated volume flow rate
1.125 m3
Thus v 1 1 _ 0 . 088 1.234 min
and :.',nd =
,., 283.3 x 1.234 = 349.5 kN_m [min ] - 5 82 kl'' (b)
run [60 s] - '

Applying the first law of thermadynamics to the motor

0 = 0 = ~(he - ~1) + 7lmech Wind

or he - h1 = -7Jm~hW.nd
mr
- 7Jmech X Wind - 0.88 x 5.83 kW [..!:!.J
[s kW]
or + T1 -~-----""'i:"';.l-.,~-~ + 32 C
mrcp
4 5 !...
min
x 1 005 kJ ~()An ]
Kg"K s
68 C + 32 C =- 36.0 C (c)

s
 4. A single-acting, single stage air compressor is designed to
operate in accordance with the following specification:
Inlet pressure = 1 bar; Inlet temperature 19 C;
Delivery pressure = 5 bar; Clearance/Swept
Index of compression volume ratio 0.05;
and expansion = 1.28; Air mass flow
Speed = 400 rev/min; rate 7 kg/min;
Determine the necessary cylinder swept volume.
If the compressor is run at the same speed as above and operates
with the same index of compression and expansion, but is used to ex-
tract air from a region where the pressure and temperature are 0.21
bar and 19 C respectively and delivers it at 1.05 bar, determine:
(a) the mass flow rate of air extracted,
(b) the ratio of the driving power required under these condit-
ions to the design driving power. (Aston University)

p/bar p/bar
5 K

~
1.05

0.21
._________
4 3 v
!-i---....,...---v
I I I
0 .05vs_.: 1,. Vs ., 1
figure 1.4

Figure 1.4 refers.

V4 = V3(P3/P4)IIn = 0.05Vswept (5) 0 781 = 0.176Vswept

Aspirated volume = V1 -
.
rnRT1
V4 = 1.05Vswept - 0.176Vswept 0. 874Vs\\ept

PIN
7 ~X 0.287 kgkJ K X 292 K m3
m1n
l'swept 0.0168 cycle
0.874 X 100.kN x 400 cy~le
m2 m1n

Figure 1.4a refers.

)/n
V4 = (
V3
P3 )
P4
(~)0.781
0.21
= as before
m3
Thus Volume aspirated= 0.874Vswept = 0.874 x 0.0168 0.0147 --1-
cyc e

P1V..sp =
21 g
m
x 0.0147 ~l
eye e
x 400 cy~le
m1n
1.472 ~
min
RT1 0.287 ~X 292 K
kg K

6
 m; n - 1
W'ind n ~ l RT1 [ (p2/PJ 1] where y
n

and
. m ---
n RT1 [ (p2fpi)y - 1]
.
Wind
f n - 1

. . ~= -1.472
Thus !!i'!J.O.. = -
Wind m
7 - = 0.21

5. A two-stage reciprocating compressor, fitted with an inter-

cooler, delivers air at a pressure of 17.25 bar, th~ pressure at the
air intake being 1.02 bar and the temperature 17 C. In the low
pressure cylinder the pressure during suction is 0.95 bar and the
temperature is 41 C; the pressure during delivery is 3.8 bar. In
the high-pressure cylinder the pressure during suction is 3.8 bar
and the temperature is 44 C; during the suction and delivery pro-
cesses the states of the air are constant. For each cylinder the
clearance volume is 5~ of the swept volume. The compression and ex-
pansion processes in each cylinder may be assumed to be reversible
and to follow the relation pv 1 22 = constant, where pis the pressure
of the air in the cylinder and v the corresponding volume.
Estimate the volumetric efficiency referred to intake conditions,
and also the ratjo of the air mass flow rate to the brake power, tak-
ing the mechanical efficiency to be 86%. (Aston University)

p/bar

3
17.25

3.8
figure 1.5

0.95

~----------------------V

Figure 1.5 refers.

'lvol 1- ____!L_[(pdpi)l/n- 1] = 1- 0.05[(3.8/0.95) 0 " 82 - 1]
Vswept

0.894 at suction conditions

0.95 290
0.894 X--X---: 0.769 at inlet conditions
1.02 314

n - 1
where y n

7
 W~a "~:~~ x 0.287 k~JK {314 K(3.8/0.95) 0 18 - 1]

+ 317 K[(l7.25/3.8) 0 18 - 11}

299.5 ~~
~- 299.5 kJ
m 0.86 kg

and _m_ = 0 86 = 0 00287 ~

Wbrake 299. 5 kJ

6. A single-stage air motor has a clearance volume 5% of the

swept volume. It takes in air at 7 bar, 65 C for 0.4 of the stroke.
Expansion then proceeds reversibly and adiabatically until the ex-
haust valve opens at dead centre and the pressure falls to the ex-
haust pressure of 1 bar while the piston is stationary. The re-
maining air is disc~arged at constant pressure until the exhaust
valve closes at a point such that reversible adiabatic compression
of the clearance gas raises the pressure to 7 bar.
Determine:
(a) the indicated work per unit swept volume,
(b) the mean temperature of the air leaving and
(c) the maximum possible work between the given inlet conditions
and the same outlet pressure.
For air R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K) and~= 1.4.
(London University 1963 recast)

p/bar
0.45Vs

tJ'
7

figure 1.6

1 I 3
4 :
.,
I
v
0 . 05Vs----..l
I
...
I Vs

Figure 1.6 refers.

T2 T1 (vdv 2 )2 whel'e z = ~ - 1

= 338 K(~:~~) 0 4 = 240.8 K

p 2 = P1Cvdv2)
{o 05
:r = 7 bar\1: 45) 1 " 4 2.138 bar

1
T3 T2(P31P2) = 240.8 K x 2.138 = 112.6 K (since Vis const.)

8
 *
~(:ooco. 45 _ 0 _05 ) + (700 x o.45)
0 ~ 4 (213.8 x 1.05)

_ (700 X 0.05) 0 ~ 4 (100 X 0.2) _ 100(1.05 _ 0.2)]

383.8 ~
m
Assuming that the overall machi-ne cycle is adiabatic and using
the first law of thermodynamics
0 = 0 = zb 0 - hi ) + Wind (where o = outlet, i :: inlet)
0 mfcp(T0 - Ti) + Wind

0 Pl(Vl- Vs) Cp(To _ Ti) + Wind

K]
RT!

or To = Ti _ WindRTl = 65 oC - [383.8 ~ X 0.287 ~X 338

0.4V5 CpPl
0.4 X 1.005 k~J K X 700 ~~
or T0 = - 6 7. 3 C

The maximum possible work transfer is achieved with isothermal ex-

pansion where

p~ = Pl~ = 7 bar x ~:6~ = 3 bar

v' = VsEA. = 0.05Vs X 7 = 0.35Vs

4 P4

W.nd = Pl (Vl - Vs) + Pl V1ln Pl - P3 (Vs - V~) - p 5 V5 ln Pl

p~ P!

[ Slnce 1 Vz
II if;" = ln Pi
Pl
and ln VI.
Vs
= ln Pl ]
P3

Thus ~= 700(0.45) + (700 x 0.45 ln ~)- 100(1.05 - 0.35)

- 700 x 0.05 ln 7

443.8 ~
m

7. A two-stage reciprocating gas compressor is fitted with an

intercooler.
In the low pressure cylinder the induction temperature and press-
ure are Ts and Ps and in the high pressure cylinder the induction
temperature is~ and the delivery pressure pd. In each cylinder
the compression process is reversible and the relationship between
the gas pressure and volume is pV" = constant where n is a constant.
The effects of the clearance volumes may be neglected.
Assuming that Ts , Ti , p 5 and pd remain constant:
(a) Derive an. expression, in terms of Ts , Ti , Ps , pd and n which
will give the intercooler pressure Pi for which the work done on the
gas is a minimum,

g
 (b) On a sketch, show the relationships between P; and the deliv-
ery temperatures in each cylinder as P; varies from p 5 to Pd
Hence, derive an expression, in terms of the same quantities as
in part (a) which will give the value of P; for which the highest
temperature attained by the gas is as low as possible.
(London University 1967)

Figures 1. 7(a), (b) and (cJ refer.

p Td

I \.
7'i B A
Pct K

P;

Ps Ts
A
v P; P;
figure 1. 7a figure 1.7b figure 1. 7c

For any compressor stage with general nomenclature

W = lllr -1 ~ n RTinlet [(&tiL'{

Pmlet J
- 1] where y = ~
n
Thus for 2 stages with given nomenclatur~

Wtotal mf r7-; R{~[(~) - 1] + ~[(~) - 1]}

and dwtotal
~
p; Y Yfl_Yl + T; .!"(!_y ( -YP;Yl ) ]
R [ T5 0
-Y lin 1 - 2n
or T
sPsP; = T _ypq
I Yct I where q = --n----

or P;
_/
= "PsPct ,T;
f.T )ljY
after simplification

When P; = p5 substituting in the above expression

T; = (~JY ~ corresponding to point A in figure 1.7(b)

when P; = pd substituting in the above expression

T; = (~JY T5 = ;; at point A (this is point Bin figure 1.7(b))

Furthermore ~ increases as T; increases and the curve of T;

against P; is concave upwards.

Also when P; = p 5

Tct = T;(IJt) corresponding to point A in figure 1. 7(c)

when P; pd

10
 corresponding to point Bin figure 1.7(c)
Also the curve of T; against P; is concave upwards since the
rate of change of~ with P; is getting less negative asP; increases.
The highest temperature attainable by the gas is as low as possible
when
T= ~/ when( T)dl~Y T;
and P; = 1 Ps Pd ~~
Further Examples

8. An air motor is supplied with air at 5.5 bar, preheated to

160 C and works with complete expansion to 1 bar according to the
law pv 1 3 =constant. Find the air consumption in kg/(kW h).
If the point of cut-off is now altered so that air is admitted
for the whole stroke, find the air consumption in kg/(kW h). Ass-
uming that the speed remains constant, find the ratio
air power for machine with complete admission
air power for machine with full admission
(20.55, 35.4, 0.464)

9. A two-stage single-acting compressor delivers air at 15 bar

when running at 140 rev/min. The capacity of the compressor is
4.55 m3 /min measured at atmospheric conditions of 1 bar and 17 C.
The clearance volume of the low pressure cylinder is 6% of the swept
volume. The pressure and temperature during suction are 0.95 bar
and 30 C respectively, while the intercooler pressure is 3.6 bar.
Assuming perfect intercooling and expansion according to pv 1 23
constant, determine:
(a) the volumetric efficiency,
(b) the dimensions of the low pressure cylinder if the stroke
1.2 times the bore,
(c) the power required to drive the compressor.
(0.883, bore = 0.35 m, stroke = 0.42 m, 24.9 kW)

10. Explain briefly why isothermal efficiencies a~e sometimes

determined for reciprocating compressors while isentropic compress-
ion is the normal standard of comparison for rotary compressors.
A two-stage single-acting reciprocating compressor is to be de-
signed to take in air at 1 bar and 21 C and to deliver at 28.3 bar.
It is anticipated that volumetric efficiencies of both high and low
pressure stages will be 83%, that the indicated isothermal efficien-
cy will be 75% and that the mechanical efficiency will be 85%. If
the air flow is to be 2.25 kg/min and the machine is to run at 400
rev/min, calculate suitable high pressure and low pressure cylinder
swept volumes and also the power required to drive the compressor.
Assume that ideal intercooling will be possible and that the same
relationship of the form pv" = constant applies to all the compress-
ion and expansion processes.
(0.00572 m3 for l.p. cylinder, 0.00108 m3 for h.p. cylinder,
16.6 kW)

11
2 RECIPROCATING INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

TI1e reciprocating piston engine is a device in which the steady

flow energy equation can be applied across the whole unit from inlet
to outlet at points where the fluid states can be said to be un1 f-
orm.
However, the various processes occurring within the device are
either unsteady in tne case of suction and delivery or non-flow in
compression, combustion and expansion.
The choice of energy equation is therefore a matter of careful
thought and is an illuminating exercise.
There are several efficiencies relevant to this topic and they
need careful qualification.
For example
Brake work transfer
Mechanical efficiency
Indicated work

Volumetric efficiency = Induced volume

Swept volume
Work transfer
Thermal efficiency = =-----~--~
Energy input
to mention but three.
1. The cycle of operations in a compression~ignition engine may
be represented approximately as follows:
(i) Compression, according to pv 1 3 = constant, through a volume
compression ratio of 14:1 from an initial pressure of 1 bar,
(ii) Constant volume combustion to a maximum pressure of 50 bar,
(iii) Constant pressure combustion during which the volume inc-
reases by 50%,
(iv) Expansion, according to pv 1 3 = constant, to the original
volume,
(v) Reduction of pressure at constant volume to the original pres-
sure of 1 bar.
Sketch a p-v diagram showing these operations and calculate
(a) the mean effective pressure,
(b) the cylinder bore and stroke of such an engine operating on
the four stroke cycle for a brake power of 100 kW at 3000 rev/min
if there are 4 cylinders and the piston stroke is equal to 1.25 x
cylinder bore diameter.
Assume that the mechanical efficiency is 80%.(Aston University
1975)
Figure 2.1 refers.
The mean effective pressure (mep) is given by

mep net spec.work }W2 + 3W4 + 4W5

0)
swept spec.volume V} - ~'2

12
 p/bar

so
f\1' d

1
~5
1

L---------------------v
Figure 2.1

R~Tl - T2) R(T,. - Ts)

+ R(Tq. - Tg) +
n - 1 n - 1
mep
V1(1 _ V2)
Vl
(Tl - T2) (T4 - Ts)
n - 1
+ (T4 - Tg) +
n - 1
P1
T1 (1 - ~)
T2 T1(:~rl = T!(14) 0 " 3 = 2.207Ti

Tg T2~~ = T2~:~~ = T2 ~: (:~) = 2. 207T{5o(1 ~ y. j

3.571Ti

n-1
Ts ..
T ( v .. )
-Vs

5. 357Tl 2.741Tl

T1(1- 2.207) + T1 ( 5 . 357 _ 3 _571 ) + T1(5.357- 2.741)

Thus mep 0.3
Pl---~~-------~r-~~~----~~-----
0.3
Ti(1 - ~4)
14
= 1 barr:rC- 4.023 + 1.786 + 8.720) = 6.98 bar
The equivalent mean effective pressure on the brake basis is
given by
bmep = 0.8mep = 0.8 x 6.98 bar = 5.59 bar= pb
100 kJ 3
Swept volume rate !!__ = _ _s_ = 0.1789:
Pb 559 kN
jjji'

13
 m 3 N 'ITD2
Thus 0.1789 S =4 X 2 X - 4- X 1.25D

where N = speed in rev/min and D = bore in m (4 stroke cycle)

3
0.1789 X 2 !!!..._
Dl s
3000 .!!! [min ] x 1T x 1.25
min [60 s]
D = 0.122 m = bore

and stroke= 1.25 x 0.122 = 0.153 m

2. A four cylinder four stroke internal combustion engine dev-

elops 44 kW at a crankshaft speed of 4500 rev/min. The pressure in
the cylinders at the commencement of compression is 1 bar and the
maximum pressure in the cylinders is 55 bar. The compression ratio
of the engine is 8.5:1 and the indicated mean effective pressure
and hence the indicated thermal efficiency are 55% of the values
calculated from the corresponding Otto cycle with air as the working
fluid.
If the brake specific fuel consumption of the engine is 0.306
kg/kW h and the calorific value of the fuel is 42 000 kJ/kg calcul-
ate the mechanical efficiency and the bore and stroke if the latter
are equal. (Aston University 1975)
p

figure 2.2
4

~-------------------v

Figure 2.2 refers.

(since 1q 2 and 3 q~ are zero)
= es - e2 + e1 - e~

= cv (T3 - T2) + cv (Tl - T~t)

= 'Y ~ l [Pr3 _ Prl ?-1 + ~ _ p~vs ri-'Y]

= 'Y ~ l ~3; 1 - P1v1r'Y-I + PlVl - Ps; 1 ri-'YJ~ =

= __!.!_rPs
'Y-llr (1
1
- r -'Y ) - Pl c?-l - 1YJl

14
Thus for the Otto cycle shown the mean effective pressure is

mep
Vl
Wind
- V2 ( 'Y - 1) (v1
Vl
- v2)
~3
r (1
- ri-'Y ) - Pl (r'Y-I - 1~
1 [P3(1 - ri-'Y ) - Pl (r'Y-I -
('Y - 1)( 1 - ~) r
1)]

r r3 (1 - ri-'Y ) - Pl (r'Y-1 - 1)]

('Y - l)(r - 1) r

or mep 0.4
8.5
X 7.5 8.5(l
~5 - 8.50.4) - 1(8.5' 4 -
1~
6. 708 bar
Thus the actual mean effective pressure is given by
mepactual 0.55 x 6.708 bar = 3.69 bar

The fuel consumption is given by

mf = mSf x
.
WB = 0.306 ..!L
kWh X 44 kW 13.464 ~g

For the air standard Otto cycle

'I = 1 - r I-'Y = 1 - 8. 5- 0 4 0. 575
Thus 'lth 0.55 X 0.575 = 0~316
~ kJ[ h]
mr x C.V. = 13.464 h x 42 000 kg [ 3600 s] = 157.08 kW
'lth X ~f X C.V. = 0.316 X 157.08 = 49.64 kW
44
and '~mech 49.64 = 0.886

~
. 49.64 kW [ kJ ] m3
l'swept 0.135
mep 369 kN [s kW] s
m2

Vswept =
0.135 .!!!.._
S
'
2250 cycle[ min]
min [60 s)

and D = ~0 ~ 036 = 0.1046 m

3. In an ideal four stroke supercharged reciprocating engine oper-

ating on the constant volume cycle, the inlet and exhaust valves
operate at the dead centres and the induction and exhaust process-
es take place at constant pressure. When the inlet valve opens the
pressure of the gas in the cylinder rises from 1.0 bar to 2.0 bar
before the piston moves; a sudden expansion to a pressure of 1.0
bar occurs whon the exhaust valve opens. The compression and ex-
pansion processes are reversible and adiabatic. The engine volume
compression ratio is 5 and the maximum gas pressure is 100 bar.
The temperature of the cylinder contents at the beginning of com-
pression is SO C.

15
 Determine (a) the mean effective pressure and (b) the ratio of
the fuel mass flow rate to the indicated power.
Assume that both the unburned and burned mixtures behave as per-
fect gases for which R = 0.28 kJ/(kg K) and~= 1.33, that the vol-
umetric composition of air is oxygen 0.21 and nitrogen 0.79, and
that the internal energy of reaction for the fuel is -45 MJ/kg.
(London University 1973)

p/bar
100 3

figure 2.3
4
2 ~--....;;;:-.1
ltJt=~====~c~--v

Figure 2. 3 refers.
'Y 1. 33 {. kJ ) kJ
Cp = ;y:--r R = 0.33\0.28 kg K = 1.128 kg K
kJ
Cv = Cp - R = 0. 848 kg K

(rl
Tc T1& = !!_
P1 2

7'2 T 1V1
- 323 K(5) 0 ' 33 = 549.4 K
V2

P2
p{~~r 2 bar (5) 1 33 = 17 bar

T3 7'21. = 549.4 K
P2
X ~~ 0 = 3231.8 K

( r-1
T4 = T 3V3
-
V4
3231.8 K (0.2)0,33 = 1900.1 K

"'n;t Wnet
mep
Vl - V2
V1 (1 - V2)
Vl

R(T3 - T4) + R(T1 - T2)

~ _ 1 ~ _ 1 + P1 (v1 - v2) - PcCv1 - v2)

= Pl (
RT1 1 - :~)
then after dividing the last brackets by v 1 , substituting RT 1 for
P1v1 and (RTI/2) for PcVl and rationalising we get

mep P1

16
where z 'Y - 1

32;~38 - 19~~31 + 1 - 51;34 + o.33(0.8) - o.~3(0.8)

or mep 2 bar --~~----~~----~~~'"------------~----
0.33(0.8)
26.9 bar = Pm

Now [1 _ V2] Pm RTl [1 - V2] per cycle

.
Wj Pm(Vl - V2) = PmVl
Vl Pl Vl

,,..
and Wj ll'!nwi = C~a + ~f)w,
Thus ~=
[1 ~} RT1 [l _ V2]
.
+ rnf
rna mpl Vl

~ = ~f x ~a = .!;L x ~a
fii Jl1i rna rna h'i

~rt:.E 0 = (~a + ~f)cv(T3 - T2)

t:.E 0 = [!!!--rn

af +
0
1] Cv (T3 - T2)
45 X 10 3 kJ
~ = f;E - 1 = ------....,-;,...-----___:.k:..________ - 1
~f cv(T3 - T2)
0.848 kgkJ K(3231.8 - 549.4) K

18.783

.
and !!!!..-- 0.0532
rna
kJ
323 K
w
,..L
n>a
= (1 + 0.0532) X 2690 gm X
0.28 kg K X

200 kN
(0. 8)
~
1024.9
1 5.19 10- 5 ~
Thus ~= 0.0532 X------=
1024.9
x
Wt kJ

4. A four stroke reciprocating petrol engine has a compression

ratio of 8 to 1. At the end of the exhaust process with the piston
at dead centre the cylinder contains gas at a pressure of 1.06 bar
and a temperature of 1000 K. The residual gas is assumed to expand
isentropically during the induction stroke to a suction pressure of
0.84 bar before any new charge enters the cylinder at a temperature
of 290 K. The residual gas and the new charge can be assumed com-
pletely mixed at the end of the induction stroke during which the
pressure in the cylinder remains constant at 0.84 bar. Heat trans-
fer between the gas and the cylinder walls during the process is
negligible.
Determine
(a) the temperature of the gas in the cylinder at the end of the
induction stroke, and
(b) the ratio of the mass of the charge actually entering the
cylinder to that which would occupy the swept volume at a pressure
of 1.0 bar and a temperature of 300 K.
Assume that both the residual gas and the new charge are perfect
gases for which 'Y = 1. 38 and cp = 1. 005 kJ I (kg K) .
(London University 1974)
17
 p/bar

figure 2.4
1
1.06
0.84 ~2 13
1
I
v
I I
---+! 1 .__ 8

Figure 2.4 refers.

Let R = Residuals, F = Fresh charge and T = Total mixture
Energy equation applied to the mixing process
ER 2 + HF = ET 3 + P2 (V3 - V:L)

or HR:l + HF = HT3
or mRcp(T:l - To) + mFcp(T - To)

or T3
1 + !!!.E.
mR

T2 T1(~)k = 1000 / 0 84)

\.1.06
0.275 = 938 K rk = ..1....:_!_]
Pl [ 'Y

V2 = v 1 (~~)z = v1(1 ~~~)2. 632 = 1.183vl (z = 'Y - 1)

R= ( 'Y ~ l fP = ~: ;: X 1. 005 = 0. 2 77 k~J K

84 kN X 1.183Vl
m = E&!'Jl = P2 V 2 = __iii!"_-:-::----
R RTR RT2 0.277 k~JK x 938 K

kN
84 jjj2 X (8V 1 - 1 .183Vl)
kJ 7 .128v1
0.277 kg K X 290 K

938 K + 7 128 290 K

0.383
Ts 323 K
1 7.128
+ 0.383

If mv is the mass to fill the engine swept volume at 1 bar, 300 K

kN
_ Ps(Vs - vl) 100 iii!" (8v1 - v1)
my - RT3 8.424Vl
kJ
0.277 kg K X 300 K

18
 !!l.E = 7.128
mv 8.424 = 0 846

5. In the air standard cycle of a proposed internal combustion

engine, heat transfer to the air takes place at constant temperat-
ure, while heat transfer from the air takes place at constant pres-
sure. The two remaining processes are each reversible and adiabatic.
The pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression are
1 bar and 66 C respectively and heat transfer to the air of mag-
nitude 300 kJ/kg occurs at 338 C.
Determine the clearance volume as a percentage of the swept vol-
ume and the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Indicate how the thermal efficiency of the cycle would vary as:
(a) the maximum temperature was varied, the heat transfer remain-
ing constant, and
(b) the heat transfer was varied, the maximum temperature remain-
ing constant.
Show the results graphically with any limiting values clearly
marked. (London University 1964)

p/bar

1~
t1 'D:
66 1
figure 2.5
s

f ~iy
Figure 2.5 refers.
300 kJ
s3 - s2 = = 2q3 = ~ - 0 4910 kJ _v3
T2 611 K - ' K kg = R 1n v 2
2

kJ
v:
V
= antiln\
{s 3
; 52
~
/= antiln
0.4910 K kg
kJ -
0.287 kg K
5.53

P2 PI (;~r where k = i' ; l

P2 1 bar(~;~y. 5
= 7. 86 bar
P2v2T3 = 7. 86 bar
P3
V3T2 5.54 1. 419 bar

19
 T~ = T3(~:)" = 611 K(l.~l9r 286 = 552.8 K

v~ = (T3j-z = (__2!!_)2 5 = 1. 284 where z 'Y - 1

V3 T~} 552.8
v~ = 1.284v3 = 1.284 x 5.54v2 = 7.12v2

V2 = ~ = 0.164
v~ - v2 6.12v2

71 = 2q3 + ~ql = 2V + Cp(Tl - T~)

2q3 2q3
kJ
300 kkJ + [ 1 . 005 'i<K( 339 - 552. 8)K
g
J
300 fJ
0.284

.......___ _ _ s

.:::lE29s.s
figure 2.Sa
Trc

Figure 2 .Sa refers.

"
As Tis raised with 2q3 fixed, ~q1 falls.

71up~r =1 +~and in the limit tends to unity.

2q3

The lowest value of 71 is when end of heat addition is at A on the

isobar through 4.

and
SA

TA

TA
- s1

(sA - sl)

= 571.5
= Cp ln ~

= 2q3 = 300 ~~ = TA Cp
K (298.5 C)
ln * for which

1.005(339 - 571.5) 0.221

and 711owest = l + 300

20
 figure 2,5b

Figure 2.5b refers.

As 2 q 3 decreases so does 4q 1 and the question is which decreases

faster?
Assume a new value of 2 q~ of 61.1 kJ/kg whence
= 2q; = 61.1 kJ/kg =Ol kJ/(K kg)
T2 611 K .
I
1
I
s 4 - s 1 = cp n Ti'
T4
"
and T~ T1 antiln (s~ - 51 ) 339 K antiln O.l kJ/(K kg)
Cp 1.005 kJ/(kg K)
1.105 X 339 = 374.5 K
Cp(Tl - T~) = 1.005(339 - 374.5) 35.6 ~~
and '7 = 1- ~~:~ = 0.417
Thus 2q 3 decreases from 300 to 61.1 kJ/kg (in ratio of 4.91:1)
and 4 q 1 decreases from 214.9 to 35.6 kJ/kg (in ratio of 6.04:1)
Thus 4q 1 decreases more rapidly than 2 q 3 and '7 rises as 2 q 3 is red-
uced and is unity in the limit.
The lower value of '7 will be when the heat in finishes at point B.

611 K x 1.005 k~J K ln ~~~ = 361.7 ~~

and '7 1 + BiJ.. 1 + Cp(Tl - Ta) = l + 1.005(339 - 611)
lowest = 2qB = 2qB 361. 7
= 0.244

6. A four stroke compression -ignition engine has a swept volume

of 0.015 m3 The engine is supercharge d by a Lysholm blower running
at four times engine speed.
The characteris tics of the blower are expressed by the following
two statements:

21
 (i) The pressure ratio r is given by the equation
r = 0.0013N - 0.530v
when the blower speed N is measured in rev/min and the air flow by
volume v is measured in m3 /min at 1 bar and 15 C.
(ii) For blower speeds between 2000 and 6000 rev/min and for val-
ues of pressure ratio between 1.3 and 1.8, the isentropic efficiency
of the blower is constant at 0.78.
Determine the pressure in the inlet manifold at an engine speed
of 1000 rev/min given that the volumetric efficiency, based on man-
ifold conditions, is 76% and that the blower takes in air at 1 bar
and 15 C.
Also make an approximate estimate of the ratio of the indicated
power of this engine to that of a similar unsupercharged engine op-
erating at the same speed. State any assumptions made.
For air take cp as 1.005 kJ/(kg K) and R. as 0.287 kJ/(kg K).
(London University 1966)

2
Engine
Engine
Inlet
Manifold

Figure 2.6

Figure 2.6 refers.

'II

or

The procedure is to take a value of r in the range 1. 3 < r < 1. 8

and calculate r from the given information till by a process of
trial and error the assumed r and the calculated value are the same.
Trial 1 r = P2IP1 = 1.3

T2s = T1z-'c = 288 K(l. 3) 0 2 86 (where k = 'Y ; 1 = 0. 286)

310.4 K
Tl + T2s - T1 = 288 K + 310.4 - 288 = 316 . 8 K
'li 0. 78
air volume flow rate at
swept volume rate
: 1.3 X 288 X 0.76 0. 898
316.8

22
 m3 1000 stroke m3
v1 = 0.898P'5 = 0.898 x 0.015 stroke x -2 -~ = 6.736 min
and r = 0.0013(4000) - 0.530(6.736) = 1.63 (cf.l.3 assumed value)
Trial 2 r = 1.8
T2 288 K(l.8) 0 286 = 340.7 K
340
T2 288 + 0:7~ 288 = 355.6 K

P'1 1.8 288 X 0.76 l.l0 8

v.- =
X
355.6
=

m3
1.108 x 0.015 x 500 = 8.310 min
r 0.0013(4000) - 0.530(8.31)
0. 796
and plotting a straight line graph of r (estimated) against r (cal-
culated) we find that
r = 1.42 is the correct value satisfying the stated conditions.
Thus P2 = 1.42 bar

Assuming that the combustion chamber efficiency is unaltered by the

application of boost it is reasonable also to assume that

indicated wsupercharged = ~air (supercharged)

indicated w uncharged majr (uncharged)

[ PI h]
RT! ]spchgd
[RT1
~
J _vt(supercharged)
(uncharged)
unchgd - 1

[ P"ll f!rs] 0.951 _ 1. 251

Vs"Jspchgd Lfl" unchgd 0. 76 -

7. An ideal cycle, commonly known as the air standard dual cycle,

comprises the following processes:
(a) polytropic compression,
(b) constant-volume heating,
(c) constant-pressure heating,
(d) polytropic expansion, and
(e) constant-volume cooling.
Such a cycle can be used to simulate the processes in a diesel
engine which has a volume ratio r. Derive an expression for the
indicated mean effective pressure of the engine in terms of r, the
polytropic index index n, the ambient pressure po, the ratioS of
peak to ambient pressure and the ratio q of final to initial vol-
ume during process (c). Hence, or otherwise, determine the ratio
of the indicated mean effective pressure for an unsupercharged en-
gine to that for a supercharged engine having air supplied at twice
the ambient pressure while maintaining the same peak pressure and
temperature. Assume that the exhaust pressure is Po and that the
variables have the following values for the unsupercharged engine:
r = 18; n = 1.3; S = 120; q = 1.8.
(London University 1970)

23
 p

s
PO 1

~------------------v
Figure 2.7

Figure 2.7 refers.

T{:~r-1 = T!Zn-1
T3El.. = Tl 1 (vdx&_ = '!.l.cr;"
P3 P3 5

T!

Ts T4
V4]n-l
[Vs = qT3 L7s
rqV3Jn-l qTsl?J
~ ]"-1

OW net

J
Wnet
and mep RT1(r- 1)
RT1 1 - ~
Srpownet SpoWnet
RTsr(r- 1) RTs(r - 1)

rR(T 4 _ Ts) + R(T" - Ts) + R(Tl - T2) l

Spo
RT 3 (r - 1) l n - 1 n - 1 J

and
by

mepunchgd 21.9lpo

24
 Spo 4

5
2po
PO
,....----.-..11
....__ _ ___,1

~----------v
Figure 2.7a

Figure 2.7a refers.

v1 = v~; v2 = v~; p~ = 2po; Pl = Po;

7'~ = p~ = p{ (vdv2) _ 2por _ 2r
7'3 P3 P3 - P3 - S

Thus 7'~ 2r 7'

53 = 7' 11 ,

qT3 as before;

Ts = 7'~[::J-I = q7'{;]"-l

If the supercharged value of mean effective pressu~e is mep5

wl I I
then mep = net w net rpow net
5 Vl - V2 [ V2] RT1 (r - 1)
Vl 1 - ~J

rpo [R(T _ 7' ) + R(TII - 7's)

(r - 1) RT1 ~ 3 n 1
+ CPr - pl) Cv1 - v2~
rpo rR(T _ 7' ) + R(T~- Ts) + RT1 1n V 2
I

(r- 1)R7'1L ~ 3 n- 1 VT
+ Po (v1 - v2~
rpo {R(T _ 7' ) + R(T~ - 7's)
(r - 1)R7'1 ~ 3 n - 1

~J}
r
+ RT1 [ 1 -
!l.ln-1
rpoS
(r - 1)R7't
{cq7' 3 - 7'
3
) + ..,..;.."---n""""---"T1;...o..._
qT3 - qTs r]
+ s Ts
2r 1n !r

+ T~r 1 _ ~]}
1 _ i. n-1
= ~ { (q - 1) + q r + 2r 1n! +
r - 1 n - 1 S r

25
and substituting the given values the supercharged mep becomes

120po ~
~0 8 +
r r1. 8]o. 31
1 81 - [Ts
0.3
J+ ~
120
.!__
ln 18

+ ~~o ~ - ~8]}
21.6Spo
Thus mepunspchgd 21.91
mepspchgd 21.65 = 1. 012

Further Examples
8. The specific fuel consumption of a spark-ignition engine at
full load is 0.335 kg/(kW h) when the calorific value of the fuel
is 44 200 kJ/kg. The mechanical efficiency is 80%. Calculate the
indicated thermal efficiency.
Calculate the brake and indicated mean effective pressures of
the engine at this load if the gravimetric air-fuel ratio is 18,
the volumetric efficiency is 82% and the ambient conditions are
1 bar and 20 C.
The engine has a compression ratio of 6. Determine the effic-
iency of the comparable air standard Otto cycle and thence the ind-
icated efficiency ratio for the engine.
Calculate the indicated mean effective pressure, the maximum
pressure and the maximum temperature for the Otto cycle if the
temperature and pressure at the beginning of compression are res-
pectively 20 C and 1 bar and the heat supplied per kg of air is
equal to the energy supplied by the fuel in the engine per kg of
air drawn in.
(0.304, 5.82 bar, 7.28 bar, 0.512, 0.594, 18 bar, 3747 C, 82.3 bar)

9. A six cylinder four stroke petrol engine is to develop 37

kW at 2400 rev/min when designed for a compression ratio of 6.0:1.
The ambient air conditions are 1 bar and 20 C, and the calorific
value of the fuel is 44 200 kJ/kg.
(a) Calculate the specific fuel consumption in kW/(kW h) if the
indicated thermal efficiency is estimated to be 60% of the thermal
efficiency of the corresponding air standard Otto cycle and the
estimated mechanical efficiency is 80%.
(b) The required gravimetric air-fuel ratio is 15.4 and the est-
imated volumetric efficiency is 82%. Determine the required swept
volume per cylinder, and the cylinder bore if the latter is to be
equal to the stroke.
(c) Calculate the brake mean effective pressure.
(0.332 kg/(kW h), 448.5 cm 3 , 0.083 m, 6.87 bar.)

10. A naturally aspirated spark-ignition petrol engine has a

compression ratio of 10:1 which is the highest useful compression
ratio for the fuel available. The engine consumes 58.76 kg/h of
this fuel (of energy release 44 194 kJ/kg in combustion) when del-
ivering 186.5 kW. It is required to raise the engine output to
260 kW by supercharging. Verify that the required supercharged

26
induction pressure is 1.455 atmosphere and state the new compress-
ion ratio under this condition.
Assume that:
(a) a 10% increase in induction pressure produces an 11% increase
in indicated power when the compression ratio and other factors are
unchanged;
(b) the compression ratio of the engine itself must be reduced
by 1.8 x the boost pressure in atmospheres;
(c) mechanical efficiencies are 88% without and 85% with the
supercharger;
(d) the indicated thermal efficiency ~ is given by
~ = 1 - (1/rf where r = compression ratio and c is a constant.
(Supercharged compression ratio= 9.181)

27
3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY FLOW IN
DUCTS

This chapter demonstrates the use of the steady flow energy

equation in such a way that stagnation quantities can be defined -
i.e. those values of fluid properties which refer to the fluid when
stationary. By implication the kinetic energy term is appreciable
and plays a notable part.

1. A pitot static tube in an air duct indicates a difference of

250 mm Hg between the stagnation and static pressures when the stat-
ic pressure in the duct is 1.3 bar. The stagnation temperature of
the air is measured as 80 C. For isentropic flow conditions, cal-
culate:
(a) the free stream density,
(b) the mean air speed in the duct,
(c) the Mach number of flow.
Take~= 1.4 and R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K).
The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
(Aston University 1976)

Po_ P = 250 mm Hg [ m Hg ](13.6 m H20]~ 9 81 m (N s 2]

(103 mm Hg] [ m Hg ]m3 H20 ST [kg m]
33.35 g
m
Po =p+ (po-p) 130~+ 33.35~= 163.35~

T = T{~of [l!;~ 35r 286 [k= ~;

*
353 K = 330.7 K 1]

130 kN
p = ~ kJ iii2 1. 37 (a)
0.287 kg K X 330.7 K

~R kJ kJ
Cp = ~ = 3.5 X 0.287 kg K "' 1.005 kg K
Energy equation

u =~2cp (To - T) 1.005 kkgJK(353 - 330 7)K(~]

[N s 2 ]

= 211.7 !1!. (b)

s

Ua =fRT =~1.4 X 0.287 k~J K X 330.7 K f~g s~ 364.5 !1!.

s

28
 Ma E._= 21 1. 7 0.58 (c)
Ua 364.5 =

2. Steam flows into a duct from a large reservoir in which the

steam pressure and temperature are 20 bar and 400 C respectively.
Some distance downstream of the reservoir the total (stagnation)
pressure is 15 bar, the fluid (static) pressure is 10 bar and the
total (stagnation) temperature is 350 C.
Determine the heat transfer per unit mass of steam between the
reservoir and the point in the duct at which the above measurements
were made, the local steam velocity and the specific volume of the
steam at this point.
Use the steam tables including the relationships therein on p.ll.
(Aston University 1975)

POl
7'01
20 bar:
40o c
~I Figure 3.2
P02 = 15 bar

Figure 3.2 refers.

At point 2 the steam is superheated and using p .11 of tables

n --
P2-]' where r = -
T2 = To2 [ - 1
Po2 n
[10] 0. 3/1.3
= (35o + 273)Kl~ = 567 K = 294 C

kJ
ho 2 = 3148 kg (page 7)
44 kJ
and h 2 = 2944 + 50 (3052 - 2944) = 3039.0 kg (page 7)
Energy equation relating static and stagnation states at point 2:

u2 =~2(ho2 - h2) =~2 x (3148 - 3039) ~~ ~~gS~ ~k~Jm~

466.8 ~

0.3 (3039 - 1943) m3

1. 3 100 X 10 0.253 kg (page 11)

Energy equation from point 1 to point 2 (1w2 = ~gz = 0)

1q2 = ho2 - ho1 = 3148 - 3357 = - 209 kJ/kg (page 7)

3. The intake of a turbo-jet unit is shown in figure 3.3. The

unit may move with velocity UfJight relative to the atmosphere and
parallel to its axis.

29
 2
Eye

Figure 3.3

The flow through the intake duct may be assumed to be isentcopic

and the velocity of the air through the impeller eye at state 2 is
axial.
Data:
Atmospheric pressure ------- 10 5 N/m 2
Atmospheric temperature ---- 18 C
Velocity of air through
impeller eye --------------- 120 m/s
Calculate the temperature equivalent of the velocity at the im-
peller eye, the air temperature at the impeller eye and the mass
flow rate of air
(a) if the engine is stationary
(b) if uflight is 150 m/s.

(a) 1202 m2 [N s2]

8 = To 2 - T2
ui
= - - = --~---~1:-kJ.,...__
sr [kg m] 7.16 K
U2 2Cp 2 X 1 , 005 kg"'K

T2 = To2 - 8 = 18 - 7.16 = 10.84 K

U2

2
P2 = P02[T7'02 J/k 2-
= POl -7'02
[T ]'/k for reversible flow

= 10 5 N p83.84r 5 = 0.91 X 105 N

jjjl" 291 jjji"
kJ
0.287 k& K X 283.84 K
V2 = RT2 = m3
0.895 kg
P2 0 91 X N
10 5 jjji"

Mass continuity equation

100 cm 2 [ m2 ~ x 120 -m
~ = _A2_u_2 = ___ _...~[..:l;.::O_"--=cm:::.2:"''----~s 1.34 ~
v2 m3 s
0.895 kg

(b)
u2 120 2
,. 2~p 2 x 1.005 x 1000 .. 7.16 K as before
150 2
7'01 = Tatmos + 8150 "' 291 + 2 x 1000 x 1.005 302.2 K

30
 T2 302.2 - 7.16 = 295.03 K = 22.03 C

- [~Jt/k
,Po 1 - .Patmos Tatmos
- 10 s jjjf"
-
Nx [ 302.2]
291
5
= 1.14
3'
10
s
x
N
m2

T2 ]l/k [T2 Jt/k 1 14 105

X ~95.03]3.
N 5
P2 = P02 [ Tu = Pol Tu jjjf"r 302.2

1.048 X 10 5 ~
Rl'2 = 0.287 X 295.03 X 10 3
P2 1.048 X 105

and ~ = A2U2 = 10~

100 X 120 l. 4SS ~
V2 X 0.808 S

4. An adiabatic convergent-divergent nozzle is required to ex-

pand steam, initially dry saturated at a pressure of 7 bar, to give
an exit velocity of 685 m/s and a mass flow rate of 6.8 kg/s.
Show the relative positions of the inlet, throat and exit state
points of the steam on a sketch of the h-s diagram and determine:-
(a) the pressure in the nozzle at exit and
(b) the cross-sectional areas at the throat and exit.
Assume that the nozzle efficiency is 84%, that the flow in the
convergent section is reversible and that the critical pressure
ratio for steam under these conditions is 0.58. The h-s chart may
be used in part (a) only. (London University 1973)

-
figure 3.4

Figure 3.4 refers.

p, = p{n : lr = 7 o. 58 x 4.06 bar ry

l
= _n J
n - 1
Reading from the h-s chart
kJ 2668 kJ
2765 kg; ht kg
kJ
Thus h1 - h 1 = 97.0 kg
Steady flow energy equation assuming negligible u 1 , zero heat tran-
sfer and negligible changes in potential energy:

31
 h2 h1 - iu~
2765 kJ - [685] 2 m2 [N s] [ kJ ]
kg 2 ST [kg m] [103 N m]
2765 - 234.6 = 2530.4 ~~
hl - h2 234.6 ~~
234.6 =
and hl - h2 0.84 279.3 ~~
or kJ
= 2765 - 279.3 = 2485.7 kg
h2
and p 2 = 1.4 bar approximately (reading from the chart)

kJ
s 1 s1 6.709 kg K (page 4 of tables)

St -Sf= 6.709- 1.781 = O 964

srg 5.111
607 + 0.964(2132) = 2662.7 ~~
Energy equation assuming negligible potential energies and inlet
velocity and zero heat and work transfers
kJ [kll ml[kN m]
u 1 =~2(hl- h 1 ) =~2 X (2765- 2662.7) kg kJ ] [N's"21 [
= 452.4!!!.
s
Mass continuity equation m3
6.8 ~X 0.964 X 0.456 r-
At =~=~ = s g = 0.0066 m2
Ut Ut 452.4 !!!_
s

h2 - hr2 2530.4 - 458 0.928

X2 : hfg2 2232
A2 mx~;g2 = 6.8 x 0.~~~ x 1.236 = O.Oll 4 m2

5. A rigid vessel, of volume 0.6 m3, contains air initially at

a temperature of 150 C and a pressure of 200 bar. A valve which
is initially closed, followed by a converging nozzle of throat area
130 mm 2 , is fitted in the wall of the vessel. The valve is fully
opened and the contents of the vessel discharge through the nozzle
into the atmosphere, which is at a pressure of 1 bar.
Assuming that the expansion of the air in the vessel and the
flow through the nozzle are reversible, determine the time required
for the pressure of the air in the vessel to fall to 2 bar.
The pressure at inlet to the nozzle is at all times equal to
that of the air in the vessel and heat transfer between the con-
tents of the vessel and its walls is negligible.

32
 Assume air to be a perfect gas for which R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K)
and 'Y = 1.4.
The critical pressure ratio for the reversible flow ~f a perfect
gas through an adiabatic nozzle is equal to [2/('Y + 1)] where k
is equal to [('Y - 1)/'Y] (London University 1968 recast)

0.6 m3 0.6m 3
200 bar 1 bar 1 bar
2
1
423 )( 2 bar
Figure 3.5

Figure 3.5 refers.

T2. = T{~~~k = 423

r 1
K lOO r2.86 113.3 K

20 QQQ ~X 0.6 m3
m
P1V1 =
m1
RT1
98.8 kg
0.287 k~JK X 423 K
200 X
m2. = P2.V2. =
RT2. 0.287 X ~i~.3 = 3.69 kg
m1 - m2. = 95.11 kg
Pc = [ 2- ]3.5 0.528 (where Pc = critical pressure)
P2. 2.4
and h
P2.
= .!.2 = 0 . 5 (where Pa = atmospheric pressure)
Thus Pa < Pc always and ~ is always at constant maximum value.

Thus at the start of expa~sion the velocity at the throat is:

Ut = Uat =~'YRTt
=~'YRT{'Y : l J=~ 1. 4 X
kJ
0.287 kg K X 423 K X
2 [kg m]
2 . 4 (N'"ST]

= 376.3 ~

0.528 X 20 000 kN
0.528pl =
2 ~
_.EJ._ =
Pt
RTt RTt kJ 104.4 ~
0.287 kg K X 2.4 X 423 K
kg m [ m2 ]
104.4 iT x 376.3 5 x 130 mm 2 [loti mm2)

5.11 ~ constant
s

33
 95.11 kg 18.61 s
and t
5.11 ~
s

6. Steam flow steadily through a horizontal, adiabatic, conver-

gent-divergent nozzle.
At inlet to the nozzle the steam is dry saturated at a pressure
of 7 bar and the steam velocity is negligible; at exit the steam
pressure is 0.34 bar.
The cross-sectional areas of the nozzle at the throat and at exit
are .645 mm 2 and 2967 mm 2 respectively.
Determine
(a) the steam mass flow rate,
(b) the dryness fraction of the steam at exit,
(c) the isentropic efficiency of the nozzle.
Assume that the steam flow from inlet to the throat is reversible
and that the critical pressure ratio for steam for these conditions
is 0.58. (London University 1970 recast)

2 ~I (kg/s)

- 0.672
0.606 -t
,"""t-o-~--0.66

0.475---t
Figure 3.6
/ t
0.875
0.90 '
0.95
X

0.88
Figure 3.6 refers.

Pt = 7 X 0. 58 4. 06 bar
Thus P2 < p 1 and the mass flow rate rn is a maximum (u 1 u81 )

From the h-s chart

X1 0.963
m3
0.963 X 0.456 0.44 kg (tables page 4)

u81 =~n~/ =~np 1 v1 =~1.135 x 406 ~N x 0.44 ~~ f~gs~~

= 450 !!!.
s

rn = uA]
[-v 1
450
= 106
X
X
645 = 0. 66 ~
0.44 S

Trial and error process to find x 2

Assume x 2 is 0.9

34
 h2 = 302 + kJ
0.9(2328) = 2397.2 kg
kJ [~] [kN m]
U2 = ~2 (hl - h2) =~2(2764- 2397.2) kg
[N s ] [ kJ ]
856.5 .!!!.
s
m3
V2 = X2Vg2 = 0.9 X 4.649 = 4.184 kg

~ = u2A 2 = 856.5 X 2967 O 60 7 ~ (cf0.66)

V2 106 X 4 .184 = S

Assume x2 is 0.95
h2 2513.6
U2 707.7
V2 4.417

m = 707.7
106 X
X 2967
4.417
0.475 ~
s
(cf 0.66)

Assume x2 is 0.875

h2 2339
U2 922
V2 4.068

m = 922 X 2967 = O 672 (cf 0.66)

106 X 4.068
and from figure 3.6 giving a graph of ~ against X2

X2 0.88
h2 302 + (0.88 X 2328) = 2350.6 kJ/kg
hl - h2 = 413.4 kJ/kg
and from the enthalpy-entropy chart for steam
hl - h2 = 484 kJ/kg
413.4
""""484 = 0. 854 (c)

7. A perfect gas flows steadily through an adiabatic convergent-

divergent nozzle into a large vessel in which the pressure can be
maintained at any desired value.
At inlet to the nozzle the gas temperature is 540 C, the press-
ure 7 bar and the velocity negligible.
The cross-sectional areas of the nozzle at the throat and at exit
are 645 mm 2 and 864 mm 2 respectively.
Assuming the flow to be reversible, show that
(a) the highest vessel pressure for which the mass flow rate
through the nozzle is a maximum is approximately 6.22 bar,
(b) the lowest vessel pressure for which the pressure in the
nozzle exit will be equal to the pressure in the vessel is approx-
imately 1.60 bar.

35
 For the gas~= 1.3, R = 0.296 kJ/(kg K), cp = 1.281 kJ/(kg K)
and the critical pressure ratio is 0.546. (London University 1969)

Pthroat 0.546 X 7 3.82 bar (for maximum mass flow)

Tthroat T{~: 1J 813 K[/ 3 ] = 707 K

Ut Uat =~~RT =~1.4 X 0.296 ~X

kg K
707 K [~]
[N s2]
541.3 !!!.
s

T2 T1 [p 2]
Pt
k
= 707 K[ ~r231
3.82
(1)

~ut + h 1 = ~u~ + h2 (2)

Three equations for
P1 A1 u 1 = P2A2u2 Or three unknowns
At UtPt_ = A2U2P2 {3)
RTt RT2

Figure 3.7 refers.

Figure 3.7

Method of solution

Try a value of P2 in (1) to give a value of T 2

Try the value of T 2 in (2) to give a value of u2 .
Try the values of T 2 , u2 , p 2 in {3) for a check.
Let P2 1.60 bar
[1.60r. 2 31 = 578.2 K
Then T2 T. [~:r = 707 K 3.82
kJ
u~ - uf 2cp(T 1 - T2) = 2 X 1.281 ~{707 578.2)K
or u~ - uf 330 kJ
kg [N s ] [----rn-)
[~][l0 3
N] = 330g000 m2
ST
u~ 330 000 + 541.3 2
U2 789.3 m/s
864 m2 X 789.3 !!!_X 160 kN
s m2
6 kJ
0.638 !&
s
10 X 0.296 kg K X 578.2 K

36
and ~ = 645 X 541.3 X 382 = O 637 ~ (ch k)
RT1 10 6 x 0.296 x 707 s ec
Now if the other value of p 2 is 6.22 bar
Tz 707 K (6.22/3.82) 0 " 231 = 791.3 K
uz 277.6 m/s
and Azuzpz = 864 x 277.6 x 622 _ ~
RTz 10 6 x 0.296 x 791.3- 0 637 s (check)

8. Steam flows steadily through a horizontal, adiabatic, convergent-

divergent nozzle. The cross-sectional areas of the nozzle at the
throat and at exit are 1279 mm 2 and 1612 mm 2 respectively. At entry
to the nozzle the steam is saturated (dryness unity) at a pressure
of 5 bar and the velocity is negligible; at exit the pressure is
1.5 bar and the velocity is 610 m/s. The flow between the entry
and the throat may be assumed to be reversible.
Determine the mass flow rate of the steam and the isentropic
efficiency of the nozzle. Show that a throat pressure of approx-
imately 2.9 bar is compatible with the given data.
Candidates are required to solve the problem without the use of
the h-s chart. (London University 1965 recast)

Figure 3. 8

Figure 3.8 refers.

Energy equation
= h1 + iu~
h1 [since 1q2 = JW2 = UJ = (gzl - gzz) 0]
For steam initially saturated the polytropic index n 1.135

.i 35r,.
and the critical pressure is given by

Pc = P{:n: 1
1]' " = 5[2 07
= 2.89 bar (say 2.9 bar)
and since Pex; 1 < Pc then p 1 = Pc = 2.9 bar approximately
and the mass flow rate is a maximum.
Thus u1 = ~2 (h 1 - h 1) and in the convergent portion where the flow
is reversible and adiabatic i.e. isentropic
kJ
6.822 K kg (page 4)

37
Thus xl [~] = 6.822 - 1.66 = 0.966
Sfg I 5.344
kJ
h 1 (hr + xhrg) 1 = 556 + 0.966(2168) = 2650.3 kg

- 2650 3) kJ[~] [l0 3 N]

U1 =
l_/2(ht - ht) =
l_/2(2749 . kg[N s ][ kN ]
444.3!!!.
s
m3 m3
VI = XI Vgl 0.966 X 0.6253 kg = 0.604 kg
Mass continuity [ m2. ]
444.3 !!!_ X1277 mm 2 [ 106 mm2.]
s
m = [~Al m3
0.939 ~
s
0.604 kg

,., = u~ - ht - h2.
~- ht - h2.s
52.s St = 6.822 kJ/(K kg)

X2.s [~] = S1 - Sf2. for isentropic flow

Srg 2.s srg2.
6.822 - 1.434
Thus X2.s 0.931 (page 4)
5. 789

h2.s = (h r + xhrg)
2.S
467 + 0.931(2226) 2538.8 ~~
and for the real flow

~u~ = 2749 kJ - 6102. m2. [~ L.!~:!.J 2563 kJ

kg 2 s 2 [kg m][kN m] kg
2749 - 2563
Thus 11 0.885
2749 - 2538.8

9. A horizontal, adiabatic, convergent-divergent nozzle discharges

into a vessel in which the pressure may be maintained constant at
any desired value.
A perfect gas enters the nozzle with negligible velocity and at
a constant temperature and pressure of 760 C and 5.5 bar.
Tests made at a series of vessel pressures show that when the
pressure in the vessel is 1.45 bar the temperature of the gas leav-
ing the nozzle is 524 C, the pressure of the gas in the nozzle at
exit is equal to that in the vessel and there are no shock waves in
the nozzle.
(a) Determine the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the nozzle
at exit to that at the throat and the nozzle isentropic efficiency,
and
(b) show that the mass flow rate is constant for all vessel pres-
sures less than about 4.8 bar.
Assume that when the flow through the diverging section is sub-
sonic it is reversible and that for all vessel pressures the flow

38
is reversible from the inlet to the throat.
For the gas R = 0.209 kJ/(kg K), y = 1.33.
The critical pressure ratio for the reversible and adiabatic flow
of a perfect gas is equal to (2/ (Y + 1) ]I /k where k = (Y - 1) /Y.
(London University 1966 recast)

- Figure 3.9

Figure 3.9 refers.

YR 1.33 kJ
Cp = -;y-:-[ = O 33 (0. 209) 0. 842 kg K

Pc = Pl [ m
2 ]1/k = 5.5 bar x 2 . 33l
-_2 ]4.03 2.972 bar

Now P2 < Pc and thus ~ is a maximum.

u, = Uat =~YP 1 V1 = fRTt =~YRT{y: 1]

u, = ~ 1.33 X 0.209 kgkJ K X 1033 K[-2-](~] (10 3 N)

2.33 (N s ) ( kN )
496.5 ~
s
kJ 2 X
0.209 kg K 2 . 33 1033 K m3
v, RTc= R['y : 1]T1 0.337 kg
Pt Pt 550 kN
m2
496.5 .~
!!!.... = E.!.. = _ ___::s..,.. 1473.5 ~
At Vt m3 s m
0.337 kg
when P2 1.45 bar we have sonic conditions at t, subsonic flow in
the convergent portion of the nozzle and irreversible, supersonic
flow between t and 2.
u2 =~2(hl - h2) (u1 = 0)
797)K(~)(l0 3 N)
U2 =j2cp(T!- T2) =-'2 0.842 ..!:!._(1033-
1 1 X
kg K (N s )( kN )
= 630.4 ~
s
RT2 0.209 X 797
V2 = P2 = 145

Thus !!!.... = ~ = 630 4 548 8 kg

A2 V2 1. 149 = SJii'2'"

39
and A2 = ~X A2 = 1473.5 = 2 . 69
At At m 2.68

T2, = T{~~r = 1033 K[~:i 5 T.21ta = 742.2 K

and ~ = h1 - h2 T1 - T2 z 1033 - 797 = 0. 812
h1 - h2s T1 - T2 5 1033 - 742.2

When the vessel pressure is 4.8 bar the entire flow is reversible.

T2 = T{~~r = 1033 K[~:~r .21+a = 998.7 K

= RT2 = 0.209 X 998.7 = O 435 .!!C
V2 P2 480 kg
u2 =~2Cp(T 1 - T2) =~2 X 0.842{1033- 998.7) X 1000
= 240.3 rn/s
and Ua 2 =~'YRT2 =~1.33X 0.209 X 998.7 X 1000 = 526 rn/s

i.e. u2 < ua2(subsonic - check)

;, u2 24o. 3
and -A2 =V2
- =- - = 552 . 4 (cf 547.5) near enough the same
0.435

Further Examples
10. Air flows through a duct of constant cross-sectional area
16.4 x 10- 3 rn 2 and at a certain cross-section (1) its velocity is
30 rn/s, its pressure is 1.38 bar and its temperature is 93 C.
At a subsequent cross-section (2) its pressure is 1.35 bar.
Assuming frictionless flow, calculate:-
(a) the mass flow rate along the duct,
(b) the total temperature at (1),
(c) the velocity at (2),
(d) the total temperature at (2),
(e) the heat transfer between (1) and (2).
(0.646 kg/s, 366.5 K, 106.2 rn/s, 1273.8 K, 589 kJ/s)

11. Air enters a gas turbine combustion chamber at 4 x 10 5 N/rn 2 ,

500 K and 90 rn/s. The area of the duct at entry is 16.4 10- 3 rn 2
The gases leave the combustion chamber with a total temperature
of 1000 K.
The fuel used has an enthalpy of reaction of 44 200 kJ/kg and
burns with a combustion efficiency of 90%. Find
(a) the total temperature at inlet,
(b) the mass flow rate of air,
(c) the mass of fuel consumed per second.
(504 K, 4.11 kg/s, 0.0515 g/s)

12. The following data refers to a bench test on a rotary corn-

pressor.
Atmospheric pressure and temperature 10 5 N/rn 2 , 15.5 C
Compressor delivery pressure 2.4 x 10 5 N/rn 2
Compressor de~ivery total pressure 2. 7 x 10 5 N/rn 2
Compressor delivery total temperature 130 C

40
 Area of delivery pipe 25 cm 2
Temperature of air at impeller eye 4.5 C
Assume isentropic flow from the atmosphere through the intake
duct to the impeller eye and that the air velocity is perpendicular
to the plane of the impeller eye.
Calculate
(a) the mass flow rate of air,
(b) the air power required by the compressor.
(c) the cross-sectional area of the impeller eye.
(0.88 kg/s, 101 kW, 53.6 cm 2 )
13. The nozzles in the first stage of a steam turbine are fed
from a steam chest of large cross-sectional area, in which the steam
pressure is 110 bar and the temperature is 400 C.
Calculate
(a) the exit velocity if the exit pressure is 40 bar and the
overall nozzle isentropic efficiency is 0.96.
(b) the throat area to pass 20 kg/s of steam assuming that flow
is isentropic between inlet and throat.
(670 m/s, 0.00141 m2 )

14. Steam is supplied to a convergent-divergent nozzle by means

of a pipe of internal diameter 120 mm. When the mass flow rate is
15 kg/s the steam conditions in the pipe, just before the nozzle
entry, are 18 bar, 0.995 dry.
Calculate the pressure at the throat and the throat and exit
areas required if the nozzle discharges at a pressure of 1 bar.
Assume isentropic expansion to the throat and an overall isen-
tropic efficiency of 0.97. The critical pressure ratio for expan-
sion of the two-phase mixture may be taken to be 0.579.
(11 bar, 0.00552 m2 , 0.0218 m2 )

41
4 RADIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

Vector velocity diagrams appear for the first time here and
the convention is summarised as follows.
u, ---------- absolute velocity of fluid at section x,
uw, ur ------ whirl and flow components of ux,
ub ---------- blade velocity,
ux-b -------- relative velocity of blade to 1vector ux,
a ---------- angle made by ux with positive sense of Ub,
~ ---------- angle made by Ux-b with positive sense of ub,
(the last two taken in clockwise rotation).
The kinetic energy term is often appreciable and stagnation
quanti ties are generally used.

1. A twelve cylinder, four stroke engine has a bore (equal to

the stroke) of 125 mm. It is to be provided with a single-stage
radial flow supercharger capable of maintaining a stagnation man-
ifold pressure of 1.5 bar when the engine runs at 2800 rev/min and
atmospheric pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 15 C respective-
ly. Under these conditions it is anticipated that the volumetric
efficiency of the engine based on conditions in the manifold will
be 82% and the stagnation isentropic efficiency of the supercharger
75%.
Assuming that the velocity in the manifold is low, calculate
(a) a suitable impeller diameter if the supercharger speed is
eight times engine speed,
(b) the power required to drive the supercharger,
(c) the percentage increase in net brake output if the brake
mean effective pressure rises in the same ratio as the induction
pipe pressure and the naturally aspirated brake mean effective pres-
sure is 8 bar.
Take R = 0.275 kJ/(kg K), ~ = 1.333.

Figure 4.1 refers.

Since no information is given it is assumed that the effects of
pre-whirl and disc friction and windage are minimal and are ignored.
The swept volume rate for the engine is given by
V. = ~D2LN = ~ x 0.1252 m2 x 0.125 m x 12 x 2800 strokes[min ]
s 4 4 z-
min [60 s]
3
0.43 !!..._
s
If the velocity in the manifold is low, static and stagnation prop-
erty values are near enough equal and

m= ~
RTo2
where va is the actual volume aspirated

42
 Figure 4.1

L---------------------------9

Now To2 8 Tol[Po2]k = 288 K(l.5)o.2s 318.7 K

Po 1

To2 8 - To1 = 30.7 K

~~7~ = 40.93 K
and To2 288 + 40.93 328.9 K

.
3
kN 0.43 .!!!...._
150 m2 x 0.82 X
s
m 0.585 ~
s
0.275 k~JK X 328.9 K

Cp
'YR
= -;y:--r = 1. 33 [0.275
0.33 kg K
kJ~= kJ
l.l kg K
Energy equation
W ~Cp(T02 To!) 0.585 ~X 1.1 _!:!__X 40.93 K 26.3 kW
s kg K

Momentum equation
W= ~ub~Uw = ~u~ and from the energy equation above
D2 = 2r2 =~5P.~T~ x 2 (since the slip and power input factors
w are to be taken as unity)
Thus D2 2 [rev ] [60 sLL 1 __!:!...._ x 40 9 K[~] [103 N]
8 x 2800 r7v [21r c] [min Jl. . kg K [N s ] [ kN ]
m1n
D2 0.181 m

If Ws~d = Brake power output when supercharged

Wna = brake power output when naturally aspirated
Pmspd = supercharged brake mean effective pressure
Pmna = naturally aspirated brake mean effective pressure
Wspcd = Pmspd x Vs = 1 .5pmna X Vs
and Wna = Pmna X Vs

43
 .
or .!!!E!! = 1. 5
Wna
Now Wna = 800 X 0.43 g
m x ~
s = 344 kW

Gross supercharged value of brake output is given by

Wspd = 1. 5 x 344 = 516 kW
and Wsp(net) = 516 - 26.3 = 489.7 kW

Thus% increase= 489 ~ 4 4 344 = 0.424

2. The working fluid, Freon-12, in a vapour-compression refrig-

erator is compressed by a single-stage, radial flow turbocompressor
with radial vanes. Estimate the impeller tip diameter of the com-
pressor using the following data:-
Saturation temperature in the evaporator -15 C
Saturation temperature in the condenser 30 C
Isentropic efficiency of compression 0.8
Slip factor 0.95
Power input factor 1.05
Impeller speed 10 000 rev/min
Assume that the vapour is saturated at compressor intake, that
the velocities in the compressor intake and delivery pipes are low
and that the velocity at impeller entry is axial.
p

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.2 refers.

From the pressure-enthalpy chart in the figure with h in kJ/kg
hl 180
h2 206.5
l'ilis = h1 - h2 5 = 26.5
~h = hl - h2 = (hl - h2,)/0.8 33.1
Energy and Momentum equations
where Pf power input factor
and u slip factor

44
 2ub2 = ~_/lili = 2 33.1 kJ [~[kN m1
w w1pfa 10 000 r7v 1.05 x 0.95 kg [N s 1 [ kJ 1
m1.n
x [60 s1 [rev ]
[min ] [2'11" c]
D2 0.348 m

3. During a test of a radial compressor for a gas turbine the

power required, after allowing for mechanical friction, was 2210
kW at 16 500 rev/min. The impeller tip diameter was 495 mm and the
uniform width of casing between impeller and diffuser in the vortex
chamber was 38 mm. The static pressure and temperature at a radius
of 266 mm were 2.46 bar and 115 C respectively. Assuming a slip
factor of 0.95, neglecting friction in the vortex chamber (i.e.
assuming free vortex conditions here), taking cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg K)
and~ = 1.40, calculate:-
(a) the mass flow rate,
(b) the resultant velocity at the section given,
(c) the stagnation temperature at the section given.

l
Impeller2--
j0.038 m

Tip

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.3 refers.

Ub2 = wr2 = 16 500 r7v [21r c] x 0.2475 m [min ] 427.6 !!!.

m1.n [ rev] [60 s] s
Momentum equation
. = CTUb22
m
Power
=
2210 kW [ kJ ][~] 12.72 ~
0.95 X 427.6 2 m [s kW)[N s ] s
52
A3 21rr3x3 = 2'11" x 0.266 m x 0.038 m = 0.0635 m2

0. 2 86 1 . 005 ..!:!..__ X
388 K
RT3 = C.!....:.....!J T3 -
X
kg K
P3 ~ CpP3 -
246 kN
jjjT

12 . 72 ~
x 0 . 45 3 km
3

Uf3 mv3 = s g = 90.8!!!. (Mass continuity)

A3 0.0625 m2 s

Uw3 Uw2r 2
r3
= Uw2.!:L
r3
= 0.95 X 427.6 !!!_X 0 2475
s 0.266
= 378 !!!_
s

45
 388.7 2 ~
~= 5 {N s 2 ] ( kN ] _
Bug= kg m] (103 N] - 7S.2 K
2cp
2 X l.OOS k~JK
Tog = Tg + Bug = 388 + 7S.2 = 463.2 K = 190.2 oc

4. The impeller of a radial flow compressor has the following

dimensions:-
Tip radius 300 mm
Outer radius of eye lSO mm
Inner radius of eye SO mm
When drawing in air at stagnation conditions of 1 bar, 290 K and
developing an overall stagnation pressure ratio of 4 the minimum
value of pre-whirl is lS m/s. The value of pre-whirl is controlled
by fixed guide vanes in the inlet duct so that the impeller work is
the same per unit mass of fluid entering the eye at any radius. It
may be assumed that the overall stagnation isentropic efficiency
is 0.8, the slip factor is 0.9S and the power input factor l.OS.
Calculate :-
(a) the work per unit mass of air,
(b) the impeller rotational speed,
(c) the fixed guide blade angle at the inner radius of the eye
if the axial (flow) velocity is 100 m/s at this point,
(d) the impeller blade entry angle at SO mm radius.

lSO

TI-uuw-=-=---:~----+-1
mm

t *
Cross-Section ~r
1 41
through u1
Impeller Eye Ul-b

Figure 4.4

Figure 4 .4 refers
From the equations of conservation of energy and angular momentum
- UblUwl)

ThUS UblUwl = Ub2UW2 - [ cp~ToJ and is constant for all radii at

the impeller eye

46
 To 2 5 = ToJ[Efl21k 290 K ( 4) o 2 a 6 431.1 K
PO!j
= 141.1 K

l:,.T 0 = 1 6:s 1 = 176.4 K

w = cpl:,.To = 1.005 k~JK x 176.4 K = 177.3 ~~

When uw1 is a maximum, UbJ must be a minimum for the product
UbJUwJ to be constant.

That is uw1 is a minimum at eye tip radius.

Now -[cpATo] = - 177.3 168.8 kkJg
Pr ] 1.05
At the eye tip radius
kJ 2
- 168.8 kg + UUb2

and Ubltip = wrltip

s Uw!tip = 15 .!!!.
r7v [211" c] [min ] 0 15 m x 15 .!!!. 168.8 kkJg [~][kN m]
t
N = -
m1n [ rev] [60 s] [N s2] [ kJ ]
s
Ub!tip (=wrl tiP )

------------~--------------~~
UUb2~
or 0.2356N = - 168 800 + 0.0009376N 2

or N =
0.2356 :!: 0.0555 + 633.44 = 13 544 r7v
0.0018752 m1n

13 544 ~ [ 211" c] [min ] x 0.05 m 70.92 ~

U b! root = WX!root = min [rev] [60s]
2
1.720 X 10 5 !!!..._
s2
2
UbJ UwJ root (1. 720 X 10 5 ) - (1.688 X 10 5 ) = 3300 ;..
s
2
3300 ~
Uwlroot 46.5 m
70.92 .!!!. s
s

O.lroot

(Ub! - UwJ)root = 70.94 - 46.5 = 24.44 m/s

(u!-b )root = ~(24 44 2 + 100 2 ) = 102.9 m/s
180 Sln -1 100
102 . 9 103.6 0
Q 0
f.'lroot = - =

47
 5. A single-sided radial flow compressor is stationary relative
to the atmosphere and takes in air at the rate of 7.93 kg/s at am-
bient conditions of 1 bar and 288 K. The inlet eye has inner and
outer diameters of 127 and 279 mm respectively and fixed guide
blades give the air a pre-whirl angle of 65 (relative to the
blade velocity direction) at mean eye diameter. Assuming uniform
axial velocity at inlet and neglecting losses in the guide blades,
show that this axial velocity must be equal to approximately 153
m/s. If the pre-whirl angle varies radially in such a way that
equal work is done on the air irrespective of the radius at which
it enters, calculate the tip and root angles of the guide blades.
Also find the Mach number and the correct angle at the tip of the
rotor eye for a rotational speed of 16 000 rev/min. Calculate the
power absorbed if the outer diameter of the rotor is 527 mm taking
a slip factor of 0. 9 and a power input factor of 1. 04. Assume free
vortex flow across the impeller eye.

Mean Radius
Velocity Triangle

Figure 4.5
Ubl

Figure 4.5 refers.

Let T refer to the tip and R to the root of the blades at section
1 (the eye of the impeller). Let M refer to the mean radius of the
eye.
Mass continuity
(1) at the mean radius of the eye
Suppose ur1 = 153 m/s
u1M = un sec (90 - 65) 0
168.8 ~

168.82 m2 [N s2]
T1M To1 - _u_1M_2_ = 288 K - _ _ _ _..;:sc...2'T"":-+[k:,:.g~m~]':T-
2cp 2 x 1 005 _!L(los N]
' kg K[ kN )
T1M = 288 - 14.2 273.8 K
PlM = Po lM[Tl
TO!
]k r273.8J 3 5
1 barl""""288 0.838 bar
kJ
0.287 kgK' X 273.8 K
V!M = RT!M =
PlM 83.8 kN
m2

48
and substituting back in equation (1) above where
Ar 1 = ~(0.1395 2 - 0.0635 2 ) = 0.0485 m2

o 7.93 ~X 0.938 ~
u f1 mv1M - s g - 153.5 .!!!. (check)
Ar1 0.0485 m2 - s

~(0.1395 + 0.0635) = 0.1015 m

rn 0.1395 m
X1R 0.0635 m

UwlT UwlMX 1M = Uf1 tan 25 r 1M = 153 tan 25 x0.1015

---
rn rn 0 .1395
51.9 m/s
and if the axial flow velocity ur 1 is constant

ubn = wrn = 16 000 r~v [ 2 ~ c] [min ] (0 .1395 m) 233.7.!!!.

m~n [ rev][60 s] s
(ub1 - uwl)T = 233.7 - 51.9 = 181.8 m/s
{J1T = 180 o - tan-1 Uf1 180 0 - 1 153 140 0
Ub1 - Uw1 - tan 181.8 =

(u1-b h = ~ (181. 8 2 + 153 2 ) = 237.6 m/s

Ua
=/'"YRT =./1.4 x 0.287 kkgJK x 273.8 K
1 1 [~ [kN m]
[N s ) [ kJ )
331.7 .!!!.
s

Ma U1-b = 237.6 = O 716

ua 331.7

Uw1Mr 1M = Uf1 tan 25 X1M = 153 tan 25 X O.lOlS

r1R X1R 0.0635
114 m/s

a1R = tan- 1 ~~! = 53.3

~Pr(UUbz 2 - Ub1Uw1)

7.93 ~
s
x 1.04{0.9 x 16 000 2 r7v 2 ["""Te'V2]
m~n2
[ 4 ~ 2 c][[6ifTST]
min 2 ](0.2635 2

-[233 7.!!!. x 519 .!!!.] [ kJ ][kW s][N 52 ]}

s s [10 3 N m] [ kJ ] [kg m]
w= 8.25(175.43 - 12.13) = 1347.2 kW

Further examples.

6. A radial flow air compressor, intended for use in a small gas

turbine plant for stationary applications, is required to develop
a total pressure ratio of 3.5 when running at 30 000 rev/min with

49
a mass flow rate of 1.5 kg/s and atmospheric conditions of 1 bar
and 15 C.
The impeller vanes are to be radial at the tip and the slip fac-
tor (or ratio of whirl speed at impeller tip to impeller tip speed)
is 0.95.
Assuming zero pre-whirl, a power input factor of unity and an
isentropic efficiency based on stagnation conditions of 0.8 calcu-
late:-
(a) the impeller tip radius,
(b) the power required to drive the compressor.
Sketch curves showing how you would expect
(i) pressure ratio and
(ii) isentropic efficiency
to vary with mass flow rate for such a compressor running at con-
stant speed. Show clearly the limits of operation.
(0.1289 m, 233.8 kW)

7. The following data refer to a single-sided radial flow air

compressor with radial vanes, intended for use in industrial plant.
Speed 16 000 rev/min Impeller tip diameter 0.5 m
Impeller inner eye Design mass flow rate 10 kg/s
diameter 0.15 m Impeller outer eye
Prewhirl zero diameter 0.3 m
Slip factor 0.9 Power input factor 1.04
Assume atmospheric conditions of 1 bar, 15 C, a stagnation is-
entropic efficiency of 0.8 and reversible flow through the intake
duct and show that the axial velocity of the air at entry to the
impeller eye is about 180 m/s. Calculate:-
(a) the power input required,
(b) the overall total pressure ratio and
(c) the maximum Mach number at the impeller eye.
(1642 kW, 3.704, 0.935)

so
5 AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

The only additional material here over that in chapter 4 is

that it is convenient in the velocity diagrams to specify angles
o and y for trigonometric purposes and polytropic stage efficiency
is of importance since axial compressors, which are usually multi-
stage machines are mostly designed on the basis of one stage with
an assumed constant stage efficiency at least in element&ry calcu-
lations.
1. The first stage of an axial flow compressor has a mean blade
ring diameter of 0.5 m. Air enters the stage axially with total
stagnation conditions of 1 bar and 290 K.
At the mean blade height the rotor blade angles at entry and exit
are 150 and 120 respectively, both being measured in the same
sense from the blade velocity vector. The axial component of the
air velocity is the same at inlet and exit.
Assume that the total (stagnation) isentropic efficiency is 0.9
and the work done factor (or average work per unit mass/work per
unit mass at the mean blade height) is 0.86. Calculate the degree
of reaction at mean blade height and the stage total pressure ratio
at the design speed of 15 000 rev/min.

60

Figure S.l

Figure 5.1 refers.

ubM = wrM = 15 000 ~ [ 2 ~ c][ min] x 0.25 m = 392.7 ~
min [ rev] ['6'0'S] s
'Y - 1
&2 = 60 ; &3 = 30 ; 'lo = 0.9; n= 0.86; lc = -'Y-- = 0.286;

From the equations of conservation of energy and angular momentum

I
and the trigonometry of the velocity triangles
Wstage
Cp
_ IJ.To = Uubur [tan 'Y2 - tan 'Y3]
Cp
I
I nubu r [tan ;~ - tan &2] 1

ur ubM tan 30 = 227.6 m/s

51
 0. 86 X 392.7 .!!!_X 226.7 .!!!.
s s [tan 30 - tan 60 0]
I::J.To o
kJ
1.005 kg K
[N s 2 ] l kJ ]
x [kg m] [103 N m]
I
I::J.To 88 K
To3 To2 + I::J.To = 290 + 88 = 378 K
I::J.To s = 'l)oi::J.To = 0. 9 x 88 79.2 K
To3s = 290 + 79.2 = 369.2 K
P03 = [To3s]J/k [369.2] 3"5
290 = 2.328
Po 2 To 2

= ~(tan o2 + tan o3) 226.7

AM
2ub 2 x 392 . 7 (tan 60 +tan 30 )
0.667

2. If the compressor of question 1 has two identical stages, cal-

culate the overall pressure ratio and the overall total isentropic
efficiency when operating with the same speed and inlet conditions.

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.2 refers.

I::J.To (2 stages) 2 X 88 = 176 K
k ln Ell.
Po2 0.286 In 2.328
378 0.9I2 (same for both stages)
To3
In - -
To2 In 290

k 1n E..Q..!z.. 0.286 1n Po 4
Thus 0.9I2 PQ3 Po3
1n To 4 1 [290 + 176]
To3 n 290 + 88

or 1n Po4 = 0.912 1n 466 = 0.667

Po3 0.286 378
and Po 4 = 1. 949
P03

52
Thus Po = 1.949 X 2. 328 = 4.538
Po 2

Tot = 290(4.538) 0 ' 286 446.9 K

tiT 05 (2 - 4*) = 156.9 K
LiTo (2 - 4) = 176 K
Thus 1Jo(2 - 4) = 156.9/176 = 0. 892

3. A jet aircraft is to have a cruising speed of 250 m/s at an

altitude of 10 000 m. The jet propulsion units are to have 10 stage
axial flow compressors with forward facing intakes such that the
air enters the first stage in an axial direction. Ignore any dif-
fusion which may occur in the intake duct prior to entering the
rotor of the first stage.
At cruising speed the overall total pressure ratio is to be 12
and the work in each stage is to be the same. It is estimated that
the overall total isentropic efficiency will be 0.87 and the work
done factor 0.85.
The degree of reaction at the mean blade height is to be 0.5 and
the axial velocity may be assumed the same at rotor inlet and exit.
Calculate for the first stage:-
(a) a suitable mean blade speed,
(b) the rotor blade angles,
(c) the effective annulus area required for a mass flow rate of
10 kg/s.
Base the inlet conditions on the International Standard Atmos-
phere, (refer to page 19 of tables).

Figure 5.3 refers. 2

250 2 ~
To2 = Ta Ufliht 2 --
+ ~
s2 [N s 2 ] [ kN ]
2cp 223.3 K + _2_ ___;::--,k""'J::- [kg m][l03 N]
X 1.005 kg K

= 254.4 K
Tons= 254.4 K(12) 0 " 286 517.8 K
t1To 5 (10 stages) = 263.4 K

LiT0 (10 stages) = 2 ~~S~ = 302.8 K

~To(l stage) = 30.28 K

53
Conservation of energy and angular momentum gives
W = Cpf1To stage = f2ubfluw = f2ub 2
K [kg m] [kN m]
ub =~frpliTostage =~ 0 .~ 5 x 1.005 k~JK x 30.28 [N'ST] [ kJ ]
or ub 189.2 .I!!.
s

Ar ~= ~T
Uf PUr
m
Now ur uri igh t = 250 -s
189.2
and 02 tan
- 1
---zso = 37.1
0

{12 90 + 37.1 = 127.1 0

{33 90 0 for X = 0. 5

10 ~X 0.287 ~X 223.3 K
s kg K
0.0967 m2
Ar
26.5
m
g
X 250 .I!!.
s

4. An axial flow compressor has a degree of reaction of 0.5 at

the mean blade radius with relative air angles of 135 and 100
at rotor inlet and exit respectively (measured in the same sense
from the blade velocity vector). The overall total pressure ratio
is 4 and the total isentropic efficiency is 0.85 when the total in-
let temperature is 290 K. The blade velocity is 200 m/s and the
axial velocity is constant throughout the machine at a given radius.
The work done factor is 0.86.
Calculate:-
(a) the small stage polytropic efficiency based on total proper-
ties,
(b) the number of stages,
(c) the Mach number at inlet to the rotor (based on the relat-
ive gas velocity at the mean radius in the first stage).

80

Figure 5.4 refers.

= sin 45 o ub 200 sin 45 o 172.6 .I!!.
U! sin 55 = sin 55 s

sin 800 sln 45 = 170 .I!!.

U!-b s1n 45 =ubsin55 S

54
 Ua = ~"'( RT = ~ 1 . 4 X 0 287 ~
. kg K
X 275 2 K [kN m] (~]
[ kJ ] [N s 2]
= 332 5 .!!!_
. s
E.l=JL _ ~ sin 80 m sin 80 1 0. 723
Ma 0 = 200 s sin 55 a
ua -s.,..i.;_n---:-5-:-5-...-
ua 332 . 5 .!!!_
s

5. The following data refer to normal operating conditions for

the first stage of the axial flow compressor in an aircraft gas
turbine.
Condition of air entering the rotor: Pressure 0.25 bar
Temperature 220 K
Velocity 200 m/s
(axial)
Mass flow rate 9 kg/s
Rotor blade tip speed 365 m/s
Degree of reaction (XT) at the blade tip 0.8
Degree of reaction (XR) at the blade root 0.2
Stagnation polytropic small stage efficiency 0.85
Work done factor (Q) 1.00
The axial flow velocity of the air is uniform throughout the
stage. "Free vortex" conditions exist between the rotor and the
stator. The thickness of the blades is negligible. The following
relationships are given
X =1 _ uw1 + uw2
2ub

uw x r = constant for free vortex flow.

Determine:-
(a) the rotary speed of the compressor,
(b) the rotor blade angles at the blade tip,
(c) the stage stagnation pressure ratio.

Figure 5.5

Figure 5.5 refers.

Conservation of energy and angular momentum
Wstage = Qubuf (tan "'11 - tan "'12)

= 0.86 x 200.!!!. x 170.!!!. (tan 10

s s
- tan 45 )
kJ
[N s 2 ] []
x[kg m] [103 N m]

Wstage 24.1 ~~
I:J.Tos tage w
Cp
l~kJ
1.005 kg ~I=
kJ 23.96 K

55
 To
ns
= To1[~]k
Po 1
= 290 K (4) 0 286 431. l K

6To 5 M/C = 431.1 - 290 = 141.4 K

6To = 14 1. 1 = 166 K
0.85
166
N = 23 . 96 = 6.9 say 7 stages

Ton 290 + 166 = 456 K

k ln (pon/po!) 0.286 ln 4
'lop
ln (Ton/To!) ln (456/290)= 0 876

[N s 2 ] [ kJ ]
290 K -
kJ [kg m] [103 N m]
2 X 1.005 kg K
= 275.2 K
For free vortex conditions
where T refers to the tip of the blades
and R refers to the root of the blades.

or 0.2 (A)
2ubR EI.
IR

Also AR = 0.2 = 1 - [uw 12 :buwz]R

or t Uw! + Uwz]
2 ub R
0.8 (B)

From (B) in (A)

ruwl 2 + Uwz] ~ = O' 2
L Ub R IT

Or ER..
IT
=~Q.:2
0 . 8 = 0.5 (C)

Mass Continuity

9 ~X 0.287 kkJK X 220 K

ffiRT = _.::.s_ ___,...,.,........;.;.2
g~---- 0.1137 m2
puf 25 kN x 200 !!!
m2 s

IT 2 - rR 2 0 \~ 37 = 0.0362 m2 (D)
Solving equations (C) and (D) simultaneously
IT = 0.2197 m; IR = 0.1098 m

56
 365 !!!.
and w = ~- = s [60 s] [rev ] 15 865 rev
rT 0.2197 m [min ][21r c] min

Now (uwr + Uw2)T = (1 - AT) X 2ubT = 0.2 X 2 X 365 !!!.= 146 !!!.
s s
200
= 180 - tan -r 365
flr = 180 0
- tan -r ~
Ub = 151.3
0

fJz = 180 0
- tan- I [-uJ __J = 180
ub - Uw
0
- t
an
-r 200 _ 137.6
219 -
0

Equations of conservation of energy and angular momentum

h. To ~-
Cp Cp

365 m2 365 219l[N s 2][ kJ ]

X 200 57" 200 - 2ooJ [kg m] [10 3 N m]
kJ
1. 005 kg K

53.02 K
2
Tentry Uentry
Toentry + 2Cp
2
200 2 .'!!__
s2 [N s 2 ] [ kJ ]
220 K + ---_;:.---:k-:J:-
[kg m] [103 N m] 239.9 K
2 X 1.005 kg K
To2 = Toexit = 239.9 + 53.2 = 293.1 K

~~~ = Antiln['Y ~ 1 flop ln ~~~] = Antiln [3.5 x 0.85 x ln ~;~:!)

1. 81

Further Examples.
6. Derive an expression, in terms of the total pressures and
temperatures at entry and delivery, and the isentropic index, for
the total small-stage polytropic efficiency of a rotary compressor.
The following data refer to a bench test on an axial flow air
compressor.
Atmospheric pressure and temperature at inlet 1 bar, 15 C
Total temperature in the delivery pipe 160 C
Total pressure in the delivery pipe 3.5 bar
Fluid pressure in the delivery pipe 2. 9 bar
Inside diameter of the delivery pipe 220 mm
Calculate
(a) the isentropic and small stage efficiencies based on total
properties,
(b) the air mass flow rate.
Discuss briefly the use of small stage efficiency in the prelim-
inary design of an axial flow compressor.
(0.879, 0.856, 19.98 kg/s)

57
7. An axial flow air compressor has 9 similar stages in which the
work done in each stage is the same and the axial velocities are
constant throughout at any given radius.
The following data is available, reference being to mean blade
height where applicable.
Overall total pressure 3.5
Total inlet temperature 280 K
Relative air angles at rotor inlet 130
at rotor exit 100
(Both measured in same sense from the blade
velocity vector)
Degree of reaction 0.5
Work done factor 0.86
Small stage polytropic efficiency (total) 0.89
Calculate:
(a) the overall isentropic efficiency (total),
(b) the required mean blade velocity.
(0.869, 166.1 m/s)

58
6 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES

There are several distinctive types of axial turbine includ-

ing both impulse and reaction, single and velocity compounded.
The fundamental analysis and vector velocity diagrams show no
departure from the two previous chapters .
It is perhaps worthwhile to note that in turbo-macilinery we are
bound to apply all three fundamental principles of conservation of
mass, energy and momentum to effect a solution.
1. A single stage, single row, impulse turbine, with a power
output of 1 MW, has a nozzle exit angle of 20 and a rotor blade
exit angle of 155 measured in the same sense from the blade vel-
ocity vector.
The nozzle isentropic efficiency is 0.9 and the rotor blade vel-
ocity coefficient is 0.95.
If the blade speed is 500 m/s and the fluid leaves the rotor in
an axial direction determine
(a) the rotor blade inlet angle if the fluid is to flow smoothly
onto the blades,
(b) the fluid mass flow rate,
(c) the axial thrust on the rotor,
(d) the isentropic specific enthalpy drop required by the tur-
bine nozzles.

U2 = Uf
(235)

Figure 6.1
~--------------5

Figure 6.1 refers.

(i) For an impulse turbine X = 0 and thus ht = hz

(ii) Draw vector ub, set off directions u 1 , uz-b, u2.

(iii) Measure u 2 - b. (550 m/s).

ClV ) Th US Ut-b
uz-b 550
= --;;;- = 0. 95 = 579 !!!.
S

(v) With centre at the right hand end of vector ub inscribe

an arc of length 579 m/s to cut direction Ut Draw in
vectors Ut and ut-b

59
 (vi) From the velocity diagram {31 37.5
Conservation of angular momentum
W = ~ubb.uw
and from the velocity diagram b.uw = 955 m
5

.
w
m = uJ~uw = 500 !!!_ 2.095 ~
X 955 !!!_ ( kJ J N 52 J 5
s s [103 N m][kg m]
Conservation of linear momentum in the flow or axial direction
m(U1f - U2f) (since P1 = P2 giving zero pressure
thrust)
2.095 ~(350 235) !!!_ [N s2]
5 s [kg m]
240.9 N
u1 1017 m/s (uo =0 in a single stage machine)
Conservation of energy
ho - h1 iu12 = 10172 !!!.._ [~ [ kJ ]
2 s [kg m][lo3 N m]

517.1 ~~
ho - h1 = 5 ~:9 9 = 574.6 ~~

2. A single stage, single row, impulse steam turbine has an exit

nozzle angle of 20 and the rotor inlet and exit angles are 30
and 150 respectively, all angles being measured in the same sense
from the blade velocity vector.
The nozzle exit velocity is 1200 m/s and the blade velocity co-
efficient is 0.85.
Determine the work transfer per unit mass of steam to the blades,
the blading efficiency and the dryness fraction of the exhaust steam
if the supply conditions are 10 bar and 350 C, the exhaust pressure
is 0.16 bar and the turbine operates adiabatically.

Figure 6.2 refers.

(i) Draw ub direction (unknown length as yet).

(ii) From the left hand end set off u 1 (1200 m/s at 20 ).
(iii) Find u1-b at 30 to pass through right hand end of u 1
to give ub (420 m/s).
(iv) Set off u 2 -b direction at 150
(v) Measure u 1 (813 m/s) .
(vi) u2-b = 0.85
x 813 = 691 m/s.
(vii) Scribe an arc of length equivalent to 691 m/s from the

60
 left hand end of Ub to cut u 2 -b direction.
(viii) Complete uz and measure 11uw (uz = 390 m/s, 11uw = 1308
m/s)

Figure 6.2

Conservation of angular momentum

w= ubl1uw = 420 x 1308 ~ [N 52 ][ kJ ] 550 kJ

s [kg m] [103 N m] kg

1200 2 m2 [N s 2 ] [ kJ ] 720 kJ
~u1 2 --2-52 [kg m] [103 N m] kg
550
Thus 11d 720 = o. 764
ho 3158 kJ/kg (Tables page 7).

ho - hl = ~u1 2 = 720 kJ
kg

hl 3158 720 2438 kJ

kg
2438 - 232
Xl 0.931
2369

3. The nozzles of a two-row impulse wheel are supplied with steam

at a rate of 4 kg/s. The nozzle isentropic efficiency is 0.95 and
the available isentropic enthalpy decrease is 358 kJ/kg.
The exi.t angles are as follows:-
Nozzle 18
1st row of moving blades 150
Fixed row of blades 22
2nd row of moving blades 158
The blade wheel mean diameter is 1 m and the rotor speed is 3000
rev/min. Assuming a blade velocity coefficient of 0.85 for all the
blades determine:-
(a) the "leaving loss" from the wheel,
(b) the increase in specific enthalpy across the fixed blades due
to friction,
(c) the power developed at the blades.

Figure 6.3 refers.

ub = 1rDN = X 1 m X 3000 re_v [min ] 157 ~

7r
m1n (60
--]
s s

61
 0.95 X 358 340.1 ~~

Figure 6.3

'All

I. (1155)
Conservation of energy

= ~2/';ho-1 = ~2 340 .1 kkJg [~] [kN m] = 824 m2

Ul X
[N s 2 ][ kJ ] '7 52
The velocity diagram may now be constructed in a manner similar to
that described in the previous two examples remembering that the
exit relative velocity vector is 0.85 times the inlet relative vel-
ocity vector in both wheels and also the exit absolute velocity vec-
tor is 0.85 times the inlet absolute vector in the fixed wheel.
U'+ = 75 m/s (from the completed diagram)
75 2 m2 [~ [ kJ ]
"leaving loss" = -2- 52 [kg m] [103 N m] 2.8 ~~

430 !!!.
s

u 3 = 0.85 x 430!!!. and from conservation of energy 2 - 3

s

hs - h2 !Cu2 2 - us 2) = !u2 2 (l - 0.85 2)

_ 430 2 m2 [N s 2 ][ kJ ] 1
- -2- ST [kg m] [103 N m] ( - 0 723 ) 25.6 ~~
buw = 375 + 1155 = 1530 !!!.
s
Conservation of angular momentum
W= ~ubbuw 4 ~ x 157 x 1530 m2 [N 52 ][ kJ ][kW s]
s 51" [kg m][l03 N m][kJ]
961 kW

4. The first two stages of a steam turbine consist of a simple

impulse stage stage followed by a reaction stage. The steam is ex-
panded from 10 bar and 250 C to 3.5 bar (saturated vapour) at a
flow rate of 22 kg/s, through a nozzle with an outlet angle of 20 ,
For the first moving row the blade speed is 160 m/s, the outlet
blade angle is 30 and the ratio of outlet to inlet relative vel-

62
ocity is 0.8. For the second stage the blade speed is 220 m/s, the
stator blade outlet angle is 20 , the ratio of wheel to jet speed
is 0.5, the rotor blade outlet angle is 18 and the static enthalpy
drop in the rotor is 20 kJ/kg. All angles are measured relative to
the circumferential direction.
Determine, either by calculation or by measurement from scaled
vector diagrams, the nozzle efficiency and the power output from
each stage.
Show, on a sketch of the enthalpy-entropy diagram, the state
points for stagnation and static conditions at entry to and exit
from each blade row. (London University 1974)

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.4 refers.

de + pdv (First Law of Thermodynamics)
dh = de + pdv + vdp
dqrev = Tds (Second Law of Thermodynamics)
Thus at constant pressure from the above statements
dqrev = dh = Tds and integrating between 1 and ls ,
h1 -his 15q1 = T!(S! -Sis) = T!(S! -so)

his = h1 - T1(s1 -so)

ho = 2944 kJ
kg so Ss -- 6 "926 ~
K kg
kJ kJ
his= 2732 kg S! = 6.941 K kg ; T1 = 138.9 + 273 = 411.9 K

kJ
Thus h! = 2732 ~~ - 411.9 K(6.941 - 6.926) K kg= 2725.8 ~~
ho - hl 2944 - 2732
and "'N = ho - h! s 2944 - 2725.8
0.972

63
Conservation of energy (nozzle)
_ 2732 ) kJ [kN m] [kg m]
u1 =~2(h 0 - hi) = ~2(2944 kg [ kJ ] [N"ST]
651.2 m
s
Ul- b
530 Sm

U2-b = 0.8 X 530 424 !!!.

s
Conservation of angular momentum (First moving row)
A = 22 ~ X 160 .!!!. X 850 .!!!. [!:!2.._] L...!~!_J 2992 kW
W = mubuuw 5 s s [kg m] [kN m]

Conservation of energy relative to second moving wheel

= 40 kJ [kg m] [kN m]
h4) kg [NS"T] [ kJ ]
2
U4-b 2 = 40 000 + 250 2 = 102 500 ~ 2

U4-b = 320.2 !!!_

s
Conservation of angular momentum (Second moving row)
m m [N s 2 ][ kJ J

w=

muh/J.uw = 22 skg x 220 5 x 500 5 [kg m] [kN m] 2420 kW

For the reaction stage

, =l _ (Uw3 + Uw4) l (413 - 83) O 25
A 2u = - 2 X 220 =

(N.B. uw4 is in the opposite sense to uw3 and is thus negative)

But A= 0 _25 = D.hrolor

/J.h o s l age
20 80 kJ
or IJ.ho stage =
0.25 = kg
Now ho 2 ho1 = ho o ho = 2944 kJ = ho3
kg
ho 4 2944 - 80 2864 kJ
kg
2864 kJ - 1302 m2 [N s2] [~
kg 2 s2 [kg m] [kN m] 2855.6 ~~
This enables state 4 to be identified and plotted

5. Define the term 'reheat factor' with particular reference to

an enthalpy-entropy diagram. A steam turbine consists of twelve
successive SO per-cent reaction stages with blade inlet and outlet
angles, at the mean radius of 80 and 20 respectively, measured
relative to the tangential direction. The mean diameter of the
blade rows is 1.2 m and the rotational speed is 50 rev/s. Assume
that the axial component of velocity of the fluid is constant all
through the turbine and that the steam and blade angles are identi-

64
cal. Calculate the enthalpy drop through each stage.
Given that the total isentropic enthalpy drop through the tur-
bine is 670 kJ/kg determine the stage efficiency for an overall
reheat factor of 1.04.
The turbine develops 7.5 MW. Estimate the blade height at the
outlet from the sixth stage where the specific volume of the steam
is 1.03 m3 /kg. (London University 1970)

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.5 refers.

~(h; - has) + (ha - hbs) etc
hi - he s

ub = wr
= SO
s [[ ~rev]
~ 2 c] x 0.6 m = 188.5 ~
s
Conservation of angular momentum

Wstage llhstage = ublluw = 188.5 x 212 nf (N 52 ][.-!::!_]

52 [kg m][kN m]
39.96 ~~

~llhs stage = Rr(llhsovera II) = 1.04 X 670 696.8 ~~

llhs stage = 6 i~ 8 = 58.07 ~~

and llstage 39 " 96 = 0 688

= 58.07 .

Conservation of energy

m=
w 7500 kW ( kJ ] 15.64 ~
llhstag e x 12 39 96 kJ 12 (s kW] s
kg X

Conservation of mass

mv
15.64 ~X 1.03 ~3
-= 5 g = 0. 224 m2
Uf
72~
s
0.224 m2
L 0.059 m
~x 1.2 m

65
 6. An axial flow steam turbine is to be designed in accordance
with the following data:-
Blade height 100 mm
Mean blade ring diameter 1 m
Rotor speed 3000 rev/min
Degree of reaction at mean blade height 0.5
Absolute steam velocity at stage
in let and exit 100 m/s
Stage isentropic efficiency 0.9
Steam pressure at stage inlet 7 bar
Steam temperature at stage inlet 300 C
Steam pressure at stage exit 6 bar
The axial velocity is constant throughout the rotor which is of
free vortex design. Find
(a) the following blade angles at mean blade height:
(i) stator exit, (ii) rotor inlet, (iii) rotor exit,
(b) the degree of reaction at the blade root.
(Aston University 1977)
X

Figure 6.6
/l,uw

Figure 6.6 refers.

kJ kJ
h1 = 3060 kg; S! = Sgs = 7.298 K kg

7.298- 7 182
hgs = 2958 + 7 . 373 _ 7 : 182 (3062 - 2958) 3021. 2 ~~ (p. 7)

h1 - hgs = 38.84 ~~
kJ
h1 - hg = T//l,hs = 0.9 X 38.84 = 34.95 kg
3000 ~ [ 2 ~ c][min] x 0.5 m = 157.1 m
ub = wr = min [ rev] [60 s] s
Conservation of energy
1w3 = 1/:;h 3 (since u1 = ug) = 34.95 ~~
Conservation of angular momentum
kJ
34.95 Fg [~ [kN m]
222.5 m
157.1 ~ [N s ] [ kJ ] s
s

x = ~(/l,uw- ub) = ~(222.5- 157.1) = 32.7 ~s

With SO% reaction the velocity triangles are mirror images and

66
 U2-b = U3 = 100 m/s
ur =~(u 2 - b 2 - x2) =~(100 2 - 32. 72 ) 94.5 ~
s

2 = tan - 1 uf t -1 94.5 26.5

Ub + X an 157.1 + 32.7

By symmetry
~3 = 180 - 2 = 153.5

XR = l _ [Uw2 + Uw3J
2ub R

uw2R uw2tvt~ = (ub + x\t~ = (157.1 + 32.7)~:: 5 = 210.9 ~

Uw 3 R =
uw:LEM
-MrR
= xEM
IR
= - 32.7 x -5
4.5- = - 36.3 ~S (opposite to
Ub)

E.R_= 157.1 4 5 = 141.4 ~S

ubR = UbMrM X 5

XR =1 - 210.9 - 36.3 =0 383

2 X 141.4 '

7. The blading of a particular low-pressure steam turbine is to

be designed for free vortex flow according to the following data:
Rotational speed 3000 rev/min
Mean blade ring diameter 2.5 m
Blade height 1 m
Constant axial velocity 275 m/s
Steam conditions at rotor tip entry 0.14 bar,0.98 dry
The blading is to be pure impulse with symmetrical rotor blades
at the root and there is axial flow at rotor exit at all radii.
Determine
(a) the rotor inlet and exit angles and the stator exit angle
at the root and tip of the blades, assuming the blade velocity co-
efficient to be unity,
(b) the degree of reaction at the blade tip,
(c) the dryness of the steam entering the rotor blade root ass-
uming stable isentropic flow through the stator blading.

Figure 6.7 refers.

UbR = wrR = 3000 rev [ 2 '~~" c] [60
[min ] x 0 75 m = 235.6 ~
min [ rev] s] s
The blade velocity coefficient is unity and inlet and exit relative
velocities are equal.
Since blades are symmetrical at the root
~2 = 180 - ~3 at root
-1 275 49.4 0
tan 235 .6 =

67
 J
Figure 6.7

fJ3 = 130.6
From the symmetry of the above
U2b = U3-bj fJ2 = 180 - {33; U3 = Uf3 = Uf2j Ub X.

ll:!R =
tan- 1 ~
Ub + X
= tan- 1 2 75
235.6 X 2 =
30 3

At the tip of the blades

.I 235 6 !!!_X l. 75 = 549.7 !!!_
ubT=ubRrR= 5 0.75 s

Uw2R.&. = 2uhn.&. = 2 X 235.6 !!!_X O. 75 = 201.9 !!!_

Uw 2T = rT ~rT S 1.75 5

Uw3T= 0
275
fJ2T 180
0
- tan - 1 141.7
0
549.7 - 201.9

275
fJ3T 180 0
- tan - 1 549.7 = 153.4
0

275
a2T tan - 1
201.9 = 53.7

AR =1 - fuw2 + Uw3]
[ 2ub R
= 1 _ Kdr + K3/r = 1 _1!2 + K3][.!_]
2wr [ 2w r2 J
where K2 and K3 are constants (free vortex condition) and also
ub = wr (where w is a constant)
, K4
Thus "R = 1 - r2 where K4 is a constant

or

68
 1 - AT E..IC_ 1 - [0.75]2(1- 0)
~= rT2 1. 75
AT=0.816

(hoi - hzR) - (hoi - hzT) = ~(u2R 2 - UzT 2 )

1 (
l! UwzR 2 + Uf 2) - ( UwzT 2 + Uf 2) -- 1l! ( Uw2R 2 -
[2(235.6)f- (201.9) 2 m2 [N s 2][ kJ ]
2 ST [kg m] [103 N m]

h 2T - h 2R = 90.6 kkJg

Thus on the enthalpy-entropy diagram for steam moving down a dist-

ance equivalent to an enthalpy decrease of 90.6 kJ/kg from a state
of 0.14 bar, 0.98 dry gives
X2 = 0.951

Further Examples
8. A steam turbine rotates at 3000 rev/min and the first stage
is a single row impulse wheel. Steam enters the turbine at 100 bar
and 600 C with negligible velocity and expands, with a nozzle is-
entropic efficiency of 0.95, to 80 bar in the first stage.
The nozzle exit angle is 18 , the blade speed ratio is that for
maximum blading efficiency and the rotor blades are symmetrical a-
bout the wheel plane.
Determine the blade ring diameter and the rotor blade angles
for the first stage neglecting friction in the rotor blades.
Calculate the area of the annulus required to pass the exhaust
steam from the first stage wheel if the stage develops a power of
10 MW. (1.18 m, 33 , 147 , 0.0608 m2 )

9. The nozzle outlet angle in a velocity compounded impulse tur-

bine is 16 The mean blade ring diameter is 0.6 m and the wheel
rotational frequency is SO per second. There are two rows of mov-
ing blades with exit angles of 154 and 150 from the first and
second rows respectively and the outlet angle of the fixed guide
blades is 24 , all angles being measured in the same sense from
the blade velocity vector.
If the blade velocity coefficient is 0.9 for all blades and the
steam leaves the last row in an axial direction determine the vel-
ocity of the steam leaving the nozzles and the blading efficiency
for the wheel. Assuming the steam entering the nozzles is satur-
ated vapour at 8 bar estimate the enthalpy of the steam as it leaves
the second row of moving blades. (422 m/s, 0.808, 2695.5 kJ/kg)

10. One stage of an axial flow gas turbine, having a single row
rotor, is to develop 10 MW at 3000 rev/min when supplied with gas
at total conditions 170 kN/m 2 and 450 K and exhausting at a total
pressure of 100 kN/m 2 with a total isentropic efficiency of 0.85.
Assuming the gas velocity at exit is axial and uniform at 120
m/s, determine the mean blade ring diameter and the blade height if
the blade tip speed is 300 m/s. Neglect blade thickness and assume

69
free vortex conditions to exist at rotor entry.
If the nozzle isentropic efficiency based on total conditions at
inlet is 0.95 and the fluid pressure at nozzle exit is 140 kN/m 2 at
the mean blade height, calculate for this section the value of the
degree of reaction assuming the gas to be air at normal pressure.
(1.528 m, 0.382 m, 0.705)

11. Gas enters a single gas turbine stage at a total pressure of

2 bar and a total temperature of 1000 K. The stage exhausts at a
total pressure of 1 bar under design conditions, for which the foll-
owing data are applicable:
Blade speed 360 m/s
Rotor blade angles inlet 80 Exit 160
Degree of reaction 0.5
Axial velocity Constant in the stage
Fluid properties cp = 1.1 kJ/kg K, ~ = 1.33
Calculate the polytropic and isentropic efficiencies based on
total properties for the stage.
Estimate the total isentropic efficiency of a turbine comprising
three stages identical to the above, receiving gas at a temperature
of 1000 K and exhausting at a pressure of 1 bar.
(0.836, 0.848, 0.875)

70
7 GAS TURBINE PLANT

Gas turbines operate in steady flow and the laws of a perfect

gas.apply most generally. Temperature levels are such that aver-
age constant values of specific heat capacity may be used firstly
for the incoming air and secondly for the products of combustion.

1. A closed gas-turbine plant consists of a compressor, a heater,

a turbine, and a cooler. The temperature of the air, the working
substance, is 30 C at entry to the compressor and 800 C at entry
to the turbine.
The mass flow rate is 20 kg/s and the isentropic efficiencies
of the compressor and turbine are 0.85 and 0.80 respectively.
Sketch the cycle on a temperature-entropy diagram.
Neglecting the effect of heat transfer, except in the heater and
cooler, and the pressure losses in the ducting, determine the pres-
sure ratio for maximum net power output.
For this pressure ratio calculate the net power output and the
thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Assume air to be a perfect gas for which cp = 1.00 kJ/(kg K) and
'Y = 1.40. (London University 1968)

T 3

. G}B"'
3

4
1
cw:: Compressor
.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ s
w:Heater
T: Turbine Figure 7.1
c: Cooler

Figure 7.1 refers

where r = PliP1 and k ('Y- 1)/'Y 0.286

T2s - T1 = T1 (rk - 1)

T2 - T1 = ~~ (rk - 1)

T4 5 = T3r-k

71
 Ta - T4 5 = Ta (1 - r")
Ta - T4 = "1TT3 (1 - r-Ic)
Conservation of energy (in the absence of heat -transfer and apprec-
iable changes in kinetic and potential energy)
Wnet = m[(ha - h,.) - (h2 - hl)] = mcp[(Ta - T,.) - (T2 - Tl)]

(1)

0 for a stationary
value

(2)

::1 = "1TkT 3 (- k - l)rlc-2 - k:~(k- l)rlc- 2 and from (2)

d2w r. T: J -lc-2/21c -
T
dr2 = -7JT k(k + 1) Tal"'T"'c

0.8 X 0.286(1.286) X 1073

(0,8 X 0.85 X 3.54)3,997
0 2 g~
8~ 303 (0.714)(0.8 X 0.85 X 3.54)- 2 ' 997

9.427 - 5.232 = a negative value i.e. a maximum

In (2) r, T Jl/21c [ 1073]-o.S72

4.648
r = L"'T"~c T~ = 0.80 x 0.85 x 303

In (1)
Wnet 20 !.[
s X
kJ j
1.00 kglK10.8 X 1073 K[1 - 4.6480.286
1 ]

- ~~~5K(4.6480.286- 1) K
= 2169.9 kW

303 K[ 1 ( 4.648 Oo286 -

+ l)]= 499.7 K
0.85
'It Wne t Wnet 2169.9 kW
h" 0;-;;- = mcp(Ta - T2) = 20 ~ x
1 ..!:!_(1073 - 499. 7)K
s kg K
0.189

2. An open circuit gas turbine engine consists of a compressor,

a combustion chamber, a turbine and a heat exchanger in which the
compressed air is heated by the gases from the turbine outlet, be-

72
fore it enters the combustion chamber.
The pressure ratios for both the compressor and turbine are 5:1
and the isentropic efficiencies are 0.85 and 0.80 respectively.
The increase in the temperature of the compressed air in the heat
exchanger is 80% of the difference between the turbine and compres-
sor outlet temperatures.
The temperature and pressure of the air at inlet to the compres-
sor are 15 C and 1.013 bar, the air mass flow rate is 15 kg/s and
the fuel mass flow rate 0.2 kg/s.
Assuming combustion to be complete, determine:-
(a) the temperature of the products of combustion leaving the
combustion chamber and
(b) the net shaft power.
The heating value of the fuel at a temperature of 15 C is 42 x
10 3 kJ/kg.
The effects of heat transfer, except in the heat exchanger, and
of velocity of the fluid may be neglected. Assume air and the pro-
ducts of combustion to be perfect gases with the following proper-
ties: Air: cp 1.00 kJ/(kg K), Y = 1.4
Products: cp = 1.13 kJ/(kg K), ~ = 1.33.
(London University 1971)

B:: Burner Figure 7.2

HE :: Heat Exchanger Distance Along HE

Figure 7. 2 refers.
T2. 5 T{~~]"c = 288 K(5) 0' 286 456.3 K

T2. 5 - T1 = 168.3 K

T2. -
Tl = 168.3 = 198.1 K
0.85
T2. 486.1 K
T3 - 80(Ts - T2.)
T2. = 0. (1)

mr x C.V.
.
and for the burner B (or combustion chamber)
(C.V. = calorific value of fuel)
0.2 ~ X 42 000 kJ
s kg 552.6 K
15.2 ~X 1.00 k~JK
T4 - 552.6 K

73
 Tss = T4[~:JkT = T4[t] 0 248 0.671T4
T4 - Tss = 0.329T4

T4 - Ts = 0.329 X 0.8T4 0.263T 4

Ts 0.737T4
Thus in equation (1)
T4 - 552.6 - T2 0.8(0.737T4 - 486.1) = 0.589T4 - 388.9
0.411T4 = 552.6 + 486.1 - 388.9 = 649.8 K
T4 = 1581 K

Ts = 1165.2 K
wnet WT - We = mTcPp(T4 - Ts) - lila Cpa (T2 - Tl)

15.2 ~X 1.13 k~JK X 415.8 K

15 ~X 1.0 ~X 198.1 K 4170.3 kW

s kg K

3. List the advantages of the simple open circuit gas turbine

relative to the steam turbine.
For such a gas turbine sketch on a p-v diagram the path follow-
ed by the working fluid in passing through the engine and on the
same diagram sketch the lines of constant temperature. Assuming
that (a) the fluid may be treated as a perfect gas of constant com-
position, (b) combustion chamber pressure loss is negligible, (c)
the compressor and turbine are adiabatic and (d) the product of
compressor and turbine isentropic efficiencies ~c~t is constant,
show that the maximum specific work is obtained when
r = (~c~t t) l/2k
where r is the ratio of turbine inlet to compressor inlet pressures,
t is the ratio of turbine inlet to compressor inlet temperatures
and k is equal to (~- 1)/~.
Also show that the upper limit to the pressure ratio, for which
the specific work is positive is r 2
(London University 1969 modified)

Figure 7. 3 refers.
In the above figure
t = T3. r = P3 = P3. k = ..!...:...J...
T1' Pl P4' ~ '
w cp[(T3- T4) - (T2- Tl)] (net work transfer)

Now

74
 p T

1
~-----------------v ~-----------------5
Figure 7.3

rk - 1
+---
11c

T~ s = T3[p~Jk
P3
= T3r-k
T3 - T~s = T3(l - r-k)
T3 - T~ = 1ITT3 (1 - r-k)

1 - T~ = 11T ( 1 - r-k)
T3

T~ = 1 - 11T ( 1 - r-k)
T3

Thus Wnet = cpT1{t - t[l - 11T(l - r-k)] - [1 + (rk 11~ l)] + 1}

= cpT 1 f11 11 t(l - r-k) - (rk - 1)1
11c l
T c j
and dwnet
dr
= cpT1 [-
11c 11 T 11 c
t(- k)rk- 1 - krk 1 J = 0 for maximum value

or 11T11ctr-k1 = rk1
or r = (11T 11c t) 1 /2k

Also ~:~ = c~~ 1 [k11T11Ct(- k - l)rk- 2 - k(k - l)rk 2 J

and substituting the above value of r we get after simplification

::~ = - 2k 2 (11T11ct)k- 2/ 2k (which is negative i.e. a maximum)

Now Wnet = c~~ 1 [11T11Ct(l - rk) - (rk - 18

and for the net work to be positive
11T11ct(l - rk) - (rk - 1) > 0

75
or in the limit
17r17ct(1 - rk) = rk - 1 and expanding and rearranging
r 2k - rk (1 + 17r17c t) + 111 llc t = 0 for which the solution is
1 + 17 1 17ct v'(l + 17r17ct) 2 - 417 1 17ct
r = 2

1 + 17r17ct v'C 1 - 17r17ct) 2

2
1 + 11 1 11!:t (1 - 17r 17ct)
2
2 217r17ct
2 or 2 -

1 or 17r17ct and only the second root is acceptable

Thus r (1Jr 17ct) 1/k which is the square of the previous value

4. An open-type gas turbine has two compressors in series. A

high-pressure turbine alone drives both compressors and a low-pres-
sure turbine alone drives the external load. The pressure ratio is
the same for each compressor, the overall pressure ratio for the
engine being 16. The isentropic efficiency of each compressor is
0.85 and for each turbine it is 0.9. At inlet to the engine the
air temperature and pressure are 20 C and 1.0 bar. The air leav-
ing the low- pressure compressor is cooled at constant pressure to
20 C before entering the high-pressure compressor. The gas temp-
erature at entry to the high-pressure turbine is 800 C and on leav-
ing this turbine the gas is reheated to 700 C before entering the
low-pressure turbine. The exhaust from the low-pressure turbine is
used in a heat exchanger to raise the temperature of the air leav-
ing the high-pressure compressor by 75% of the maximum possible
temperature rise.
Sketch the layout of the plant and show on a temperature-entropy
diagram the processes involved marking on both diagrams the corres-
ponding points.
Determine:
(a) the pressure of the gas leaving the high-pressure turbine,
(b) the specific work output,
(c) the cycle efficiency and
(d) the cycle efficiency of the simple air-standard (Joule) cycle
having the same overall pressure ratio.
Assume that the compressors and turbines operate adiabatically
and that pressure losses in the combustion chamber, heat exchangers
and ducting are negligible. For compression take cp = 1.01 kJ/(kg K)
and~ 1.4. For combustion and expansion take cp = 1.15 kJ/(kg K)
and~= 1.33. (London University 1974 modified)

Figure 7. 4 refers

T2s T~~rc 293 K(4) 0 " 286 435.6 K

T2 s - T1 = 142 .6 K

76
 I = Intercooler

10 9
T

-
2_.- ..........
c CM1 __.._.- -- 10

~--------------------------5
Distance Along HE
Figure 7.4

T2 - Tt = 0.
142 6 = 167.7
85
K
T2 460.7 K
Now T4 T3 = 167.7 K; T4 460.7 K (since P4 = P2 and T3 Tl)
P3 Pl

or T5 T7 = ~(T4
CpT -
T
3 +
T
2
- Tt) = 1.15
l.0 1 (2 X 167.7) K 294.6 K

T5 - 294.6 K = 1073 294.6 = 778.4 K

T6 - T7 5 = 294
0.9' = 327.3
6 K
T7 5 = 1073- 327.3 = 745.7 K

~: = [~:s]ifkT = [i6;/J'03 0.231

P7 = 16 x 0.231 = 3.69 bar

Tss = Ta~:rT = 973 K[3 \ 9 T .He 703.8 K

Ta - Ts 5 = 269.2 K
Ta Tg = 0.9 X 269.2 242.3 K
Tg 730.7 K
In the heat exchanger HE
Ts = T4 + 0.75(T9 - T 4) = 460.7 + 0.75(730.7- 460.7) 663.2 K
and CpT(Tg - T1o) = cpc(Ts - T4)

77
or Tg - T1o = ~:~~(663.2 - 460. 7) 177.9 K

T1o = 730.7- 177.9 = 552.8 K

"' = w net = --.~-'c"'p'-'r-:::,C;;.T~a_-___;T;.:g:,<)___;---::,....,..,
q+ve cPT[(Ts - Ts) + (Ta - T 7 )]

242.3
(1073 - 663.2 + 973 - 778.4) = 0 401
and the specific work output is given by
Wnet = 1.15 X 242.3 = 278.6 kJ/kg

Joule cycle k
TB = TA[~] C= 293(16)0.286 647.5 K

Tc = 1073 K
To= 1073[{ 6] 0 . 248 = 539.5 K

cer(~Tr) - cpc(~Tc)
"'Jou I e cpr~Ts

1.15(1073 - 539.5) - 1.01(647.5 - 293)

0.522
1.15(1073 - 647.5)

Further Examples
5. A simple single shaft gas turbine plant takes in air at total
conditions of 1 bar and 15.5 C and compresses it through a total
pressure ratio of 5:1 with a total isentropic efficiency of 0.85.
The air then passes through the combustion chamber and the post
combustion gases enter the turbine at a total temperature of 540 C
and expand to 1 bar with a total isentropic efficiency of 0.8.
Estimate the mass flow of air required for a net power output of
1500 kW assuming that the fall of total pressure through the com-
bustion system is 7 kN/m 2 and taking cp and ~ for both air and com-
bustion gases as 1.005 kJ/(kg K) and 1.4 respectively.
Neglect the additional mass flow due to the fuel. (37.4 kg/s)

6. In a single shaft gas turbine plant air is compressed through

a pressure ratio of 4:1 from ambient conditions of 1 bar and 10 C.
In a heat exchanger and combustion chamber the temperature is raised
to 700 C while the pressure falls to 14 kN/m 2 .
After expansion through the turbine, the air passes through the
heat exchanger which heats the compressed air through 75% of the
maximum range of temperature possible while the pressure falls 14
kN/m 2 The air is then exhausted to atmosphere.
If the isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 0. 8 and that
of the turbine is 0.85, calculate the efficiency of the plant if
cp is constant and~= 1.4 throughout. Neglect kinetic energy
throughout. (0.229)

78
 7. List the relative advantages of open- and closed-circuit gas
turbines. Sketch the simple gas turbine cycle on an enthalpy-ent-
ropy diagram. Describe how the efficiency of the simple cycle is
affected by the inclusion of a heat exchanger.
In an open gas turbine plant air is compressed from a pressure
of 1.0 bar and a temperature of 20 C through a pressure ratio of
4:1. The combustion gases leave the burner and enter the turbine
at a temperature of 700 C and after expansion pass through a heat
exchanger in which the compressor delivery air temperature is raised
by 75% of the maximum rise possible. The exhaust gases leave the
heat exchanger at a pressure of 1.0 bar. Neglecting transmission
losses, pressure losses in combustion chamber and heat exchanger,
and differences in compressor and turbine mass flow rates, find
the specific work output and the cycle efficiency when the compres-
sor and turbine isentropic efficiencies are 0.80 and 0.82 respec-
tively. During compression take cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg K) and~= 1.4.
During combustion and expansion take cp = 1.156 kJ/(kg K) and~=
1.33. (89.3 kJ/kg, 25.8%) (London University 1971)

8. In a simple ideal-gas turbine the pressure ratio is r and the

ratio of turbine inlet temperature to the compressor inlet temper-
ature is t. The mass flow rate and the specific heat-capacities
are assumed to have constant values throughout the engine. Assum-
ing the compressor delivery passes through a perfect heat exchanger
so as to achieve the maximum possible temperature rise when the ex-
changer is supplied with the turbine gases, derive an expression
for the cycle efficiency of the engine in terms of r and t.
Show that without the heat exchanger the cycle efficiency is
1 - r-~
Show also that when t is fixed the cycle efficiencies with and
without the heat exchanger have the same values at conditions of
maximum specific work. (London University 1972)

79
8 TURBO JET ENGINE, RAMJET AND
ROCKET

This chapter provides one or two illustrations of the way in

which the individual components discussed in the previous few chap-
ters may be brought together in a single unit.
The rocket is also considered and in essence is a nozzle oper-
ating in steady flow, secondary effects not being considered here.

1. During the test of a simple turbo-jet engine on a stationary

rig at sea-level condition~ ( 1. 013 bar, 291 K) it was observed that
at the throat of the converging propelling nozzle the pressure was
atmospheric and the velocity was sonic. Neglecting the increase
in mass flow rate through the turbine due to the mass of fuel added,
and using the test data below, determine the turbine inlet temper-
ature. The critical pressure ratio for the flow through the pro-
pelling nozzle may be approximated by [(~ + l)/2]z where z is given
by (2 - 7JN) /k and 17N is the propelling nozzle efficiency.
The following test data relate to the engine:
Compressor stagnation. pressure ratio 14
compressor stagnation isentropic efficiency 0.85
turbine stagnation isentropic efficiency 0.85
transmission efficiency (mechanical) 0.95
propelling nozzle efficiency 0.90
combustion chamber pressure loss 3% of the stagnation
pressure at exit from
compressor
For air cp = 1.00 kJ/(kg K), ~ = 1.40.
For gas during and after combustion cp 1.15 kJ/(kg K), ~ = 1.333.
(London University 1970)

.-------1 B t - - - ,

!----1 B t----4,
I
1 2 3 4 5
ol
N = Nozzle Figure 8.1
~-------------------s

Figure 8.1 refers wherein

=
C - compressor, B burner or combustion chamber,
T = turbine, N = propelling nozzle

80
 ~:~ = critical pressure ratio= ['Y; 1] 2
= [ 2 4] 3

85
2.018

Tozs Tol[Poz]k = 291 K(14) 0 286 = 619 K

Pol
To2 5 - To1 = 328 K

To 2 - To 1 = 0 328
. 85 = 385.9 K
po~ 2.018 x 1.013 = 2.044 bar
Pos 0.97poz 0.97 X 14 X 1.013 13.76 bar
Now We= 11mWT since there is no external work done by the engine
cpc(To2 - To1) = CpT(To 3 - To~) X 11m
1 (385 .92
Tos - To" 394.8 K
1.15 0.85
394.8
To s - To~s = 0 . 85 = 464.5 K

.!ll_ = [PosT
To1t PO It
= p3 . 76] 0 2.. 8
2.044 1.605

To Its Tos[i.!o 5] = 0.623T03

or Tos(l - 0.623) = 464.5 K
and To s 1232.1 K

2. In a turbo-jet unit with forward facing ram intake, the jet

velocity relative to the propelling nozzle at exit is twice the
flight velocity. Determine the economy in kN/kg per second of fuel
flowing when developing a thrust of 22 kN under the following con-
ditions.
Ram efficiency 1.0
Ambient conditions ISA at 3500 m
Stagnation pressure ratio in compressor 5:1
Turbine isentropic efficiency (stagnation) 0.9
Compressor isentropic efficiency (stagnation) 0.85
Nozzle efficiency 0.95
Pressure at nozzle exit ambient
Flight velocity 210 m/s
Enthalpy of combustion of fuel 44 200 kJ/kg fuel
Combustion efficiency 0.98
The mass flow of fuel is small compared with that of air, the work-
ing fluid may be assumed to be air at low temperature throughout
and extraneous pressure drops may be ignored.
Figure 8. 2 refers
In the absence of a pressure thrust (p 5 = p 6 given)
Thrust Thrust _ 22 kN [~] 104 . 8 ~
m Us - UfJight UfJ ight - 210 !!!_ (N s2) S
s

81
 2
R =:: Ram Intake
3 4 5 --
o1, oA
L--------------------5
-- 5

Figure 8.2
m2
210 2
To A = TA + 8uA = 265.4 K s ](
+ _______;:s:_2--:--=-(N kJ ]
2 x 1.005 k~JK[kg m] [103 N m]
= 265.4 + 21.9 = 287.3 K
= To 1

POA = PAr~r/k =
f287 .3]
0.6578 barl265 . 4
35
= 0.869 bar= p 01

since the ram efficiency is unity and the conditions for the int-
ernational standard atmosphere (ISA) may be found on page 19 of
tables.
P02 = P03 = 5pol 4.343 bar [llp 0 = 0 in the burner)

= To1rp 02]k 287.3 K(5) 0 " 286 = 455.2 K

LPo 1
(compressor) = 167.9 K
167.9 K = 484.9 K)
liTo (compressor) = 0 . 85 = 197.6 K (T 02

liToT = liToc = 197.6 K = To'3 - To'+ (since '17mech = 1.0)

Po 3 =Po 3 x PO'+ = [!.u..._ X To4]l/k
Ps PO'+ Ps To'+s Tss
or x To'+ = [Po3Jl/k = [-4_.3_4_3_] 0 " 286
_To_3_ 1. 716
To'+s Tss Ps 0.6578j
Now we get To,., Tss and To4s in tP.rms of To3 and solve for To3 and
hence the mass flow rate of fuel.
_ us 2 _ 420 2 m2 /s 2 [N s 2 ][ kJ ]
8u s - --- - - - -:-.,.....3-=-:: 87.8 K
2cp 2 x 1. 005 k~J K [kg m] [10 N m]

Ts To s - (Jus = To,. - 8u s To3 - 197.6 - 87.8 = To3 - 285.4 K

0.95 To'+ - Ts (To 3 - 197.6l -

{To 3 - 285. 4l
To4 - Ts s (To3 - 197.6) - Tss
or Tss To3 290 K
To,. To 3 197.6 K

To3 - To'+s = To3

- To,.
'11oT

82
or To4s = To3
- (To 3 - To 4) = To3- 219.6 K
'loT
1 716 _ To3(To3 - 197.6)
- (T 03 - 219.6)(To 3 - 290)
or 0.716T 03 2 - 676.9To3 + 109282

or 676.6 1458194 - 312984 = 738 . 8 K or 20 6.6 K

To 3 " 1.432
inadmissible

Now 'Icc = 0.93 = (JiJa + JiJr)cC(To

V 3 - Toz) (C . V = Ca 1or1f1c Va 1ue )
mr
104.8 ~s x 1.005 k kJK(738.8- 484.9) K k
0.617 ~
0. 98 X 44 200 ~~ S

22 kN
and Economy 35.6 kN per kg/s of fuel
0.617 ~
s

3. Two ram-jet engines, each equipped with a subsonic diffuser

and a converging exhaust nozzle are fixed to the rotor of a heli-
copter and operate at the design speed equivalent to a Mach number
of 0.8 at sea-level conditions (p = 1.013 bar; T = 288 K).
Neglecting the effects of fuel mass added determine:
(a) the specific air impulse (total thrust/air mass flow rate),
(b) the overall efficiency (thrust power/rate of fuel energy
supplied).
The following data relate to the ram-jet engine:
ram efficiency 0.9
propelling nozzle efficiency 0.95
pressure drop across the combustion system 6% of stagnation pres-
sure at burner entry
combustion system efficiency 0.85
nozzle entry temperature 1500 K
For air cp = 1.00 kJ/(kg K), ~ = 1.40.
For products of combustion cp = 1.11 kJ/(kg K), ~ = 1.35.
(London University 1970)

Figure 8.3 refers.

1 2 3 4 T

0 Figure 8.3
1

~---------------s

83
 ka 1....::__!_ = 0. 2 86
1'
1' - 1 1 kJ
Ra = cp-,- = 1.0 - 1.4 = 0.286 kg K

kcomb , - = 0.
1' - 1
=-
35
1 . 35 = 0. 259
[ k1 = 3. 861 for combustionj 1
a1 aatmos =~'YRTatmos =~1.4 x 0.286 k~JK x 288 K ~~gsW~
339.6 m/s
u1 M1a1 = 0.8 x 339.6 = 271.7 m/s

u 2
T1 1-
+ -- = 288 K +
2cp 2 X 100 ~[~]
. kg K[N s ]
= 288 36.9 = 324.9 K = To2
+

To2' T1 + 7JR(To 1 - T1) 288 K + 0.9(324.9 - 288) K

321.2 K

~~2 = [T~~l/k = p;~ 8 2rs = 1.465

po2 = 1.013 x 1.465 1.484 bar

Po2 - Po3 = 0.06po2 0.06 x 1.484 0.089 bar
Po3 1.484- 0.089 1.395 bar
To3 1500 K given

P4
p0
-
3 -
t
The critical pressure ratio in the exhaust nozzle is given by
2 ] 1/k
-;y:;:-r
[2 r861 = 0.537
2.35
P4 = 0.537 1.395 = 0.748 bar (i.e.< Pa)
X

Thus the mass flow rate is less than the maximum and
P4 = Pa = 1.013 bar
[1. 0
T4, = To3rP 4 ]k = 15oo K[l.395]
0 131 2 59
1380.7 K
LPo 3
To 3 - T4 = 71N (To 3 - T4 ) = 0.95(1500 - 1380.7) = 113.3 K
T4 = 1500- 113.3 1386.7 K

Energy equation in steady flow in the nozzle gives

U4 =~2cp(To3 - T4) =~2

.J X
kJ
1.11 kg K X
[kg m]
113.3 K [~)

= 501.5 ~
s
Momentum equation gives the positive thrust as
F = ~(u4 - Uf!ight) = ~(u4 - ul)

84
 F m (N s 2 ] N
and ...-=
m u4 - u1 = 501.5-271.7 = 229.8-
s [-k-] I
gm = 229.8 -gs
k

Note that since the pressure in the plane of the exit section of
the exhaust nozzle is zero there is no pressure thrust.
The overall efficiency is given by
'I = thrust power F(u 4 - ul)
rate of fuel energy supplied mrC.V.
229 82 m2 [N s2]
s2 [kg m]
0.85 X 1.11 k~JK X (1500 - 324.9) K

0.048

4. A perfect gas expands reversibly and adiabatically in a nozzle.

Show that at any cross-sectional plane of the nozzle
dA + dp + du = 0
A P u
where A is the cross-sectional area of the nozzle, p is the density
of the gas and u is the velocity of the gas. Hence show that

dA =
A
A
pu
[1 - M2]dp

where M is the Mach number and pis the static pressure of the gas.
Comment on the consequence of this result on the shapes of nozzles
designed for subsonic and supersonic efflux velocities of the gas.
The nozzle of a rocket motor is to be designed for a thrust of
0.2 MN when the propellant gas is expanded reversibly and adiabat-
ically from a combustion chamber stagnation pressure and temperat-
ure of 35 bar and 3500 C, respectively, to a back pressure of 1
bar. The gas may be assumed to be perfect and to have a mean rel-
ative molecular mass of 25.8 and~= 1.25. Estimate the propellant
mass flow rate and the exit area of the nozzle.
(London University 1973)

Mass continuity equation

m= PAU = constant C1
dm = 0 = d(PAu) = (Adu + udA) + A(udp + pdu) + u(Adp + pdA)

and dividing throughout this by m (i.e. by PAu)

0 = 2 du + dA + dp = du + dAA + dpp
u A P u

Thus dA = - [du + dp] (A)

A u P
For reversible adiabatic i.e. isentropic flow of a perfect gas
p = C2 P~ (C 2 is a constant)
~ ~-1
dp = c2~P - 1 dP "Jl!..p
pr dp = ~P
p

85
 (B)

(C)

From equations (B) and (C)

dp _ dp _ dpM 2
p- 'Yp- p;;r (D)

For the steady flow of a fluid in the absence of heat and work
transfers and with negligible change in potential energy we get
Energy equation
h + iu 2 = constant C3
or dh + udu = 0
From the combination of the first two laws of thermodynamics
Tds = dh - vdp (and for isentropic flow ds = 0)
dp
or dh= vdp p
dp
or -p+ udu 0

du
or -u= -~ (E)

Substsituting from (D) and (E) into (A)

dA = _ [- dp + M2 dp] = _l_[l _ M2)dp
A Pu 2 Pu 2 pu2

For subsonic flow M < 1; M2 < 1; and (1 - M2 ) is positive and for

expansive flow with dp negative then dAis also negative i.e. the
nozzle converges. Conversely for expansive supersonic flow the
nozzle diverges.
Figure 8.4 refers.

"-
1 i! ..,. Figure 8.4

T2 = Tot[P.L]k
Pot = 3773 Kn-]
L35
0
'
2
= 1853 K
c _ 'YR _ "fRo 5 x 8.3143 kJ/(mo1 K) kJ
P - Y"=1 - mw('Y - 1) 25.8 kg/mol 1.611 kg K

86
Energy equation

u2 =-~2cp(Tol - T2) =~2 x 1.611 k~3 KC3773- 1853) K ~~gS~

= 2487 !!!.
s
Momentum equation (in absence of any pressure thrust)
m= F 0.2 N X 10 6 (~) 80.4 ~
U2 2487 .!!!_ (N s ) s
s
Mass continuity equation
80.4 ~ )( 8.3143 klJK X 1853 K
A2 = mv2 = MRT2 = iRoT2 = ----~s~~------~m~o=-~--------
U2 P2U2 P2mwU2 100 kN x 25.8 ~l x 2487!!!.
m mo s
0.193 m2

5. (a) Show that for the reversible adiabatic one-dimensional

flow of a perfect gas in a convergent-divergent nozzle expanding
fully from an inlet stagnation pressure p 0 to an exit static pres-
sure p 2 , the ratio of exit area A 2 to throat area At is given by:
z 2.9... 1/"Y

rl _(~ _Jr
A2 = ___ P2. 1
where z = -;y:-r
At {~ ~ ~ 2

(b) The nozzle of a rocket motor is designed to expand the

propellant gas from a combustion chamber stagnation pressure of 35
bar and stagnation temperature of 3330 K to a sea level static pres-
sure of 1 bar. The nozzle throat area is 0.065 m2 .
Assuming that the combustion chamber conditions remain steady
and that expansion is reversible and adiabatic, determine:
(i) the nozzle exit area,
(ii) the mass flow rate of propellant gas, and
(iii) the thrust developed at an altitude where the atmospheric
pressure is 0.14 bar.
The propellant gas may be assumed to behave as a perfect gas
having a mean molecular weight of 25.8 g/mol and a mean~= 1.25.
(London University 1966 modified)

Figure 8.5

Figure 8.5 refers.

For the critical flow of a perfect gas in a nozzle
E.!..
Po
= [-2-] /k 'To=
~ + 1
. m2
1
Tt

87
Energy equation
=~2(ho- ht) =~2cp(To- Tt) =~2cpTo[l- i': 1]

n
u1

=~2cpTo[~:
Characteristic gas equation
p =E.!_
1 RTt

or Pt
Po [
RTo Li' +
2
1
Jz

.
Mass continuity equation
At = _m_
Pt Ut
Po[i': 1 ]~2cpTa[~: i]
- h2) =~ 2cp(To - T2) = ~2opTo [1 - (~~)k]

and

(after cancelling and collecting)

Substituting in the expression above with the data given

0.326 m2

Pt Po (-:.y : 1 Y'k = 3s bar(/ 25 Y = 19.42 bar

To(i': l) = 3330 K(2: 2s) = 2960 K

RTt = RoTt = 8.3143 kJ 2960 K m3
Pt mwP 1 """25.8 kg K 1942 kN O' 491 kg
jjjT

88
 u1 =~2cp(To - Tt) =~2 mw(~R~ l) (To - Tt)

=-'2
1 X 5 X 8 3143 _J_ 1001 (3330 -
25.8 mol K g
2960)K(~] 1092 m
s
{N s ]
_ u 1At _ 1092 x 0.065 m m2 kg _ 144 . 6 ~
m- -v;-- 0.491 s m3 - s

T2 = To{f;r = 3330 K(~5 Y 2

= 1635.4 K

U2 =~2 X 5 X 8 2~~! 3 (3330 - 1635 .4) X 1000 = 2336.9 ~as

s
above

Momentum equation for nozzle incorporating a pressure thrust

144 6 ~ 2336 9 ~ (N s 2 ]( kN ]
F = mu2 + A2 (P2 - Pa) = s s [kg m] [f1i'T'"'N]

+ 0.326 m2 (100 - 14) ~

F = 337.9 + 28.0 365.9 kN

Further Examples

6. An aircraft jet propulsion engine is to have a forward-facing

ram intake, a rearward facing propelling nozzle and is to be des-
igned on the basis of the following conditions:
Ram isentropic efficiency 0.92
Compressor stagnation isentropic efficiency 0.82
Turbine stagnation isentropic efficiency 0.83
Combustion efficiency 1.00
Transmission mechanical efficiency 0.99
Nozzle efficiency 0.90
Compressor stagnation pressure ratio 4:1
Maximum cycle stagnation temperature 1000 K
Air mass flow rate 30 kg/s
Ambient conditions ISA at 10 500 m
Flight speed 360 m/s
For air take cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg K), ~ = 1.4.
For combustion products in turbine and nozzle take cp = 1.156
kJ/(kg K), ~ = 1.33.
Neglect the effect of fuel mass flow on air mass flow rate.
Calculate the total (i.e. momentum+ pressure) specific thrust
in kN/kg per second of air. (0.378)

7. Show that for isentropic flow of a perfect gas in a conver-

1r
gent-divergent nozzle the maximum mass flow rate is

~ = A,pof~o ~~ : where m = .!...!....!..

~ - 1

where A is the cross-sectional area at the throat, Po and To are

the stagnation pressure and temperature of the gas, R is the spe-
cific ideal gas constant and~ is the ratio of the principal spe-
cific heat capacities.

89
 A rocket-motor generates gas at a constant pressure Po and a
constant temperature, in the combustion chamber. This gas, which
may be assumed perfect, exhausts through a convergent-divergent
nozzle to atmosphere. Assuming that p 0 is very much greater than
the ambient atmospheric pressure pa, and that frictional effects

t )
may be neglected, show that the thrust F of the motor is given by
F _
PoAt - ~ -::y:--f Y+1
2 2
m[
l
-
Pe
( Po )kJ + 'At"
Ae Pe
~Po - Pa
Po J
where Pe is the pressure at the exit plane of the nozzle and Ae is
the cross-sectional area at this plane. (London University 1973)

8. The nozzle of a rocket motor is designed for complete expan-

sion of the gases from combustion pressure to atmospheric pressure.
Assuming that the gases are perfect and the flow is isentropic show
that the rocket thrust per unit mass flow rate F/mris given by
!- = _/RT 1_1.r_jl - Jpa]k l
mr 1 I'- q LP1J }
where Pa is the atmospheric pressure, and R, T1 and Pl are respec-
tively the gas constant, combustion temperature and pressure.
At lift-off SO% of the entire mass of a certain rocket is fuel.
The rocket is designed to fire for one minute at a constant combus-
tion temperature and pressure of 3000 K and 20 bar, using all its
fuel in the process. Determine the acceleration of the rocket at
lift-off when the rocket is fired vertically from sea-level and the
nozzle design back pressure of 1.0 bar prevails. Take the avera'e
molcular mass of the gases to be 33.5 and I'= 1.2. (15.61 m/s)
(London University 1975)

90
9 VARIABLE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES

The material of this chapter has been the subject of much ab-
use by various authors in the past.
Problems which merely tax the student's ability to integrate
and differentiate expressions for variable specific heats while
bearing little relation to practical values are both misleading
and pointless.
Real variation in specific heat capacities for the generality
of gases is complex and a graphical method (for air in this case)
is proposed in this chapter which will allow rapid application of
the laws of thermodynamics to cyclic calculations with variable
cp and Cv entailing only a small loss in accuracy.
Of course every different fluid (or air to fuel ratio) needs
its own energy chart but the production of this is no great matter
since the writing of a simple computer program for the purpose is
easily carried out using the known values of specific heat capac-
ity and their variation with temperature.

1. Tables of the properties of an ideal gas sometimes contain

values of the function

if_pdT
JT~ T
where T is the absolute temperature, To a datum temperature and cp
is evaluated at temperature T.
Show how values of the above function can be used to determine,
for an isentropic process, the ratio of the initial pressure to
the final pressure when the initial and final temperatures are
known.
0.5 kg of an ideal gas occupies initially a volume of 0.05 m3
at a pressure of 40 bar and a temperature of 1000 K. The gas ex-
pands reversibly and adiabatically to a final temperature of 500 K.
Determine the final pressure and also the change in internal
energy of the gas.
For the gas cv = (0.653 + 1 x 10-~T) kJ/(kg K) where Tis the
absolute temperature in K. (London University 1963 modified)
From the first two laws of thermodynamics
ds = dqrev = dh - vdp = cp dT _ ~
T T T p

Thus 0 = cp d~ - ~ for an isentropic process

91
 T2. P2.
or (cpdTT = (Rdp = R ln P2. since R is a constant
}T~ {-1 p P1
which is an expression which gives values of the ratio PliP2.
pV = 40 bar x 0.05 m3 [10 5 N ][ kJ ] kJ
R = mT 0.5 kg x 1000 K [bar m2.)[10 3 N m] 0.4 kg K

Cp = Cv + R = 0.653 + 0.4 + (10- 4}T = 1.053 + (10- 4 )T ~

kg K

f:;T~T = ~[~~053
}~
(10-4)T) dTT =
+ l.OS 3 l 500
n 1000 +
(500 - 1000)
104

t
0 1000 kJ
= - o. 7799 - -
kg K
T2.
ln P2 = .!_ CpdT = _1_~(- kJ
Pl R T 4 kJ o. 0.7799}kg K =- 1.9498
T1
P2. = 0.1423
P1
or p 2 = 0.1423 x 40 = 5.69 bar

T2. r.oo
T1 f
m~vdT = 0.5 kgj~0.653
10 0 0
(10- 4 T))dT
OO 2.
0.5 kg 0.653(500 - 1000) + 5 2 - 104
+

1000 2. ] ~
kg K
l<J
0.5 kg(- 326.5 - 37.5) kg K
182 kJ
kg

2. An ideal gas (i.e. one which has the equation of state pv =

RT, but whose principal specific heats are not necessarily const-
ant) undergoes a reversible process in which pv" is constant. Show
that
~-Pc
dv - R Cp - n Cv)

in which q stands for the heat transfer between the gas and its sur-
roundings.
At the beginning of the compression stroke in an internal com-
bustion engine the cylinder contains a 10% weak mixture of octane
(C 8H18 ) and air, at a pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of 50 C.
Compression follows the relation pv 1 36 =constant. Determine the
value of dqrev/dv when the pressure in the cylinder is 12 bar.
Molar specific heats at constant pressure in kJ/(mol K) are as fol-
lows:
Temperature ( 0 C) Octane Oxygen Nitrogen
288 285.5 31.8 30.1
454 352.5 33.1 31.0
(London University 1964 modified)

92
First Law
dqrev = de + pdv

or dqrev = de + P = CvddTV + P
dv dv
Characteristic gas equation
1
T = R{pv)

1
or dT = R-[pdv + vdp]

for a polytropic process (given)

pv" = K
or p = Kv-"
and dp =- nKv-"- 1 dv = -n~~+i)dv = - (n;)dv

or dT = ~rdv + v(- ~)dv]

and ~: = ~(p - np) = *(1 -n)

and dqrev = CyP(l - n) + p = ~(1 - n) + RpR = E.R[cv(l - n) + R]

dv R R

= ~Cp
R
- nev + R) = l!..(cp
R
- ncv)

From the above

dqrev = l!..(cp - ncv) = 111w
........_R(lllwCp - n~~~wcv) = LR(cp - ncv)
~ R o

= L[q,- - n(c - Ro)] = L[cp(l - n) + nRo]

Ro P Ro
p -
= ~1 - n)cp + np

0265
T{~~)r
rfx .~
T2. = 323 K(l2) 624 K = n 1 = 0. 2651
(351 C) ~

cp(octane) at 351 C = 285.8 + ~~~! = ;~~~(352.5- 285.5)

kJ
= 31 1. 2 mol K

- (351 - 288) kJ
cp(oxygen) = 31.8 + ( 454 _ 288 )(33.1- 31.8) = 32.3 mol K

- . (351 - 288) kJ
cp(n1trogen) = 30.1 + ( 454 _ 288 )(31- 30.1) = 30.4 mol K

For a 10% weak mixture of octane and air the combustion equation is

93
 C8H18 + (0.9 x 12.5)0 2 + (3.76 x 0.9 x 12.5)N 2 +products
or CeH1e + 11.2502 + 42.3N2+ products
Thus the mean value of cp for the mixture of octane and air is
1
Cpmean = 1 + l1. 25 + 42 . 3 [(1 x311.2) + (11.25 x 32.3)
+ (42.3 X 30.4)]
kJ
35.93 mol K

Thus i~v = 1 ~.~~~ 3 m~~ K(l - 1.36)35.93 mo~JK + 1.36(12) bar

18.67 + 16.32
[10 5 N ] [ kJ
2 35 bar[bar m2][103 N m]] =- 235 kJ
m3

Note on a more realistic view of the variation in specific heat

capacity.
All real fluids in the gaseous state exhibit the tendency to var-
iation in specific heat capacity. The significant variable is ther-
modynamic temperature and the higher the temperature the greater
the value of cp and cv. The variation is different for different
gases and is NOT readily expressed in mathematical form (as in
problem 9.1 solved in this chapter) except over very limited and
therefore impractical ranges of temperature.
The effect of this variation on piston engines and steady flow
devices such as rockets is profound. In all cases the maximum cyc-
le temperature is much lower in practice than that calculated by
the use of the ideal gas laws. Since no simple mathematical ana-
lysis is available, use must be made either of wearying rei terat-
ive calculations or some graphical method which will introduce some
error for the sake of brevity.
The temperature-entropy-energy chart is one such graphical meth-
od. It is a graphical plot of the properties of a given fluid (in
this instance AIR) allowing for the variation in specific heat cap-
acity. The latter is given on page 16 of tables and may be assumed
to be up-to-date and unlikely to show any marked change in future.
Obviously no real working fluid in combustion equipment is pure
air, but in using the chart students should note the principles in-
volved and be able to construct their own chart in any given case
where the fluid composition and properties are known. However, it
1s worth noting that in a number of cases the working fluid is not
very far removed from pure air (e.g. in a compression-ignition en-
gine a typical mass air to fuel ratio is 30:1). Clearly in high-
intensity engines such as rockets the working fluid is entirely
different and due allowance must be made for this.
Chart construction
There are SIX variables of importance on the chart.
(a) T - thermodynamic temperature (K)
(b) s - specific entropy [kJ/(K kg)]
(c) e - specific internal energy (kJ/kg)
(d) h - specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)

94
 (e) sv - isochoric entropy change [kJ/(K kg))
(f) sp -isobaric entropy change [kJ/(K kg)]
Notes
(i) Reversible isothermals are horizontal on the chart.
(ii) Reversible adiabatics are isentropics and are verticals.
(iii) Any isochore can be found from the reference isochore
(see later) and also any isobar can be found from the reference
isobar.
(iv) The fluid is AIR and is assumed to be semi-perfect i.e.
pv = RT but cp and cv are variables.
The data used in the construction of the chart is taken from
page 16 of tables.
(1) Internal energy curve.
de cvdT and for a small increment in T (liT)
lie cv(mean)liT
Thus e2 oo e1 75 cv (mean) (200 175) lle17s-2oo = lie 1
Also e22s - ezoo cv (mean) (225 200) lle2o0-22s and adding
lle11s-22s "' lle2 (and so on up to 3000 K)
The cumulative values lle1, lle2 are plotted using an arbitrarily
chosen scale for energy and the resultant curve is the internal
energy curve.
(2) Enthalpy curve.
h = e + pv = e + RT for a semi-perfect gas
Since R is a constant for a semi-perfect the h line is very eas-
ily obtained by drawing a straight line to the left of the T axis
such that at any level of temperature T, the value of h at that lev-
el is given by the total distance drawn horizontally between the
e curve and the straight line which is drawn at a distance RT to
the left of the Taxis.
(3) Reference isochore (sv).

Now ds = dqrev = de + pdv = cv dT + ~ and along an isochore

T T T T v

dSv = dT
cv~ an d ~ntegrat~ng
f or a sma 11 but f.~n~te
ch ange

200
Sv200-11S cv(mean) ln 175 = (a) = llsv 1
225
Also sv22s-2oo ov (mean) x ln 200 = (b)

and adding the values of (a) and (b) we get llsvz.

The sv curve on the chart is obtained by plotting the cumulative
values llsv1, llsv2 using the chosen entropy scale in kJ/ K kg).

(4) Reference isobar (sp).

dT dv dT ~and
ds = cv~ + ~ = cp~ - P along an isobar (p constant)

95
 dT
dsp = CpT

Thus the reference isobar may be obtained in a very similar way

to the reference isochore except that mean values of cp are used
instead of cv.

(5) Isentropes (s constant). Given by vertical movement on chart.

(6) Isothermals (T constant). Given by horizontal movement on chart.

Note, however, that this is the most convenient way to move from
one isochore to another and from one isobar to another.

For ~p
and for constant temperature

dv _ ~
dsr = ~ = np
Thus horizontal movement from one isochore to another is given by

Svl-2 = R ln V2
Vl

Correspondingly horizontal movement from one isobar to another is

given by

R ln E.!..
P2
Thus in both cases we need an R ln x scale where x represents eith-
er the volume or the pressure ratio involved. Note, however, be-
cause of the different signs, that when v2 > v1, sv1-2 is positive
(left to right movement), and conversely when p 2 > p 1 , sp 1 - 2 is
negative (movement right to left). That is volume increases from
left to right on the chart and pressure increases from right to
left.
The accuracy ofthe chart is largely dependent on the use of the
R ln x scale and, given careful use of this, temperatures can be
determined to within 50 Keven at the highest levels.
Note that normal isentropic relationships for a perfect gas do
NOT apply here.

i.e. ~~ = (~~r and pv'Y = constant cannot be used.

Further examination reveals that when the two principal specific

heat capacities are both increasing with temperature, even in a
non-linear way, but with a constant difference between them, then
the ratio 'Y, must necessarily decrease with increase of temperat-
ure.

3. In the cycle shown in figure 9 ..3 vdv2 = 8, T1 300 K and

2q3 is 2000 kJ/kg. Using the energy chart find
(a) the maximum cycle temperature,
(b) the net specific work transfer in the cycle,
(c) the cycle efficiency, where this is defined as

96
 Energy Scale

2500

ENERGY CHART FOR AIR

I ;1 / J' (Variable Specific Heats) I
2000
7 ;r I
:.::
\.D E:;-
--.:&

1500 I I
7/ rI 7/

5 7 15
C T I l IIIITIIIIIIIUII R ln X (x = 1, 2, 3 ... 20)
1 2 3 4 6 10 20

1 2 3 s/ (kJ/K kg) 4
 Net specific work transfer in cycle
Total positive heat transfer in cycle

LJ
3

1
1----------v
Figure 9,3

Refer to figure 9.3 showing the cycle (the OTTO cycle with variab-
le specific heat capacities) and also a representation of the ener-
gy chart.
Since the last process in the Ccle is isochoric it will be sen-
sible to begin the cycle representation on the reference isochore
since this implies automatically that the last process will be on
this curve.
Step 1. Plot point 1 at a temperature of 300 K on the reference
isochore.
Step 2. Compression is isentropic with increasing temperature such
that point 2 is distant R ln 8 to the left (horizontally) from the
reference isochore. Thus locate 2 vertically above 1 in this way.
Step 3. Combustion is isochoric and thus point 3 will be the same
horizontal distance from the reference isochore and the maximum
cycle temperature.
The other piece of information enabling us to locate point 3 pre-
cisely is given by the energy addition. From the first law:
dqrev = de + pdv and integrating between 2 and 3
2q3 = e3 - e2 since there is no work transfer in this process
Thus e3 = e2 + 2q3 = e2 + 2000 kJ/kg
Reading the value of e2 at the temperature level T2 and adding the
energy transfer of 2000 kJ/kg gives the value of e 3 whi~h when set
against the internal energy curve decides the temperature level of
point 3, and this together with the previous information fixes 3.
Step 4. Expansion is isentropic (vertical movement on the chart)
and thus 4 lies vertically below point 3 and on the reference iso-
chore. The cycle is thus complete.
From the chart:
T = T3 = 2780 K.
0)

98
 e1 - e 4 (first law from 4 to 1 with no work transfer)
- 1000 kJ/kg from the energy chart
and w 2000 1000 = 1000 kJ/kg

w 1000
Total q+ve 2000 = 0 5

Note that application of the laws of a perfect gas assuming that

~ = 1.40 to this problem yields values of

Tg = 3474.7 K; Wnet = 1129.4 kJ/kg; '7 0.565.

2 3

~--------------v
Figure 9.4

4. In the cycle depicted in figure 9.4 (the diesel cycle with

variable specific heat capacities) the volume ratio v1/vz 12.0,
T1 = 300 K, zq 3 = 1600 kJ/kg. Using the chart determine
(a) the maximum cycle temperature,
(b) the net specific work transfer and
(c) the cycle efficiency.

In this case the last of the four processes in the cycle is an

isochoric process and thus it is now expedient to begin on the ref-
erence isochore
Step 1. Plot point 1 at a temperature of 300 K on the reference iso-
chore.
Step 2. Compression is isentropic and point 2 will lie a horizon-
tal distance given by R ln 12 to the left of the reference isochore
and vertically above point 1.
Step 3. Point 3 lies on the same isobar through 2 and additionally
zqg eg - ez + zwg (the work transfer is NOT zero here)
eg ez + pg(vg - vz)
hg hz

99
Thus reading the total distance between the e and h curves at the
temperature T 2 gives the value of h 2
then h3 = h2 + 2q3 = h2 + 1600 kJ/kg
Thus point 3 lies on the same isobar through 2 and at a temperature
level where h 3 = h 2 + 1600 kJ/kg.
Step 4. Point 4 is vertically below 3 and on the reference isobar
since expansion is again isentropic.
From the chart:
T = T3 = 2120 K

1600 - 890 = 710 kJ/kg

710
1'/ = 1600 = 0 44

5. A design study into a prototype, automotive, compression-ig-

nition engine is to be carried out. As a first step the engine is
to be assumed to operate on the idealised cycle shown in figure 9.5.
The volume compression ratio is 12:1 and the energy release is in
two parts. Firstly isochoric energy release from 2 to 3 and sec-
ondly isobaric energy release from 3 to 4 in which the specific
volume is doubled.
The pressure and temperature at 1 are 1 bar and 350 K respect-
ively and the maximum cycle temperature is 2500 K.
Determine
(a) the value of ps,
(b) the cycle efficiency,
(c) the brake power output if the mass flow rate is 0.15 kg/s
and the mechanical efficiency is 60%.

--------vFigure 9. 5
Figure 9.5 refers (showing the cycle and a representation of the
energy chart for this problem).
Step 1. The last process in the cycle is isochoric- thus plot 1
on the reference isochore at a temperature of 350 K.
Step 2. Compression is isentropic and the volume ratio is 12 and

100
thus point 2 lies vertically above point 1 with 2 distant R ln 12
to the left of the reference isochore.
Step 3. Point 3 lies on the same isochore through 2 and the latter
can be lightly sketched in until point 3 is firmly located.
Step 4. (v 4/v 3) = 2. Thus draw in the v4 isochore to cut the temp-
erature of 2500 K in point 4.
Step 5. p 3 = p 4 and using the reference isobar and point 4 the iso-
bar through point 4 can be sketched to intersect the isochore pass-
ing through 2 in point 3.
Step 6. Expansion is isentropic and point 5 lies vertically below
4 and on the reference isochore.
From the energy chart:
Ps "' .!! using the R ln x scale
Pl 4

Ideal Wnet Eq 2q3 + 3q4 + sq1 ( lq2 = ~qs = 0)

(e3 e2) + (h4 - h3) + (e1 - es)
280 + 1650 - 940 = 990 kJ/kg
Total q+ve = 2q3 + 3q4 = (e3 - e2) + (h4 - h 3)
280 + 1650 = 1930 kJ/kg
990
Thus 71= 1930 = 0.51
Actual Wbrake = 0. 6 X 0.15 ~X 990 kJ [kW s) 89.1 kW
s kg [ kJ ]

6. A reciprocating engine may be assumed to operate on the cycle

shown diagrammatically in figure 9.6. The working fluid is air
(a semi-perfect gas) and the temperature- entropy-energy chart is
for use in the solution.
The cycle of operations is as follows.
(a) Reversible, polytropic compression according to the law
pv 1 3 = constant from a pressure and temperature of 1 bar and 330 K
respectively through a volume ratio of 7:1.
(b) Isochoric addition of energy to a maximum pressure of 45 bar.
(c) Reversible, polytropic expansion according to the 1 aw pv 1 2 5
constant to the initial pressure (p4 = Pl)
(d) Isobaric rejection of energy to the initial state.
Calculate
(i) the thermodynamic cycle efficiency,
(ii) the mean effective pressure in bar.

Figure 9.6 refers (showing the cycle and a representation of the

energy chart) .
Step 1. The last process in the cycle is isobaric and thus point 1
is located on the reference isobar at a temperature level of 330 K.
Step 2.
T2 = T{:~r-l = 330 K(7) 03= 591.6 K

Also point 2 lies a horizontal distance given by R ln 7 to the left

101
 p
3

Figure 9.6

of the isochore through 1. The latter is sketched in at a distance

given by the horizontal distance from point 1 to the reference iso-
chore.
Step 3. v3 = v2 = v 1 /7 and also p 3 = 45p 1 and thus we can sketch
in the isochore through 2 and locate point 3 at a horizontal dist-
ance given by R ln 45 to the left of the reference isobar and on
this isochore. This gives T 3 = 2100 K.
Step 4.
T" = T{~:J n
where r = -n
-
- 1

1 ]0.2
2100 K[ 4sj 980.8 K

Thus point 4 is located at a temperature level of 980.8 K and on

the reference isobar.
2q3 + 3q .. + .. ql + lq2
71 =-
Wnet
=
2q3 + 3q ..

3"'" + 1w2 + (e~ - e1) + (hl - h")

(e .. - e2) + sw"
sw .. + 1w2 + R~T1 - T"~
(e" - e2) + sw ..
R~T3 - T~2 + R(Tl - T2~ + R(Tl - T~)
n - 1 n - 1
(e .. - e2)
+ R(T3 - T")
n - 1

- e2) + (T3 - T")

R n - 1

(2100 - 980.8) + (330 - 591.6) + (330 - 980.8)

0.25 0.3
~ + (2100 - 980.8)
0.287 0.25
0.552

102
The mean effective pressure (mep) is given by
Wnet Wnet
mep RT., _ RT2
Vlt - V2
P'+ P2

3.16 bar

Further examples.
7. A steady flow of air and methane CH., enters a combustion cham-
ber at a temperature of 380 K and the products of combustion leave
at a temperature of 1500 K. There is 20 per cent excess air and
the exhaust gases consist only of carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen
.and oxygen.
Determine the heat transfer per kilogram of methane. Discuss
briefly how a more realistic assessment of the heat transfer might
be made.
Assume that air consists of 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by vol-
ume: The enthalpy of reaction for methane and air at a temperature
of 298 K, with water in the vapour phase, is - 802 300 kJ/mol of
CH.,. The variation in the isobaric molar heat capacity cp with
temperature T may be assumed to be represented adequately by the
expression
Cp = A+ BT X 10- 3 + CT 2 X 10- 6

where the values of A, B and c are given below

01., N2 02 C02 H20
Relative molar mass 16 28 32 44 18
A/ (kJ/molK) 19.9 27.3 28.2 22.3 29.2
B/ (kJ/molK2 ) 50.2 6.2 6.3 59.8 14.5
C/(kJ/mol K3 ) 12.7 -0.95 -0.75 -35.0 2.0
(London University 1971) (1463042 kJ/kg CH.,)
8. A reciprocating 4 stroke internal combustion engine may be
assumed to operate on the following cycle using air (a semi-perfect
gas) as the working fluid.
(a) Reversible adiabatic compression from 1 bar, 350 K through
a volume compression ratio of 8:1,
(b) reversible isochoric energy addition to a maximum pressure
of 60 bar,
(c) reversible adiabatic expansion to the initial volume,
(d) reversible isochoric rejection of energy to the initial
state.
(i) Calculate the ratio of net work transfer to total positive
heat transfer in the cycle, the mean effective pressure and also
the torque for a swept volume of 1500 cm 3 when the mechanical eff-
iciency is 75%.
Use the T-s-energy chart exclusively.
(ii) What limitations would affect the above values in practice
and how? Be brief. (Aston University 1978)

103
 9. A reciprocating piston engine may be assumed to operate on
the cycle depicted in figure 9.9 in which the operations are:
(a) reversible, polytropic compression from 1 bar, 140 C with
a volume compression ratio of 9:1 for which pv 1 3 =constant,
(b) energy addition (wherein pressure and volume are linearly
related) to 40 bar (the maximum pressure) in which the volume in-
creases by 50%,
(c) reversible, polytropic expansion to the initial volume in
which pv 1 25 =constant,
p
3

4
Figure 9.9

~--~---------------v

(d) reversible isochoric rejection of energy to the initial

state.
Assuming the working fluid is air (a semi-perfect gas) and using
the temperature-entropy-energy chart, calculate
(a) the maximum cycle temperature,
(b) the cycle efficiency. (2753 K, 0.432)
(Aston University 1974)
Figure 9.9 refers.

104
10 DISSOCIATION

Only the effects of dissociation on mol fractions are dis-

cussed in this chapter. No attempt is made to apply the energy
equation to determine temperature levels directly nor indeed is
there any treatment of combustion kinetics and the rates of com-
bustion.

1. The products of combustion resulting from the burning of CO

and air (in non-stoichiometric proportions) are at 1 atmosphere and
some temperature T K.
An exhaust gas analysis shows that the percentages by volume of
C0 2 and 0 2 are respectively 20 and 8.
Calculate
(a) the value of the equilibrium constant K 1 ,
(b) the value of T,
(c) the mass ratio of CO to air in the reactants.
Use the chart for equilibrium constants provided.
(Aston University 1970)
In mol the combustion equation is
CO+ x(02) + 3.76x(N2) 4 a(C02) + (1- a)(CO) + (x- ia)(02)
+ 3.76x(N2)
Total products n will be 1 + 4.76x- la after combustion
a
Now 1 + 4.76x- ia = 02 (percentage by volume of C02)

or a = 0.1818 + 0.865x (1)

Also
Xza
1 + 4 . 76 x _
-
ia
_
- 0.08 (percentage by volume of 0 2)

or x - la = 0.08 + 0.38lx - 0.04a (2)

Substituting from (1) into (2) :-
x - 0.0909 - 0.433x = 0.08 + 0.38lx - 0.0073 - 0.035x
or x = 0.74 and a= 0.822
also (1 - a) = 0.178 and (x - ia) = 0.329
Thus n =1 + 4.76(0.74) - 0.411 = 4.111
KI _
Pco 2 ,.
nco 2 RoTV I V nco
_ ~LE-
- PcolPo 2 vncoRo T Vno RoT
2
- nco "lno.P
2
0.82~h.lll
= ~0 . 329 = 16.32 atm
-l .
(s1nce p =1 atm.)

105
 30

~\ EQ~ILIBkiUM l:oNSJANTSI

\
20

10
8

6
"' ' I'
~
~

~
\ '
'0
,)...."""" ~
4 ......
\ ..... 1og1o K2
v
3
I'<
~
~',

""
/
1og10 K1 ' I'
' ', "'
2
:.::
.. \ 1og!o K3
I'
y
0
negative
1:>0
0
......
1.0 \
\ ~
0.8 \ ....l
\ ~
0.6 . /1-"'"
1\ / [\
\ / 1oglo K3
0.4
v ' '

\
positive
I

7
0.3

0.2
\
~
0.1 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
0 Absolute Temperature
(100 K)

106
From the chart of equilibrium constants against temperature
T = 2606 K

mai r
mco
= 1 mol 02[32 g 02][ mol CO] g air
X mol CO[ mol 02] [28 g C0]0.233 g 0 2 3.63 ! ~~r
2. Benzene (C6 H6 ) was sprayed into a constant volume combustion
chamber and burned with air. When the mixture was at a temperature
of 1400 K it was rapidly cooled to room temperature and the prod-
ucts analysed. The concentrations by volume for the dry products
of combustion were
C02 : 12.3%, CO : 8.3%, 02: negligible.
Derive an expression for the heat transferred to or from the gas
during the combustion process given that the reactants were all at
the standard reference temperature 298 K and the products were at
a tempera.ture of 1400 K.
Determine the concentration of benzene in the original mixture
assuming:
(a) that the products represent the equilibrium mixture at a
temperature of 1400 K which contains only C0 2 , CO, N2 , H20 and H2 ;
(b) that the chemical equilibrium constant (K) is equal to 0.43
at a temperature of 1400 K for the reaction CO+ H20 + C0 2 + H2 ,
(c) that air contains 21% oxygen by volume.
(London University 1969)

The combustion equation in mol may be written as:-

CsHs + x(02) + 3.76x(N2) + a(C02) + b(CO) + c(H20) + d(H2)
+ e (N2)
For a constant volume combustion process the energy equation is
ERl + Q = Ep 2 where R = Reactants, P = Products and
1 and 2 refer to T1 (before) and T2 (after)
combustion respectively.

Thus Q = EP2 - ERl = (EP2 - EPo) + (EPo - ERo) + (ERo - ER!)

where in this expanded form of the energy equation
0 = To the standard reference temperature (usually 298 K)
and To = T 1 in this case and thus
ERO ERl 0
Also Epo ERo I::J.Eo = the internal energy of combustion.
Thus Q = Ep2 - Epo + I::J.Eo = }:n;
p
mwCe2 - eo) + I::J.Eo

and recourse to tables gives values for

(i) I::J.E 0 for liquid benzene,
(ii) mw and (e2 - eo) for each product having calculated val-
ues of n from the following.

107
In the original combustion equation
Carbon balance
6 a + b (1)
Hydrogen balance
3 c + d (2)
Oxygen balance
x = a + ~b + lc (3)
Nitrogen balance
3.76x = e (4)
Exhaust Gas Analysis
nco2 =a 12.3 1. 482
nco b = """8':3 = (5)

Equilibrium Constant

ad
be = 0.43 (6)

From (1) and (5)

6 = b + 1.482b orb 2.417, a 3. 583.
In (5)
~ = 0. 4 ~ = 0.43 X 2.417
0.290
c a 3.583
In (2)
c + d = c + 0.29c or c = 2 .325, d = 0.675
In (3)
2.417 2.325
x =a+ ~b + lc = 3.583 + - 2- + - 2- = 5.954
and concentration of CGH 6 in original charge

1 1
0.034
1 + 4. 76x 1 + 28.34

3. A stoichiometric mixture of hydrogen and oxygen burn isobar-

ically at 1 bar and because of dissociation the resulting gases are
hydrogen, oxygen and steam. The mixture temperature is 3000 K.
Show that the percentage by volume of steam in the mixture is app-
roximately 78.5 given that
28 600
log1oKJ = 8.593 - T , where K1

1100
and log1oK3 = 1.2065 - T , where K3
Pco2PH2
with all partial pressures in bar and T in K.

108
 Kz = PHzO _ PHzOPCO PCOz ]
z ~
r
_ K3(Kt) -~
PHz/Poz - PHzPCozlPco2Poz -
Thus logtoKz logtoK3 - and at 3000 K
~logtoKt

log 10 Kz
uoo 28 6ool
1~
1.2065 - 3000 - 2L8.593 - 3000 J 1.3095

Kz = 20.4
Let z mol Hz use ~z mol Oz to give z mol HzO per mol Hz originally
There will be (1 - z) mol Hz remaining as Hz per mol Hz originally
The products are (z)(HzO), (1 -z)(Hz) and ~(1- z)(Oz)
and n = 1.5 - ~z total mols in the products

Kz = 20.4

from which
416.2(1- z) 3 zz (3 - z) (A)
Now i f
z 0.785 we get
1.5 - lz
z = 0 846
and substituting this value in (A) we get balance.
0

Thus the percentage by volume of steam is as given.

4. Describe the Van't Hoff box and the arguments used to arrive
at the concept of an equilibrium constant. Use the COz, CO, Oz
reaction as a vehicle for your reasoning.
Ammonia gas dissociates according to the equation
NH3 + 1.5Hz + ~Nz
At 400 K, logtoK = 0.778 where, with partial pressures in atmos
PNH3 atm -t
K = ~PHz 3pNz
Calculate the percentage by volume of ammonia in the products
at 400 K, if the total pressure is 1 atmosphere.
(Aston University 1975)
logtoK = 0.778 (at 400 K)
or K = 5.998 (say 6)
Let z mol NH 3 dissociate giving 1.5z mol Hz and 0.5z mol Nz
per mol NH 3 originally
Then there are (1 - z) mol NH3 in equilibrium with (1.5 - z) mol Hz
and 0.5z mol Nz in the products per mol NH3 originally
and the total mols are
1 - z + 1.5z + 0.5z 1 + z = n

109
 RoT
PNH _ . nNH3V
K - ~-;p-~--:-3..:.p-N2-- ~[nH~RoTJnN(oT

~where p 1 atmosphere
p

or 7.794z 2 = 1- z 2

or z = 0.337
(l - z) x 100 0.662 X 100 49.6%
(1 + z) 1.337

5. The reactants in a combustion process are CO and H20 in pro-

portions which have to be determined.
The temperature of the combustion process is 2500 K and, because
of dissociation, the products are CO, H2.0, C02 and H2.
The volumetric percentage of C0 2 in the products is found to be
14.2 and the value of the equilibrium constant may be obtained from
log1oK 3 = 1.2065 - llOOT- 1 (with Tin K) where
PcoPH 2o
Pco2PH2
Show that the mol ratio of CO to H20 in the reactants can have
two possible values and find them.
Find the value of the isentropic index for the products (i.e.
the ratio of the two principal specific heat capacities) using the
larger one of the values of mol ratio just determined.
(Aston University 1973)

Let 1 mol CO be supplied with a mol H20

Let b mol CO use b mol H20 to give b mol C0 2 and b mol H2 per 1 mol
CO originally
The products will then be
b mol C02, b mol H2, (1 -b) mol CO and (a- b) mol H20
i.e. n = 1 + a

xc 02 = 0.142

1100
1.2065 - 2500 = 0. 767

PcoPH20 (1 - b)(a - b)
K3 = 5. 848 = giving
Pco2PH2 b

5 .848b 2 = a - b - ab + b2

110
or 4.848b 2 = a - b(l + a) and substituting from above
b = 0.142(1 + a) we get
4.848[0.142(1 + a)]2 = a - 0.142(1 + a) 2 giving
0.24a 2 - 0.52a + 0.24 =0 or
0.52 10.27 - 0.23 2 3
a = 0.48 3 or 2

a=l.S;b 0.142(2.5) 0.355

xco
2
= 0.142 0.458

and from page 17 of tables

(0.142 X 44 X 1.397) + (0.142 X 2 X 17.8)
+ (0.258 X 28 X 1.315) + (0.458 X 18 X 2.987)
J
47.91 mol K
cv cp - Ro = 47.91 - 8.3143 39.59 mol K
J

'Y = 47.84 = 1.210

39.53

6. A stoichiometric mixture of benzene (C 6H6) and air is init-

ially at a pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of 100 C. After
compression to one-fifth of the initial volume and subsequent com-
bustion at constant volume the temperature of the gases is 2977 K.
Show that approximately 75 percent of the available carbon is burned
to C0 2 and determine the final pressure.
The dissociation constants for the reaction between carbon mon-
oxide, oxygen and water at a temperature of 2977 are
P. .,1P. PcoPH 0
co 02 = 0.313 bar ; 2 = 6.876
Pco2 PcozPHz
where p represents the partial pressure of the stated component of
the mixture.
Assume that air contains 76.7 percent nitrogen and 23.3 percent ox-
ygen by mass. (London University 1972)

Figure 10.1 refers.

The combustion equation in mols is
C6H6 + 7.5(02) + 28.2(N2) ~Products (including 28.2 N2)
V2 = 0.2v1 V3
Let a a mol Oz to give a mol C02 per mol C5H5 originally
mol C use
Then (6 - a) mol C use H6 - a) mol 02 ~ (6 - a) mol CO
Let b mol H2 use ~b mol 02 ~ b mol H20 per mol C6H6 originally
Then (3 - b) mol Hz will remain as H2 (or burn and dissociate back)

02 used =a + ~(6 - a) + ~b =3 + i(b + a) mol

111
 02 left= 7.5 - [3 + l(b +a)] = 4.5 - l(b +a) mol
N2 (assumed inert) = 28.2 mol
Thus after combustion the total number of mols will be
41.7- l(b +a) = n3

Before combustion there were 1 mol C6 H6 , 7.5 mol 0 2 and 28.2 mol N2
giving a total of 36.7 mol (n 2 ).

Now 6 . 876 _ b(6 - a) _ 6b - ab (since p ex: n)

- a(3 - b) - 3a - ab
or 6.876 (3a - ab) = 6b - ab
20.628a - 6.876ab = 6b - ab
5.876ab + 6b - 20.628a o,
ab + 1.02lb - 3.5lla 0
3.5lla
or b = (A)
a + 1.021
~~4,__.5___cb-:_;-=.,a)]:..,-P3~ l
a 41.7 - (b
-2+a)
-

If 75% of the available carbon burns to C02

a
6 = 0.75 or a= 4.5

Thus b = ~~S~l = 2.862

J
36.7 mol x 8.3143 mol K x 373 K
v1 = n1Ro T1 = -------......:7-":..;;;_..::.:..._ __ 1138.1 m3
Pl 100 kN
jjjT

V2 = V3 = 0.2v1 = 227.6 m3 = n 3 R 0 T 3
P3
We now substitute the values of a and b in the second K to get a

]i
value for P3.
Then we try the values of a, b and P3 in v2 for a check.

~
(2.862/ 4.5)]p 3
Thus 0 . 313 b arl 6 - 4 5 -5-----,-:--.,.,-,::-----:--"-'="'-
4.5 41.7 (2.862 + 4.5)
2

0.313-- 3
lf9.819
~ 8 . 02 pJli which gives
p 3 = 40 . 9 3 bar

[41.7- ( 2 862 / 4 5 )] X 8.3143 X 2977

v2 229.9 m3 check
4093

112
Further examples.
7. Consider the reaction H2 + i02 + H20.
(a) If at a products pressure of 1 atmosphere and some temperat-
ure T 10% of each mol of H20 is dissociated, calculate K and hence
find T.
(b) The total pressure is now raised to 5 atmospheres at the
same temperature. Calculate the new value of percentage dissociat-
ion of H20. (40.8, 2830 K, 0.06)
8. A mixture of CO and air in proportions to be determined burns
at a mixture pressure of 1 atmosphere. Because of dissociation the
resulting products are CO, C0 2 , 0 2 and N2. A gas analysis of these
products shows th4t the percentages by volume of C0 2 and N2 are
respectively 25 and 60. Calculate
(a) the percentage dissociation of C02 into CO,
(b) the value of K with all partial pressures in atmospheres,
(c) the mixture temperature using the chart provided.
(d) the mass ratio of CO to air in the reactants.
(31.6%, 11.62, 2650 K, 0.464)
(Aston University 1972)
9. A homogeneous mixture of iso-octane (CeHie) and air was burnt
in a constant-volume bomb. After the products had been rapidly
cooled to room temperature, they were analysed. The analysis showed
that the concentration, by volume, in the dry products was
C0 2 : 5.4%, CO : 14.8%, 02 : negligible.
No other determination was made.
The products of combustion may be assumed to be in 'frozen' eq-
uilibrium corresponding to a temperature of 1700 K with respect to
the following reaction:
CO + H20 + C02 + H2
and to contain only the following gases in significant concentrat-
ions: C02, CO, N2, H20 and H2.
Determine the concentration of iso-octane in the charge.
It may be assumed that the chemical equilibrium constant (K) of
the above reaction is equal to 0. 350 at 1700 K. (0. 028)
(London University 1966)

113
11 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES

In this chapter we discuss the treatment of vapour power

plant operating in steady flow and no new fundamental ideas emerge.
The enthalpy-entropy diagram for steam is of great benefit in the
search for a speedy and accurate solution.

1. A closed circuit steam plant comprises a feed pump, a boiler,

a two-stage turbine and a condenser. Exhaust steam from the first
stage of the turbine is re-heated before flowing to the second stage
of the turbine.
Given the data below determine,
(a) the specific work output of the turbines,
(b) the mass flow rate of steam,
(c) the thermal efficiency of the plant.
Data:
Turbine output power 1.5 MW
Steam pressures
At entry to first stage turbine 20 bar
At entry to second stage turbine 2 bar
In the condenser 0. 2 bar
Stearn temperature at entry to each turbine 300 C
Isentropic efficiency of each turbine stage 81%
Feed water temperature 40 C
What advantages would the above steam plant have over a plant
having a single stage turbine of the same isentropic efficiency
with the same steam inlet conditions, condenser pressure and feed
water temperature? Only a qualitative answer need be given.

Figure 11.1 refers.

With values of specific enthalpy in kJ/kg and specific entropy in
kJ/(K kg)
h1 3025
51 6.768=s2s
52s - Sf = 6.768- 1.53 =0 936 (Tables page 4)
S[g 5.597 .
h2s hr + X2s(hrg) = 505 + 0.936(2202) = 2565.8 (page 4)
459.2
hi - h2 = '1 (hI - h2s) 0.81(459.2) 372
h2 2653
h3 3072 (page 6)
53 7.892 = S4s (page 6)

114
 T

B::: Boiler
s= Superheater
R::: Reheater
T= Turbine
4
c= Condenser
p= Pump
6
L-------------------5
Figure 11.1

S~s -Sf= 7.892-0.832 = O 998 (page 3)

X~s
Sfg 7.075
h~ + x 4 s(hrg) = 251 + 0.998(2358) 2604. 3 (page 3)
46 7 7 ; h 3 - h~ 0.81(467.7) = 378.8
h~ 2693.2
hs hr at 0.2 bar= 251 (page 3)
hs hr at 40 C = 167.5 (page 2)

w 750.8 ~~
w
. 1500 kW [ kJ ]
m 2 ~
w [s kW] s
750.8 ~~
.
w 1500 kW
'I 0. 229
m[ Ch1 - hs) + (h3 - hz)] 2 ~(2857.5 + 419) kJ
s kg

The given cycle has a higher thermal efficiency than that em-
bracing a single turbine but at the expense of a bigger capital
outlay (to pay for the reheat section). Furthermore the steam at
turbine exhaust in this cycle is drier (less chance of blade eros-
ion).
2. A steam power plant has turbine inlet conditions of 100 bar
and 600 C and a condenser pressure of 0.2 bar. The turbine isen-
tropic efficiency is 0. 85 and the "condition line" on the enthalpy
entropy diagram may be assumed straight.
Steam is bled from the turbine at a pressure of 10 bar and is
then passed to a single open feed heater where it mixes with the
boiler feed water and raises the feed water temperature to 165 C.
Neglect feed pump work and calculate
(a) the fraction of the steam entering the turbine which must
be bled off to the heater,

115
 (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
(c) the thermal efficiency of the cycle which has no feed heater
but has the same steam inlet steam conditions and turbine isentropic
efficiency.
Comment briefly on the reasons for the difference between the
answers to (b) and (c).

h p/(bar)

~--------------------s
Figure 11.2
H ::: Feed Heater

Figure 11. 2 refers .

h 1 = 3625 (chart)
h3 = 2274 (chart)
1llh3 5 = 1351
1llh3 = '11(1llh3s) = 0.85(1351) 1148.4
h3 2476.7
h2 3090 (chart)
h~ = hr at 0.2 bar = 251 = hs (page 3 of tables)
h& = hr at 165 C = 697 (page 4 of tables)
Balance on heater (from the energy equation where q = w = 0)
;A(h2- ho) + ( ; - ;A)(hs- ho) = ;(h& - ho) (ho =datum)
; = h& - hs = 446 = 0 157
m h2 - hs 2839

'11 = ~(h 1 - h2) + (; - ;A) (h2 - h 3) 535 + (1- 0.157)(613.3)

mCh1 - h&) 2928
1052
'11 = 2928 = 0. 359
Without feed heating
Wnet = h1 - h3 1148.4 as before
q;n = sq1 = h1 - hs = h1 - h~ = 3374

116
 1148.4
33'74 = 0.34

A check on the above values will show that.the value of net work
transfer decreases less rapidly than the value of energy supplied
and thus consequently the efficiency will rise with feed heating.
Feed heating is recuperative of energy and moves the cycle nearer
to ideal Carnot cycle by reducing the temperature gradient in the
boiler heat transfer.
3. Steam at 70 bar and 550 C is supplied to a turbine in which
it expands adiabatically to a condenser pressure of 0.7 bar with
an isentropic efficiency of 0.8. Assume the process line for the
expansion to be a straight line on the enthalpy-entropy diagram.
A feed heater is incorporated in the plant and the bleed off
pressure is such that equal work is developed by each section of
the turbine on either side of the bleed-off point when 10% of the
mass flow entering the turbine is bled off and mixed with the feed
water.
Determine the pressure at which the steam is bled from the tur-
bine. Also calculate the efficiency of the plant and the work out-
put per unit mass of steam generated assuming the condensate to
leave the condenser as a saturated liquid. Neglect feed pump work.

p/(tar)

Figure 11.3
Figure 11.3 refers.
h1 3530 (chart)
h1 - h3s = 1040 (chart)
h1 - h3 = 71(hl - h3s) = 0.8(1040) 832
h3 2698
h~ hrat 0.7 bar= 377 (page 3 of tables)
hs (since feed pump work is negligible)
Balance on heater
O.l~(h2 - ho) + 0.9~(hs - ho) ~(hs - ho)
h2 + 9hs = lOhs (A)

117
Work output
;,(hi - h2) 0.9;,(h2 h3)
l.9h2 =hi + 0.9h3 (B)
1 1
Thus h2 = IJ9Ch1 + 0.9h3) 1.9(3530 + 2428.2) = 3135.9

and from the enthalpy-entropy chart at this level of enthalpy

and intersecting with the condition line of expansion
P2 10 bar approximately

h6 O.l(h 2 + 9hs) = 0.1[3135.9 + 9(377)] = 652.9

;,(hi - h2) + 0.9;,(h2 - h3) 394.1 + 437.9 832
m(h1 - h5) 2877.1 2877.1
.,., 0.289

and w = 832 kJ/kg

4. The sketch shows a steam power plant employing two closed

feed heaters arranged in cascade. Steam enters the high pressure
turbine at 160 bar and 600 C and expands to the high pressure tur-
bine exhaust pressure of 40 bar with an isentropic efficiency of
0.9. Some steam is bled from the high pressure turbine exhaust to
the high pressure feed heater and the remainder is passed back to
the boiler where it is reheated to 40 bar, 580 C.
The remaining stages of the turbine expand the reheated steam
to the condenser pressure of 0.1 bar with an isentropic efficiency
of 0.9. Steam is bled from the turbine at 10 bar and passed to the
low pressure feed heater together with the condensate from the high
pressure heater. The combined condensate from the low pressure
heater returns to the condenser through a throttle orifice.
Assume that the drain from each heater is saturated liquid at
the appropriate pressure, that the feed water leaving each heater
is at a temperature 10 K less than the saturation temperature of
the steam entering the heater, the feed water enters the low pres-
sure feed heater with the enthalpy of saturated liquid at the con-
denser pressure and that the condition line for the expansion in
the low pressure turbine is straight on the enthalpy-entropy chart.
Calculate the proportion of the total mass flow through the boil-
er which is bled to each heater and also the cycle efficiency.

Figure 11.4 refers.

Using the enthalpy-entropy chart with h in kJ/kg
hi = 3573
h2s = 3130
ltlh2 s = 443
1flh2 = 0.9 X 443 398.7
h2 3174.3
h3 3655

118
 Energy Balance
.
HP Heater

B
-~
m m

10 mA

9
.
m

.rnAft
Energy Balance
LP Heater
.
m

.
fflA + ms

Figure 11.4
h

p/ (bar)
~
<;:)'

hss = 2320
3llhs s = 1335
3llhs = 0.9 x 1335 1201.5
hs 2453.5
h4 3257 (from straight line 3-5)
hG h7 = 192 for saturated liquid at 0.1 bar (page 3)
Te (Tsat" at 10 bar) - 10 K = 179.9 - 10 = 169.9 C (page 4)
he 697 + (4.9/6.4)(721- 697) = 715.4 (page 8)
(Tsatn at 40 bar) - 10 K = 250.3 - 10 240.3 K (page 4)
1025 + (2.9/3.5)(1042- 1025) = 1039.1 (page 4)
1087 = h11 (Throttling- page 4)
763 = h13 (page 4)

119
Energy balance on heater in high pressure bled stream
~aCh2 - ho) + ~(ha - ho) = ~(hg - ho) + ~aCh1o - ho)

ma _ hg- ha 323.7
;;;-- - ht - h 1 0 = 20 87 . 3 = 0 . 15 5

Energy balance on heater in low pressure bled stream

~b(h4 - ho) + ~(h7 - ho) + ~aCh11 - ho)

~(he - ho) + (~a + ~b) (h12 - ho)

- h 11)
3241 0.189
0.155 [ 2494j

~(h1 - h2) + (~ - ~a) (h3 - h4) + (~ - ma - ~b) (h4 - hs)

m(h1 - ha) + (m - ma) (h3 - h2)
398.7 + 0.845(398) + 0.656(803.5) 1262.1 0.429
2533.9 + 0.845(480.7) 2940.1 =

5. A steam power plant comprising high and low pressure turbines

each having an efficiency of 70% delivers 1500 kW and supplies 2700
kg/h of steam for process use. Steam enters the high pressure tur-
bine at a pressure of 15 bar and a temperature of 350 C and is ex-
panded to a pressure of 1.5 bar. Of the steam leaving the high-pres-
sure turbine some is supplied to a closed-type feed heater, and some
is supplied for process use; the remainder is reheated to 260 C in
the steam generator and expanded in the low pressure turbine to a
pressure of 0.14 bar at which pressure it is condensed, the conden-
sate leaving the condenser at 40 C. The condensate from the proc
ess, at 100 C, and the condensed bled steam are returned to the hot-
well. The feed water to the steam generator leaves the heater at
130 C. Determine the mass rate of steam supplied to the feed heat-
er in kg/h, and the thermal efficiency of the plant, i.e. the ratio
of net work done to heat transfer in the steam generator. State any
assumptions made. (London University 1964 recast)

Figure 11.5 refers.

Taking values of specific enthalpy in kJ/kg and specific entropy
in kJ/ (K kg)
51 = 7.102 = S2s
X 2s = S2s - Sr_ = 7.102- 1.434 = O 979
srg 5. 789
h2s = hr + X2s(hrg) = 467 + 0.979(2226) 2646.3 (page 4)
(127) h1- h2s = 3148- 2646.3 = 501.7
h1 h2 = 0.7 X 501.7 351.2
h2 2796.8
h3 2973 + 0.2(3073 - 2973) = 2993 (page 6 at 260 C)

120
 B

Figure 11.5

~-------------------------5

ss = 7.843 + 0.2(8.027 - 7.843) 7.88 (page 6 at 260 C)"' s~s

7.88- 0.737 _ 0. 979
x~s
_
- -s-;;---
S~s -Sf_
7.294 -
h~s "'hr + x~s(hrg) = 220 + 0.979(2376) 2546.7 (page 3)
hs - h~s "' 446.3
hs- h~ "'0.7 x 446.3 = 312.4
h~ 2680.6
hs 167.5 at 40 C (page 2)
h& at P2 "' 467 (page 4)
hr
h1 419.1 at 100 C (page 2)
Power gutput (with mass flow rate in kg/s)
[ 2700] 1500 kW (A)
m(hl - h2) + m - mFH - 3600lhs - h~)

121
Energy balance on feed heater
~(h1o - hg) = ~FH(h2 - h6)
If the feed pump work is negligible and we assume
h1o = h6
and ha = hotwell enthalpy = hs = hg
thus ~(h6 - hs) = ~FH(h2 - h6) (B)

In (B) substituting the values of h

[46 7 - 16
mFH = m 2796.8 - 467
7. 5 J = m X
299.5
2329.8 = 0 .13~

In (A)
~(351.2) + [~ - 0 .13~ 2700] (312.4)
- 3600 = 1500 kW (~ in kg/s)

Thus ~(351.2) + 0.87~(312.4) = 1500 + 234.3 = 1734.3

1734.3 2.784 ~
m = 623.0 = s
~FH = 0.13 X 2.784 = 0.362 ~~ 360 ~ S~ = 1303 ~

Heat transfer in the steam generator is given by

toOt ~(ht - hto) = ~(ht - hs)
2.784 ~ (3148- 467) kJ
s kg
= 7463.9 kW

1500
and 7463.9 = 0 2
(Note that this efficiency which is low takes no account of the
energy recuperated in the process which would appear in an avail-
ability balance).

6. A factory requires a power supply of 3500 kW and in addition

process steam at a pressure of 1.5 bar and a rate of 6000 kW.
Two schemes are to be compared for supplying these demands.
Scheme A. A single boiler generates steam at a pressure of 25
bar and a temperature of 300 C which is passed through a turbine.
Some process steam is extracted at the desired pressure while the
exhaust pressure in the main condenser is 0.05 bar. The condensate
at a temperature of 33 C is compressed and mixed with the conden-
sed process steam at a temperature of 111 C before being returned
to the boiler.
Scheme B. One boiler supplies steam to a turbine as in A but
with no extraction of process steam. A second boiler supplies the
process steam.
Show the processes on a sketch of the temperature-en tropy diag-
ram and determine for each scheme the magnitude of the ideal heat
transfer to the steam in the boilers. Assume that the isentropic
efficiency of the turbine is 75% both overall and from inlet to
the point of extraction.

122
 Discuss briefly which scheme might be preferred and why.
Extract from tables: (A) Saturated steam (B) Superheated steam
Pressure Temperature Enthalpy Entropy
hr hg Sf Sg
bar C kJ/kg kJ/(K kg)
(A) 25 224 962 2802 2.554 6.257
1.5 111 467 2693 1.434 7.223
0.05 33 138 2561 0.476 8.394
h s
(B) 25 300 3016 6.655
(London University 1975)
T
B

M:: Mixer
Figure U.6a
Figure 11.6a refers
with specific enthalpy in kJ/kg and specific entropy in kJ/(K kg)
Scheme (A) (figure 11.6 A)
s:~.s Sl = 6.655
X2s
- S[
s:~.s 6.655 - 1. 434 = 0 902
Sfg 7.223 - 1.434 .
h2s hr + x:~.s(hrg) = 467 + 0.902(2693 467) 2474.9
hl - h2s = 541.1
hl - h2 = 0. 75 X 541.1 = 405.9
2610.1 (i.e. wet vapour)
2610.1 - 467 =0 963
2693 - 467 .
X3s
S3s - Sf_= ~::...!_(. = ~655 - 0.476 = O 780
Sfg Sfg 8.394 - 0.476
hr + x3 5 (hrg) = 138 + 0.780(2561- 138) = 2028.8
h1 - h3 5 = 987.2
h1- h3 = 0.75 X 987.2 = 740.4
h3 2275.6
h~ 138 = hs (assumed)
h& 467
123
Mass flow through Process heater P
m = Qp 6000 kW [ kJ ] 2. 8 kg
P hz - hs
(2610.1 - 467) kJ [s kW] s
kg
Mass flow through boiler B
~(h1- hz) + (~- ~p)(h 2 - h 3 ) = 3500 kW
~(405.9) + (~- 2.8)(2610.1 - 2275.6) = 3500 (~in kg/s)
4436.0 5.99 kg
m = 740.4 = s
Energy balance on Mixer M
~p(hs - ho) + (~ - ~p) (hs - ho) = ~(h7 - ho)
h7 = 2.8(467) + (~:;;- 2.8)(138) = 291.8

101 = ~(h1 - h1) = 5.99 kg kJ -- 16 318 kW

s (3016 - 291.8) kg

B B

Figure 11. 6b
T
T

Scheme B (figure 11. 6b)

hA hl (in scheme A);
s

hE hz
A
1...--------- s
(in scheme A)
ho h3 (in scheme A); hF hs (in scheme A)
he
.
h .. (in scheme A);
3500 kW [ kJ ]
m = -:--....;.w'-:-- 4. 727 ~
hA - ho 740.4 ~~ [s kW] s
.
Qp 6000 kW [ kJ ] 2.8 kg
m
(2610.1 - 467) kJ [s kW] s
kg

124
Thus the total ideal heat transfer to the steam in the boiler is
;(hA - ho) + Op = ;(hA - he) + Op
4.727 kg (3016 - 138) kkJ + 6000 kW
s g

= 19 604.3 kW

Scheme A is distinctly more preferable both from a capital cost

and from a running cost point of view. This would become even
more apparent from an available energy balance of the two schemes.

7. A nuclear power plant uses carbon dioxide to cool the reactor

and evaporate steam in a boiler. The boiler has two separate cir-
cuits for high pressure (HP) and low pressure (LP) steam. Each
circuit has three separate parts, an economiser for raising the
temperature of the water to the saturation value, an evaporator
and a superheater.
The HP steam passes through the HP turbine, which drives the
blowers circulating the carbon dioxide and is then reheated and
mixed with the LP steam before entering the LP turbine which drives
the generator. Both turbines are adiabatic.
(a) Explain why the different sections of each steam circuit
should be arranged in a particular order inside the boiler and draw
a schematic diagram of the plant.
(b) Determine the ratios between the masses of HP and LP steam
and the mass of carbon dioxide flowing through the boiler.
(c) Determine the work output of the plant per kg of carbon di-
oxide.
Data for carbon dioxide kJ
Assume the gas behaves as a perfect gas for which cp 1.018 kg K'
and~= 1.23.
Isentropic efficiency of compressor= 0.80.
Pressure/(bar) Temperature
Entry to boiler 410 C
Exit from boiler 18.6 243 C
Exit from blower 19.3
Data for steam
Isentropic efficiency of each turbine = 0.85.
Pressure/(bar) Superheat
HP supply 100 78 K
LP supply 40 156 K
LP exhaust 0.04
Condensate temperature (London University 1969 recast)

Figure 11.7 refers.

(a) The hottest carbon dioxide is at the top for the HP superheat-
er, the coolest at the bottom for the LP economiser etc.
(b)
14
3017 + 50(3097 - 3017) = 3039.4

6.091 14 = 6.125
51 + 50 (6.213 6.091) Szs sg at 35 bar

125
 r-
1 L..--r---,~
I ~-.....I
I
I
L-------- ---------
R. C. :: Reactor Core E ::: Eeonomiser

Figure 11.7

Thus At 2s the vapour is saturated

h2s = 2802.5 (page 4)
h1 - h2s = 236.9
h2 = 0.85 X 236.9 201.4
h2 2838
where specific enthalpy is in kJ/kg and specific entropy is in
kJ/ (K kg) .
T3 250. 3 + 156 = 406.3 K (page 7)

3214 + 6 3 (3330 - 3214)

= 3228.6 (page 7)
so
6.769 + 6 5~(6.935- 6.769) = 6.790 = S4s at 0.04 bar

6.79- 0.422 =0 791

8.051 .
121 + 0.791(2433) 204S.S(page 3)
h3 - h4s = 1183.1
h3- h4 = 0.85 X 1183.] 1005.7

126
 h4 2222.9
X4 (2222.9 - 121)/2433 = 0.864 (page 3)
Ignore the feed pump work effect on the steam properties
hs = hs = 113.1 at T = 27 C (page 2)
h 7 1087 at 40 bar saturated liquid (page 5) = he
hg 1408 at 100 bar saturated liquid (page 5)
h1o 2801 at 40 bar saturated vapour (page 5)
h11 2725 at 100 bar saturated vapour (page 5)
Blower
Tas
p
TA ( ~"j
\k
= (243
+ (19.
273) K\1 8 6
3)0 .23/!. 23 519.6 K
- TA = 3.6 K

Ta - TA = g:~ = 4.5
Ta = 516 + 4.5 = 520.5 K

The HP steam turbine just drives the blower and thus

~Hp(h 1 - h2) = ~C02(ha - hA) = ~C02CpC02 (T 8 - TA)
kJ
1.018 kg K (4.5) K
201.4 = 0.023
Energy balance on Heat Exchanger
~co2Chc - hA) = ~flp[(h! - h1o) + Ch1o - hg) + (hg - he)
+ (h3- h2)]
+ ;Lp[(h3 - h11) + (h11 - h7) + (h7 - hs)]
and Cp
C02
(Tc - TA) = 0.023(3039.4 - 1087 + 3228.6 - 2838)

(3228.6 - 113.1)
.
mLP
or 1.018 x (410 243) 53.89 + - . - (3115.5)
mco2
~- 170 - 53.89 0.037
mco2 - 311 5 . 5

WneL -- ~(h 3 - h 4) = 0.037(3228.6 2 ) 5 kJ

mco2 mco2 - 222 9 = 37 kg

(Note that the ratio of blower pumping power to reactor output, a

crucially important quantity for economical running is 2.77% in this
case which is an acceptable figure).
Further examples
8. A steam turbine plant operates between boiler and condenser
pressures of 50 bar and 0.1 bar respectively. The turbine inlet

127
temperature is 540 C and the condensate leaves the condenser as
saturated liquid. Expansion is reversible.
Calculate the cycle efficiency, the work per unit mass of steam
leaving the boiler and the dryness fraction of the turbine exhaust
steam for each of the following cases, neglecting pump work:-
(a) A regenerative system of feed heating is devised whereby the
boiler feed water is raised to saturation temperature by heat tran-
sfer from the expanding steam, the temperature difference between
the two fluids being negligible at all points where heat transfer
takes place.
(b) A single, open, feed heater is used, in which steam bled from
the turbine at 2.5 bar is used to raise the feed water temperature
to the saturation temperature at 2.5 bar.
Calculate also the efficiency of the Carnot cycle operating be-
tween the boiler and condenser saturation temperatures.
(0.557, 1039 kJ/kg, 0.437, 0.86, 12.4 kJ/kg, 0.405, 0.406)

Figure 11.9

10 11 12
9. The arrangement of a steam plant using two closed feed heat-
ers in cascade is shown in figure 11.9.
The conditions at 1 are 140 bar, 500 C and the steam expands to
a pressure of 0.09 bar at 4 with an isentropic efficiency of 0.8.
The "condition line" on the h-s diagram may be assumed straight.
Steam is bled from the turbine at pressures of 50 bar and 7 bar and
the condensate drain from each heater is saturated liquid at these
respective pressures. The feed water leaves each heater at a temp-
erature which is 5 K less than the saturation temperature of the
steam in the heater, and the feed water at 5 is at 40 C.
Calculate the cycle efficiency making an approximate allowance
for the feed pump work.
Figure 11.9 refers. (0.35)

10. An industrial steam plant raises steam at 35 bar, 350 C and

expands it in a turbine of overall isentropic efficiency 0.8 to a
pressure of 0.05 bar.
At 1 bar steam is bled from the turbine casing.

128
 Part of the bled steam passes to industrial process heaters where
it is condensed but not undercooled. The remainder of the bled
steam passes to a single closed feed heater which raises the feed
water temperature to 100 C whilst the bled steam is condensed but
not undercooled.
The condensate from the process heaters and the feed heater en-
ters a common drain and is returned by a pump to the boiler feed
line just downstream of the feed heater.
Evaluate for a power output of 3750 kW and a process heating
load of 3500 kW, the mass flow rate of steam through
(a) the process heaters,
(b) the feed heater,
(c) the turbine stop valve.
Assume a straight "condition line" on the h-s chart.
(1.66 kg/s, 0.368 kg/s, 4.796 kg/s)
11. Explain, briefly, what is meant by (a) reheating and (b)
feedwater heating when used in the context of steam power plant.
Indicate the advantages which may arise from their use.
A certain steam power plant has two turbines and a single open-
type feedwater heater. A boiler supplies the high-pressure turb-
ine with 50 000 kg/h of steam at an enthalpy of 3350 kJ/kg. The
steam leaves the high-pressure turbine at a pressure of 10 bar and
with an enthalpy of 2830 kJ/kg at which condition some of the steam
passes to the feedwater heater while the remainder is returned to
the boiler for reheating at constant pressure to an enthalpy of
3370 kJ/kg. The steam from the reheater is expanded in the low-
pressure turbine to 0.04 bar and 0.95 dryness fraction. Saturated
liquid at 0.04 bar leaves the condenser and is pumped to the feed-
water heater where it mixes with the bled steam to form saturated
liquid at 10 bar for supply to the boiler feed pump.
Sketch the layout of the plant and show on an enthalpy-entropy
diagram the processes undergone by the steam. Neglecting the work
of the feed pumps find:
(a) the power output of the plant,
(b) the mass flow rate of the bled steam, and
(c) the cycle efficiency.
The enthalpy of saturated liquid at 10 bar is 763 kJ/kg. At
0.04 bar the enthalpy of saturated liquid and saturated vapour are,
respectively, 121 kJ/kg and 2554 kJ/kg. (London University 1974)
(17158 kW, 11 850 kg/h, 0.478)

129
12 VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATORS

TI1is follows naturally on from chapter 11 since it deals with

the reversed Rankine cycle and its various modifications. The most
useful state diagram here is undoubtedly the pressure-enthalpy dia-
gram since all processes except compression appear as straight lines
on this field in elementary calculations.
1. A vapour compression refrigerator is required to maintain a
cold room at 0 C when the atmospheric temperature is 26 C, the
refrigeration effect being 2 kW.
Using ammonia as the working fluid and assuming a minimum temp-
erature difference of 10 K for heat transfer in the condenser and
evaporator, calculate the power required to compress the refrig-
erant if the isentropic efficiency of compression is 0.8.
The fluid is saturated vapour at entry to the compressor and sat-
urated liquid at exit from the condenser.

4 1
C : Condenser
CM::: Compressor
E ::: Evaporator
V = Throttle Valve Figure 12 .1

Figure 12.1 refers.

with specific enthalpy in kJ/kg and specific entropy in kJ/(K kg)
h1 1433 (Taking values from page 12 of tables)
s1 5.475 = s2s
h2s = 1617.8 + - 5 358 )(1745 7- 1617.8)
( 5 475
(5.692 - 5.358) . 1662.6
h 2 _ hl = h2s - h1 = 229.6 = 287
71 0.8

130
 h3 = 352.3 = h4 (Throttling process: w = q = ~u 2 = ~gz = 0)
1q4 = h1 - h4 = specific refrigerating effect = 1080.7 kJ/kg
m = 401 = 2 kJ/s 1.851 X 10- 3 kg
4ql 1080.7 kJ/kg s

Power 1.851 X 10- 3 kg [287 kJJ

s kg
0.531 kW

2. A vapour compression refrigerator uses Freon-12 as the work-

ing fluid and has refrigerating effect of 5 kW. The compressor is
a twin-cylinder, single-acting machine running at 500 rev/min. The
cylinder bore diameter and the piston stroke are equal and the vol-
umetric efficiency is 0.7. Compression is adiabatic, with an isen-
tropic efficiency of 0.9.
The condenser and evaporator saturation temperatures are 40 C
and 10 C respectively. The refrigerant leaves the condenser as
liquid at 35 C and the evaporator as saturated vapour.
Calculate:-
(a) the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator,
(b) the power to compress the refrigerant,
(c) the dimensions of the compressor cylinders.
p

Figure 12.2
Figure 12.2 refers.
Values of specific enthalpy etc are taken from a pressure-enthalpy
diagram which is not based on precisely the same data as that giv-
en on page 13 of tables and there are consequently slightly diff-
erent answers depending on whether the chart or tables are used.
In kJ/kg
hl = 191
h2s = 206.5
1~h2s = 15.5
1M2. = 15.5/0.9 17.22
h2 208.2
h3 h4 = 75
116
17.22= 6 74

131
 .
401 = 401
5 kJ
_ _s_ = 0.043 kg
m =
4q1 h1 - h4 116 kJ s
kg
.
1W2 ~(h2 - h1) = 0.043 ~g [17.22 ~~] 0.742 kW

From the chart

m3
V1 = 0.042
kg
Mass Continuity

mv 1 = 0.043 kg
s
X 0.042 mk 3
g
= 1.806 X 10- 3 ~
s

But
.
V1
7rD2
2 x - 4- x D x N x 'lvol where D = bore = stroke
N = frequency (s- 1 )
'11vol = volumetric efficiency
1.806 X 10- 3 X 4
2 X 7r X S~~ X 0.7

D = 0.058 m = 58 mm =L
3. A vapour compression refrigerator uses Refrigerant 12 as the
working fluid and its compressor is driven directly by a turbine
which is part of a simple Rankine power cycle, also using Refrig-
erant 12 with negligible feed pump work.
The design data is as follows:-
Power cycle:- Boiler pressure 39.79 bar
Vapour temperature at turbine inlet 125 C
Refrigerator cycle:-
Evaporation temperature - 20 C
Saturated vapour at compressor entry
Saturated liquid at condenser exit
The condensing temperature is 30 C in both cycles and expansion
and compression are both isentropic.
Determine, for a refrigeration effect of 1 kW
(a) the mass flow rate in the refrigerator,
(b) the mass flow rate in the power cycle,
(c) the heat transfer rate to the boiler,
(d) the total energy rejection rate.

Figure 12.3 refers.

From page 13 of tables with specific enthalpy in kJ/kg and specif-
ic entropy in kJ/(K kg)
51 0.7087 52

199.62 + ( 0 7087 - 0 6853 )(210 63- 199.62)

(0.7208- 0.6853) .
h2 206.88
Ts - Tsat = 140 - 110 30 K

132
 B

Figure 12.3

hs 232.4 7
ss 0.6964 ss

199.62 + ( 0 6964 - 0 6853 )(210 63- 199.62)

(0.7208- 0.6853) .
203.06
ha = hr at 30 C = 64.59 = hs = h4
1 kW 10- S ~
8 . 76 X
s
114 14 kJ
kg

8,76 X 10- 3 kg (206.88- 178.73) kJ

s kg

.
0.246 kW
Wpower
.
Wpowe r 0. 246 kW = 8 . 38
mpower = ~ = hs - hs 29.41 ~~

aOs ~power(hs- he)= 8.38 x 10- 3 ~

s
1.406 kW

The total energy rejection rate is given by

2.406 kW

4. A vapour compression refrigeration system using ammonia as

the working fluid incorporates a means of reducing the refrigerat-

133
ion capacity by returning the fluid from the delivery pipe of the
compressor back to the suction pipe through a throttle valve. At
a particular condition of operation one quarter of the discharge
from the compressor is returned while three quarters goes on to the
condenser. The pressure and enthalpy of the ammonia leaving the
evaporator are 2.5 bar and 1442 kJ/kg respectively while the pres-
sures entering and leaving the compressor are 2.5 bar and 10 bar
respectively. The compression process is assumed to be reversible
and adiabatic following a path defined by the relationship
pv 1 3 =constant
where p is the pressure and v is the specific volume.
Determine the temperature of the ammonia leaving the compressor
and the coefficient of performance given that the enthalpy of the
liquid leaving the condenser is 296 kJ/kg.
Data for ammonia at a pressure of 10 bar:
TemEerature 100 110 120 130
oc 80 90

SEec. EnthalEY 1617 1643 1668 1693 1717 1741

kJ/kg
SEec. Volume 0.1542 0.1591 0.1639 0.1687 0.1734 0.1774
m3jkg
(London University 1974)
p

v
v

M::: Mixer Figure 12.4

Figure 12.4 refers.

Energy balance on Mixer M

~h2 = 0.25~4 + 0.75~1
or h2 = 0.25(h4 + (A) (since h 3 = h 4)
3h1) = 0.25(h 3 + 3h!)
The combined first and second laws applied to process 2-3
dqrev = Tds = dh - vdp = 0 for a reversible adiabatic process

fdh = Jvdp = )(Jt" dp

3 3

= n ~ l (p3V3 - P2V2)

-\PSJ\n-tjn]
2 2 2

or h3
n
h2 + :;;---:-y(P3V3 - P2V2) = h2 + ~e
n r, (P 2

and h3 ~~) n- 1; ] using (A) above

134
 4 n [ (p 2~" -1/n]
or h 3 = h1 + 3(n - l)p 3 v 3 1 - P7J and substituting

h3 ={1442 + i_(~
3( 3)
X 1000 gm X V3 !!!..:Jl
kg~
{2 5)
~10
0

3/!. 3]}

h3 (1442 + 1581.9v3) ~~ (B) (with v in m3/kg)

Thus using values of v in tables given and calculating values of h3

T/ ( C) 80 90 100 110 120 130

v/ (m 3/kg) 0.1542 0.1591 0.1639 0.1687 0.1734 0.1774
h3/ (kJ/kg) 1685.9 1693.7 1701.3 1708.9 1716. 3 1722.6

and plotting calculated and tabulated values of h 3 against T the

intersection occurs at
T3 = 119 C (with h3 1715 kJ/kg)

0. 75 (h 1 - hs) 0 . 75 (h 1 - h 5)
COP
h3 - h2 h3 - 0.25(h3 + 3hJ)
0.75(1442- 296) -
1715 - 0.25[1715 + 3(1442)] - 4 2

5. A refrigeration plant uses ammonia as the working fluid and

has a two stage compressor. Saturated liquid at a pressure of
15.54 bar leaves the condenser and after throttling to a pressure
of 4.3 bar mixes in an adiabatic chamber with the vapour which is
leaving the first stage of the compressor at a pressure of 4.3 bar
and a temperature of 40 C. Saturated liquid leaves the mixing
chamber and expands through a second throttle to a pressure of 1.2
bar before passing through the evaporator. Saturated vapour enters
the first stage compressor at a pressure 1.2 bar while saturated
vapour at a pressure of 4.3 bar enters the second stage compressor
and leaves at a pressure of 15.54 bar and a temperature of 75 C.
This vapour then enters the condenser.
Assuming there are no pressure losses in the condenser and evap-
orator and that the compression processes are reversible and may
be represented as straight lines on the temperature-entropy plane,
determine the coefficient of performance of the plant. Compare
the value with that for a reversed Carnot cycle operating between
the same condenser and evaporator temperatures and discuss briefly
why the values differ.
Extract from table of properties of ammonia:
Saturated liquid and vapour
Pressure/bar 1.2 4.3 15.54
Temperature;o C - 30.0 0.0 40.0
Spec.enthalpy of liquid/(kJ/kg) 44.7 181.2 371.9
Spec.enthalpy of vapour/(kJ/kg) 1405.6 1444.4 1473.3
Spec.entropy of liquid/(kJ/K kg) 0.188 0. 715 1. 360
Spec.entropy of vapour/(kJ/(K kg) 5. 785 5.340 4.877
Superheated vapour
Isobaric spec.heat capacity 2.2 2.4 2.79
/kJ(kg K)
(London University 1972)
135
 Figure 12.5

Figure 12.5 refers. [with h in kJ/kg and s in kJ/(K kg)].

hl 1405.6
Sz Sl 5. 785

1n !t = 5.785- 5,340 0 _1854

Tg 2.4

!t: 1.204
T3
T2 1.204 x 273 = 328.6 K
kJ
hz - h3 = Cp(Tz - T3) = 2.4 kg K(328.6 - 273) K 133.5

hz 1444.4 + 133.5 = 1577.9 (h 3 = 1444.4)

S4 = 1n -T4
5. 340 = SA + Cp
TA
~=A t. 1 (5.340- 4.817) = 1 _181
TA n 1 n 2.79
T4 1.181 X 313 = 369.5
kJ
h4 = hA + cp(T4- TA) = 1473.3 + 2.79 kg K(369.5- 313)
= 1630.9
hs = hG = 371.9
h7 = ha = 181.2
Energy balance on Mixer M
1(hG - ho) + y(hz - ho) = 1(h 3 - ho) + y(h7 - ho)
Y =h3 - h6 _ 1444.4- 371.9 0 _769
hz - h7 1577.9 - 181.2
COP = y(h1 - ha)
y(hz - h1) + h4 - hg

136
 0.769(1405.6- 181.2)
0.769(1577.9- 1405.6) + 1630.9- 1444.4 2.95

Reversed Carnot cycle coefficient of performance is given by

T1 313
COPR = T! - T2 40 - (- 30) = 4.47

The coefficient of performance for the vapour compression cycle is

lower than that of the reversed Carnot cycle because heat is rej-
ected at varying temperature in the condenser (but at constant tem-
perature in the Carnot) and there are irreversible throttling and
mixing processes in the vapour compression cycle (no irreversibil-
ities in the Carnot cycle).
6. In the refrigeration plant shown diagrammatically in figure
12.6 the receiver R operates adiabatically and isobarically taking
superheated vapour at 2 and wet vapour at 6 and giving saturated
vapour at 3 and saturated liquid at 7.
The pressure levels for the fluid (Freon-12) are:-
Condenser (C) 15 bar
Receiver (R) 5 bar
Evaporator (E) 1.5 bar
The compression processes are isentropic and there are no ex-
traneous heat transfers or pressure drops.
If the fluid is just saturated vapour at 1 and subcooled at 5
to 50 C, calculate the coefficient of performance and draw the
cycle clearly on the pressure-enthalpy provided.
Also draw on the same diagram an accurate representation of the
reversed Carnot cycle operating between the same overall pressure
limits as the above cycle and calculate its coefficient of perfor-
mance. The four salient points must be shown and the values of
specific enthalpy determined.
Comment on the difference in values between the two cycles.
(Aston University 1978)
Figure 12.6 refers.
From the pressure-enthalpy chart for Freon-12 with values of spec-
ific enthalpy in kJ/kg and specific entropy in kJ/(K kg),
Energy balance on Receiver R
l(hs - ho) + y(h2 - ho) = l(hs - ho) + y(h7 - ho)
hs - hs _ 193 - 84
y = h2 - h7- 200- 51= 0 731

COP Refrigerating effect y(h1 - ha)

Work transfer
0.731(178- 51)
0.731(200- 178) + (214- 193) = 2 50
Reversed Carnot COP is given by
TL (- 20 + 273)
Tu - TL 60 - (- 20) 3.16

0.69

137
 p

~--------------------h
Figure 12.6

From the combined first and second laws of thermodynamics

dqrev = dh - vdp = Tds and at constant pressure
dh
ds and if T is constant as well as in evaporation
T
hA - hs
TA
_ hA....:.....!!Jl. = 0. 69 _ (209 - 93.5) 0.343 sc
SA TA 333
S} 0. 72
Now dqrev =dh Tdsand in evaporation at constant p and T
he= ht + T (sc sl) 178 + 253(0.343- 0.72) = 82.6
Also ho = hl + T (so - Sl) 178 + 253(0.69 - 0.72) = 170.4
hA 209 (saturated vapour)
ho 93.5 (saturated liquid)
The discussion is similar to that at the end of the previous ex-
ample.
7. A refrigeration plant is shown diagrammatically in figure
12.7. It incorporates two evaporators, three throttle valves, two
compressors as well as a condenser and a receiver.
(a) Given the following information calculate the coefficient
of performance.
(i) Both compression processes are isentropic.
(ii) The mass flow through EA is twice that through E8 .
(iii) the pressures are
p 1 = 0.3 bar; P2 = 2.0 bar; p~ = 10 bar; P7 = 6 bar.
(iv) Extraneous pressure drops and heat transfers are small.
(v) The fluid (Refrigerant-12) is just saturated vapour at 1 and
8 and has temperature of 30 C at 5.
(b) If CMo is a single-acting, single-cylinder, reciprocating
compressor with a bore equal to the stroke and runs at a speed of

138
300 rev/min with a volumetric efficiency of 75%, calculate the bore
in mm if the refrigerating effect is 20 kW.
Use the pressure-entha lpy chart exclusively.
(Aston University 1977)
Figure 12.7 refers.

~--------------------h
Figure 12.7

.
Energy balance on receiver
mEbh2 + 2mEbha = 3mEbh3
.
or h 3 = h2 +
3 2ha = 191.5 +32(182) = 185 . 1

and reading off values of specific enthalpy in kJ/kg from the chart
State Point h State Point h
1 163.0 6 65.0
2 191.5 7 182.0
3 185.1 8 182.0
4 216.0 9 65.0
5 65.0

COP 2~Eh(h7- hs) + ~Eh(hl - hg)

.mEbCh2 - hd + 3mEbCh4 - h3)
2(182 - 65) + 163 - 65
'1:::-91.-:.:.;5;-::...::.-.::.,16;:-;3;-=-::.+~3"(2"'1'""6..::._-....,1....::8,;:5-.~1) = 2 74

Totaf work transfer rate Refrigerating effect rate 1

X-
CQP
2 ~ . ~~ = 7. 3 kW

7.3 kJ
work transfer rate s
specific work transfer 0.0602 kg
s
121.2 ~~
m3
0.43 kg (chart)

139

Vswept (CM )
v 1
= ''lvol =
0. 0259
~ =
m3
0.0345 S =
v3
~
where D = bore = stroke and N = speed
0.0345 ~[ 60 . s] x 4] 1 / 3
Thus D = [ s [ mm] 0.206 m
11' x 300 st:oke
m1n

Further examples
8. A refrigeration plant uses Freon-12 which is compressed ad-
iabatically to 10.84 bar and 60 C by a twin cylinder, single-ac-
ting compressor running at 500 rev/min. Liquid refrigerant at 25
C enters the expansion valve and at entry to the compressor the
Freon is saturated vapour at - 20 C. Take cp for Freon liquid at
10.84 bar as 0.989 kJ/kg K and calculate
(a) the coefficient of performance,
(b) the dimensions of the cylinders of the compressor if the
bore equals the stroke, the volumetric efficiency is 80% and the
Freon mass flow rate is 0.1 kg/s.
Sketch the cycle on a temperature-entropy field indicating the
important values of temperature. (3.13, 101 mm)

9. A vapour compression refrigerator using Freon-12 as working

fluid has a twin cylinder, single-acting compressor of bore 75 mm
diameter and stroke 100 mm. The compressor operates adiabatically
at 500 rev/min with isentropic efficiency 0.8 and volumetric eff-
iciency 0.7. Under these conditions the saturation temperatures in
the evaporator and condenser are - 5 C and 35 C respectively.
The condenser and evaporator operate isobarically and the fluid
is saturated vapour at entry to the compressor and saturated liquid
at entry to the expansion valve.
If the desired average refrigerating effect is achieved by in-
termittent operation of the plant calculate the coefficient of per-
formance and the ratio of operating time to total time for an av-
erage refrigeration duty of 4.5 kW. (4.44, 0.49)

10. A two-stage refrigerator is shown diagrammatically in figure

12.10. The condenser, flash chamber and evaporator pressures are
respectively 10 bar, 3 bar and 0.6 bar.
State 4 is undercooled by 10 K and state 1 is saturated vapour.
The two compressors operated adiabatically and each have an is-
entropic efficiency of 75%.
Neglecting extraneous pressure drops and heat transfers with the
environment calculate the coefficient of performance assuming the
working fluid to be refrigerant-12 (Freon-12).
If both compressors are single-acting, single-stage reciprocat-
ing machines calculate the speed of each in rev/min.
Data:
Condenser heat transfer rate SO kW
LP compressor bore = stroke 240 mm
LP compressor volumetric efficiency 0.75
HP compressor bore = stroke 100 mm
HP compressor volumetric efficiency 0.75

140
 F :: Flash Chamber
3 (separating
liquid and
vapour)
F

Figure 12.10

All properties for Freon-12 are to be obtained from exclusive

use of the pressure-enthalpy chart. (Aston University 1976)
Figure 12.10 refers (1.715, 387 rev/min, 471 rev/min)

11. Figure 12.11 shows diagrammatically a refrigeration plant

with two compressors and an intercooler. Calculate the power need-
ed for isentropic compression when the evaporator absorbs energy by
heat transfer at the rate of 5 kW. Use the data and nomenclature
given below.

I :: Intercooler
v

Figure 12.11

Calculate also the suction pipe diameter for the low pressure
compressor if the entry velocity to this component is 15 m/s.
In figure 12.11:
C Condenser
CM Compressor
E Evaporator
V Throttle Valve
I Intercooler
State 1 Saturated vapour, 0.9 bar
State 3 Saturated vapour, 3.0 bar
State 5 Undercooled liquid, 10 bar, 30 C
The working fluid is Freon-12 and the pressure-enthalpy chart
should be used. (Aston University 1974)
Figure 12.11 refers.

141
13 HYGROMETR Y, AIR CONDITIONIN G AND
EVAPORATIVE COOLERS

This chapter deals with the properties of homogeneous two-

fluid mixtures (and in particular moist air) and it is necessary
to specify the distinction between DRY air (containing no moisture)
and moist air (which does). Suffix a is for dry air, m for moist
air, w for water, s for superheated steam.
Calculations purely from the tables tend to be overlong and are
tedious and the psychrometric chart is a most valuable aid in eff-
ecting a speedy calculation.
1. A mixture of air and water vapour is cooled in steady flow,
at a constant pressure of 1 bar, from a temperature of 28 C and a
relative humidity of 80% to a temperature of 7 C and a relative
humidity of 100%. The initial volume flow-rate i~ 280 m3 /min and
the water vapour condensed leaves the cooler at a temperature of
4 C. Changes in kinetic energy may be neglected. Determine:
(a) the initial and final specific humidities of the air,
(b) the water vapour condensation rate, and
(c) the heat transfer rate.
Assume air to be a perfect gas for which R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K) and
cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg K), and that water vapour, for the given condit-
ions, is an ideal gas for which R = 0.462 kJ/(kg K) and with the
properties given in the steam tables. (London University 1965)
(recast)

Figure 13.1
2

Figure 13.1 refers.

wl = ~ = E.ti.!::X RaT1 = 0.622p 51 0.622tPlP81
ma1 RsTl PalV Pm - PSl Pm - tPlP81
0.622 X 0.8 X 0.03778 0.0194 ~~
1 - 0.8(0.03778) kga } (a) (using p.2)
0.622 1.0 X 0.01001
w2
X
0.00630 ~-
. .
!l_
1 - 1(0.01001)

= V1P a1 = vl (pm - PSI)

ga

ma
Val Ra T1 RaT1

142
 280m~
m1n
[100- 0.8(3.778)) kN2
m 314.3 k?
m1n
0.287 k~JK X (273 + 28) K

Mass continuity equation from 1 - 2

mw3 ~ 3 (W1 - w2)

314.3 k?a (0.0194 - 0.00063) ~ = 4.12 ~~ (b)

m1n kga m1n

. .
Energy equation from 1 - 2
. . .
.
maha1 + m s 1h
.
s1 = maha2 + ms2h s2 + mw3hw3 + 102
.
102
.
~a (ha 1 - h 2) + m51h51 - ms2hs 2 - mw3hw3
~aCpa(T1 - T2) + m 3 w1h s 1 maw2hs2 - mw3hw3
.
314.5 k?a x 1 005 kJ (28 7) K
m1n kgaK -

314.3 ~X 0.0194 ~ kJ (p. 2 at 28 C)

+ k X 2552.1
m1n ga kgs

- 314.3 k?a x Q.QQQ63 ~X 2513.7 ~

kgs (p. 2 at 7 C)
m1n kg a

- 5.9 ~~X 16.8 kJ (p.2 at 4 C)

m1n kgw
6633 + 15 561 kJ
498 -99 = 21597 min= 285.3 kW(c)

This assumes that hs for a superheated vapour at low pressure is

near enough equal to the saturation e~thalpy at the fluid temperat-
ure. This is reasonably true at these conditions.
2. Show that the specific humidity w of a mixture of air and
water vapour is given by
0.622p 5
w =
P - Ps
where p 5 is the partial pressure of the vapour and p is the press-
ure of the mixture.
In an air conditioning system 4 m3 /s of air at 22 C and SO% re-
lative humidity are mixed adiabatically with 2 m3 /s of air at 3 C
and dew point 1 C before passing to a heat exchanger. The press-
ure of each moist air stream is 1.0 bar. On leaving the heat ex-
changer the temperature of the air is 10 C.
It may be assumed that no condensation occurs in either the mix-
ing or heat transfer processes. The specific isobaric heat-capac-
ity for moist air is given by
kJ
cp = (1.005 + 1.88w) kg K

Calculate
(a) the temperature of the air after mixing, and
(b) the heat transfer to the cooling coil of the heat exchanger.
Values for the saturation pressure pg, of water vapour at tem-
perature T are:

143
 1 3 10 22
0.006566 0.007575 0.01227 0.02642
(London University 1973)

Figure 13.2

Figure 13.2 refers.

With~ in kg/s, win kgs/kga, h in kJ/kg, cp in kJ/(kg K), and
v in m3 /kg
WA = 0.622psA 0.622cPAPM 0.622 X 0.5(0.02642) 0.008237
P - PsA P - cPAPSA 1 - 0.5(0.02642) 0.98679

0.00833

0.622 X 1.0 X 0.006566

0.00410
1 - 0.006566
1.005 + 1.88(0.00833) 1.021
1.005 + 1.88(0.00410) 1.013

0.287 ~X 295 K
RaTa = 0.858
PaA 98.679 ~
m
0.287 X 275 0.792
99.59
m3
4-
!:.L= s 4.662
VaA m3
0.858 kg
Vo 2
Vao = 0. 792 = 2.524
2541.2 (page 2)
hs 8 2506.2 (page 2)

maAhaA +
.
Energy before mixing is given by
msAhsA +
.
maohao +
.
msohso
~aACpATaA + ~aAWNJsA + ~as cpsTaB + ~aswohss
= ~aA[cpATaA +wAhsA] + ~a 8 [cp 8 Ta 8 + w0 hss]

Thus substituting the appropriate values the energy before mixing

4.662[(1.021 X 295) + (0.00833 X 2541.2)]
+ 2.524((1,013 X 275) + (0.00410 X 2506.2)]
2231.9 kW with the originally stated dimensions

144
Also maA'"A + mao"'s = (4.662 x 0.00833) + (2.524 x 0.00410)
"'c = maA + mas 4.662 + 2.524
0.00683
and cpc = 1.005 + 1.88(0.00683) = 1.018
Now for adiabatic mixing the energy before mixing = energy after
Thus ~achac + ~schsc = ~accpcTc + ~acwchsc = 2231.9 kW
or (7.186 X 1.018 X (273 + Tc)]+[7.186 X 0.00683hsc]= 2231.9 kW
and Tc = 15.1 C satisfies this equation (using page 2 of tables)

Now hsc = 2528.6

and cOo= ~accpc(Tc - To) + ~scChsc - hso)
7.186 X 1.018 X (15.1 - 10)
+ 7.186 X 0.00683(2528.6- 2519.2)
37.76 kW

3. Air enters the base of a cooling tower at a volume flow rate

of 1.1 m3 /s, a pressure of 0.1 MN/m 2 , a temperature of 18 C and
a relative humidity of 60 per cent. Cooling water from an air con-
ditioning plant enters the tower at 40 C and leaves at 20 C.
The air leaves the tower at 30 C in a saturated condition.
Find the mass flow rate of water entering the tower and the per-
centage loss of water by evaporation.
Assuming the tower has a circular cross-section throughout det-
ermine the diameter of the tower at outlet given the air velocity
there is 1.5 m/s.
The gas constant for steam is 0.462 kJ/(kg K) and the following
extract from steam tables may be used.
Temperature Saturation Pressure Specific enthalpy
oc (kN/m 2 ) (kJ/kg)
Saturated Saturated
Water Steam
18 2.063 75.5 2533.9
20 2.337 83.9 2537.6
30 4.242 125.7 2555.7
40 7.375 167.5 2573.7
(London University 1971)
Figure 13.3 refers.
Psl ~1P81 = 0.6 x 0.02063 = 0.012378 bar
Pal Pml - Psl = 1 - 0.012378 = 0.9876 bar

98.76 ~ X 1.1 F 1.301 ~

kJ s
0.287 kg K X 291 K

145
 Figure 13.3
3

4
1 Water

PSI ]Ra _
[
Pm - Ps 1jRs

0.6 X 0.287
[o.o~ 063 - o.6Jo.462
1 X 0.287
0.0275
w2 [o.0~242 - 1]0.462
Mass continuity
mw3 mw4 = ~a (w2 wJ)

1.301 k!a [co.0275 - 0.00778)~:~= 0.0257 kgs

s
Energy equation
maha 1 + ms1h s 1
.
maha2 + ms2hs2 + mw4hw4
+ mw3hw3
. . .
Now mw4 = mw3 - ~a(w2 - w1) and dividing throughout by rna and
mw3 _ ha2 - ha1 + w2h"s2 - W1hs1 - (w2 - w1)hw4 (recasting)
ma - hw3 - hw4
Cpa(T2 - T1) + W2hs2 - W1hs1 - (W2 - WJ)hw4
hw3 - hw4
and substituting for cpa in kJ/(kga K), Tin K, win kgs/kga,
hw in kJ/kgw, and assuming that hs1 ~ hg1 at T1 we get

~~ = [1.005(303- 291) + 0.0275(2555.7) - 0.00785(2533.9)

ina
- (0.0275- 0.00785)(83.9)]/(1 67.5- 83.9)

0.727 ~
kg a

0. 727 X 1.301 0.946 kgw

s

Also Percentage loss 0.0256 X lOO 2. 71%

0.946

146
 RaT2 = RaT2
Pa2 Pm - Ps2 Pm - </>2Pg2

0.287 ~ x 303 K (bar m2 ] m3

[1 - l(0.0424)]bar (102 kN] 0.908 -k ga
Mass continuity
1.301 kga x 0 . 908 km3
A 2 = mava2 = _ _ _..:s'-----::----"""g=a = 0 . 788 m2
Ua
l.s!!!.
s
1.001 m

4. Sketch the main features of the psychrometric chart. Provide

a key for the symbols used to represent the various quantities de-
picted on the chart and give the S.I. unit in each case.
An air conditioned room is kept at 18 C dry bulb and 60 per cent
relative humidity when the outside air is at 25 C dry bulb and
19 C wet bulb. The 'sensible heat gain' to the room is SO 000
kJ/hour and air is supplied fully saturated at 7 C. The condition-
ing system consists of a mixing box that collects both re-circulat-
ed air from the room and fresh air, the mixture then passing to a de-
humidifier. Finally a fan passes the conditioned air to the room.
Using figure 13.4 determine:
(a) the mass of moist air supplied to the space,
(b) the rate at which moisture is removed from the room, and
(c) the cooling load per hour on the dehumidifier when 30 per
cent of the total mass flow of mixed air supplied to the dehumidif-
ier is fresh, the remainder being circulated.
Show the process on a sketch of the psychrometric chart locating
corresponding points on a flow diagram of the plant.
(London University 1972)
Dehumidifier 3 0.3mm

2
Reject

.
QR
(use separate psychrometric chart for properties)

Figure 13.4
Figure 13.4 refers.
Energy balance on the Room
~ahl +
.
OR = ~aM
OR
kJ
so 000 h L_il_]
ma = M - hi 0.971 kga (from chart)
s
(37.3 - 23)kJ ~]
kga

147
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

10 15 20 25 30

148
 0.971 kga (1 + 0.0062)kgm = 0.977 kgn, (a)
s kg a s

Also ms2 0.971 ~ (0.0077)kkgs

s ga
= 7.477 x 10- 3 ~
s
(b)

Energy balance on Mixer (Dry air and vapour intimately mixed)

h~ = 0.3hl + 0.7hi = 0.3(53.5) + 0.7(37.3) = 42.16 ~
kg a
Dehumidifier energy balance
QH = ~a(h~ - hi) = 0.971 kga (42.16 - 23)kkJ
S ga
= 18.6 kW (c)

5. A rectangular, hyperbolic cooling tower is required to cool

water from SO C to 25 C when flowing into the tower at the rate
of 2 million kg/h.
The inlet air condition is 15 C with a relative humidity of
70% and the outlet air condition is 30 C, saturated vapour.
Calculate:
(a) the loss of water by evaporation expressed as a percentage
of the incoming water flow,
(b) the minimum diameter of the tower allowing for a velocity
there of 5 m/s and making an appropriate estimate for density.
Use the psychrometric chart exclusively for air properties and
show the air states thereon. Neglect atmospheric heat transfer.
(Aston University 1977)

ma1 + ms1

Figure 13.5

Figure 13.5 refers.

Energy balance on tower
;,ah 1 + ,;wshw3 = ~ahi + ;w~thw~t
Mass balance on tower

where ; is the evaporation rate

From the above by substitution

149
 ~w3 (hwlt - hw3) -
.
xhw~t
ma (A)
hl -M
X
and ma (B)
"'2 - "'1

or X = ~w3(hw1t
hl -M
- hw3)
+ hw~t
"'2 - "'1

2 10 6 ~(104.8 - 209.3)kJ
X
----n- kgw 0.058 X 10 6 kgw
X = --------~--~~--------~~- h
(32 - 101.5)~
_ _ _ _ _ _.:.:.k2.ga:.,...._ + 104.8 kJ
(0.0276 - 0.0076)kgw kgw
kg a
0.062 = 2.9\
and Percentage loss = ---2--- x 100

Referring to the chart in figure 13.5 and taking the minimum area
position to be approximately given as shown
m3
v8 = 0.9 -ga
k

and . _ ~4Amin _ ~4~a Va _ ~ 4;va

Dmm - 11" - 11"Umin - 7r(w2 - c.t11)u
kgw X 0 9 ~
=~ X 0.058 X 10 6 h k a
13.59 m
11" X 0.02 kgw X 5 !!!. [3600 sf
kg a s [ h ]

6. Air is drawn into a circular insulated duct of diameter 272 mm

at the rate of 10" m3 /h from a state given by a temperature of 12 C
and a relative humidity of 20\ by a fan which absorbs 10 kW.
Water at the rate of 70 kg/h is then added isothermally and fin-
ally the air is heated electrically such that at outlet the mean
fluid velocity is 50 m/s. Refer to the diagrammatic sketch in fig-
ure 13.6.
Calculate the electrical heating rate in kW allowing for the
effect of fan power on fluid properties and using the psychrometric
chart. What type of flow would you expect at outlet - laminar or
turbulent? Justify your answer. (Aston University 1978)

Figure 13.6 refers.

Referring to the psychrometric chart plot point 1.
m3
Val = 0.82 kga

" m3
10 II [ h l
3.39 ~
ma = :~ 1 = O. 82 ~[3600 s] s
kg a
Also hl 16.5 kJ
kga

150
 "'

Figure 13.6

Energy equation across the fan

1w2 = ~aCM
.- hl) 10 kJ
or h! = hl + ~~: = 16.5 ~~a.+ s - 19.45 kJ
kg a
3.39 ~
s

Also "'1 = "'2 = 0.00165 ~=; (hence plot point 2)

Mass continuity
mws = ms3 - ms2 ~a(w3 - "'2)
~
70 h [ h ]
or "'3 = 111 2 + ~= 0.00165 kgw +
0.0074 ~
ma kg a 3 . 39 ~(3600 s] = kg a
s
and T3 = T2 (hence plot point 3) [h ~ = 33. 5 kJ ~
kg a

Mass Continuity at 4
2 m2
50 !!!. x _ll"_x_o_,.,...2_7_2_
~= s 4
ma 3.39 ~
s (h4 = 40.5 kJ/kg )
Energy equation 3 - 4
30~ = ~a(h4 - h~) 3.39 ~(40.5 33.5)kJ = 23.7 kW
s kg a
Reynolds Number at 4
4 x 3.39 ~ x 10 5 ms
Re = -/J.--
puDm _ ~a4A 4~a =
S
8.8 X 10~
A/JP = JJ.rll"
x 0.272 m x 1.8 kga
1r

That is the fluid is clearly turbulent.

The last three ex am ples serve very graphically to show the consid-
erable saving in time of solution effected by the use of the psy-
chrometric chart over the use of tables and gas laws.
A more realistic form of example 6 would give the outside air
condition but not the inside, required condition. If as is cust-

151
omary the air conditioned room has given dimensions and a fixed
number of changes of air per hour then a direct solution is not
possible as is shown by the following example.
7. Figure 13.7 shows diagrammatically an air-conditioning plant
supplying a light machine shop. The air drawn in from outside at
state 1 at 5 C with a relative humidity of 25%.
The air is first of all heated at the rate of 1 MW and then hum-
idified isothermally with a water evaporation rate of 1550 kg/h.
If the machine shop measures 40 m by 40 m by 10 m and undergoes
10 complete changes of air every hour, calculate the final state
(T 3,w 3) using the psychrometric chart. (Aston University 1972)

12t
J
~ w
1 I

--,t;-----+j..., +r-4---+i-

Figure 13.7

Figure 13.7 refers.

The initial difficulty lies in the fact that we do not know the
value of va3 and cannot calculate the mass flow of dry air directly
from the room dimensions and air changes.
The procedure is assume a value for va3 (say val) and work to-
wards a first, approximate value for the state at 3. Then with this
condition a new more correct value of va3 may be assumed and the
entire calculation may be repeated until no change is found in the
final state.
m3
Thus va3 = val = 0.8 --k assumed pro tern
g.

and ma
h_ = 10 X 40 X 40 X 10 m3 /h [ h ] 55.56 kg.
Va 3

h~ _ hi
.
0.8 m3/kga
102 _
[3600 s]
1000 kW [ kJ ]
s
18 kJ
rna- 55 . 56 kga[s kW] kg a
s
hi 8.2 ~
kg a

M 18 + 8.2 26.2 kJ
kg.
w2 W}

Thus T2 23.1 oc
Now ~. (w3 - w2) = ms3 - ms 2 IDW4

152
or Wg IDW4
wz
1550 k~w/h (_h_]
= 55.56 + 0.00125 kgw = 0.009 kgw
~+ kga/s(3600 s] kg a kg a
Also Tg Tz = 23.1 oc
Thus Wg 0.5 using the chart
With these values of temperature and relative humidity at point 3
we can now select a new value for the specific volume at 3 and re-
peat the whole calculation and iterate until no change is obtained
in the final condition. In this case only one iteration is needed.

Further examples.

8. The properties of two streams of moist air are as follows:

Temperature Pressure Relative Humidity Flow Rate
oc bar % m3 /s
A 13 1.0 20 0.368
B 29 1.0 80 0.510
These two streams are mixed isobarically and adiabatically in
steady flow.
Using the psychrometric chart find the values of the specific
and relative humidities and the specific volume of moist air for
the fluid after mixing. (1.26%, 0.7, 0.859 m3 /kg

9. A light engineering machine shop measures 30 m by 10m by

10 m and has 8 complete changes of air every hour. Air is drawn
in from outside at 27 C with a relative humidity of 75%. The
moist air first passes over a cooling coil to allow some condensat-
ion and water removal and then over a heating coil through which
saturated steam passes at 1.4 bar and is condensed but not under-
cooled. The air emerges at 18 C with a relative humidity of 50%.
Neglect radiation losses, take atmospheric pressure as 1 bar
and find:
(a) the temperature of the air between the cooling coil and the
heating coil,
(b) the heat transfer to the cooler,
(c) the heat transfer from the heater,
(d) the mass flow rate of heating steam.
(7.8 C, 364 kW, 79.7 kW, 2.14 kg/min)

10. An evaporative cooler is required to cool water flowing at

the rate of 2.25 million kg/h from 32 C to 18 C under the foll-
owing conditions:
Atmospheric pressure --------------- 1 bar
Dry bulb temperature --------------- 16 C
Wet bulb temperature --------------- 10 C
State of exit air --------------- 32 C, saturated.
Assume no heat transfer through the walls of the cooler and find:
(a) the mass of moist air entering the cooler at the base,
(b) the percentage loss of water due to evaporation.
(443 kg/s, 1.86)

153
14 FURTHER WORK ON AVAILABILITY AND
COMBINED CYCLES

Availability has already been treated in the introductory

tutorial volume and this chapter includes the application of the
second law of tnermodynamics to steady flow power and refrigerat-
ion cycles.
Additionally there are two examples on combined gas and vapour
power plant and one example on a fuel cell.

1. Define availability. Derive an expression for the availab-

ility relative to the atmosphere which has pressure PA and temper-
ature TA of a mass m of a perfect gas having pressure p and temp-
erature T. By means of a sketch on the temperature-entropy plane
indicate the significance of the different terms used.
A steady flow of air enters a heat exchanger at a pressure of
0.42 MN/m 2 and a temperature of 485 K. The velocities at entry
and exit are small. Determine the availability of the air at entry
and exit relative to the atmospheric pressure and temperature of
0.101 MN/m 2 and 290 K respectively. Determine also the minimum
specific work required to return the air from exit to entrance and
the corresponding heat exchange with the atmosphere.
(London University 1969)

~0.28 MN/m
0.42 MN/m 2 2
290 K 485 K
Ul "' 0 U2 '"' 0
Solution (2nd Part)

Figure 14.1
Solution (First Part)
Figure 14.1 refers.
Availability is defined as the maximum reversible work transfer
that can be realised when taking a fluid from its given state to
a 'ground' or 'dead' state which is at lowest energy potential.
This ground state may be defined by:
p = po, T =To, z zo and u = 0.
In this example suffix 0 is the same as suffix A.

154
Reference to many modern textbooks gives the derivation required
and the expression is
B- BA m[(h- TAs) - (hA - TASA)] = m[(h - hA) - TA(s- sA)]

m{cp (T - TA) TA [cp ln ~A - R ln ~A]} (if f1u 2 0)

bl - bA = (hl - TAsl) - (hA - TAsA)

cp(Tl - TA) TA Cp ln !J.. + RTA ln E.!_

TA PA

RTA ln E.!_ (since T1 = TA in this case)

PA
kJ 0.42
290 K 1n 0.101 118.6 kkJg
0.287 kg K X =

Cp(T2 - TA) TACp ln T 2 + RTA ln p2

TA PA
kJ kJ 485
1.005 kg K(485 - 290) K- 290 K x 1.005 kg K ln 290

+ 0.287 k~JK x 29~ K ln ~:i~l

196 - 149.9 + 84.9
131 kJ
kg

Wmin = b2- b1 = 12.4 ~~

kJ 196 kJ
h2 - h1 = cp(T2 - T1) = 1.005 kg K(485 - 290) K kg

12.4 + 196 = 208.4 ~~

2. At the end of combustion in a reciprocating internal combus-

tion engine the products are at a pressure of 50 bar and a temper-
ature of 2500 K.
The ensuing expansion takes place through a volume ratio of 8:1
and the pressure at the end of expansion is 3 bar.
Assuming the expansion follows a polytropic law (pv" = constant)
and that the fluid may be assumed to be a perfect gas having cons-
tant average values of~= 1.25, R = 0.275 kJ/(kg K), calculate
(a) the value of the polytropic index n,
(b) the specific work transfer in expansion,
(c) the specific heat transfer in expansion,
(d) the loss in available energy,
(e) the irreversibility.

Figure 14.2 refers.

155
 ---------

Figure 14.2
or ln PI + n ln v1 = ln P2 + n ln v2

or n = ln PI - ln p 2 ln (pdp2) ln (50/ 3)
1. 353
ln v2 - ln v1 ln (vdvl) ln 8

2500 K [iT.353 1199.9 K

kJ
R( T _ T) 0.275 ~K (2500 - 1199.9) K kJ
JW2 = n - 1
l 2 = __.......:.:..s!.......:.:...-=-=------
0.353
= 1012.8 kg

It can be shown that for a polytropic process and a perfect gas

lq2 = c~- n) = (1.25- 1.353)(1012 8) =- 417 3 kJ

c~-l) 1 w 2 o.2s kg

Non-flow availability per unit mass of fluid is given by

a 1 - a2 e1- e2- To(5J- 52)+ Po(vl- v2) (from 1 to 2)

cv(TJ - T2) - To ~v ln ~ + R ln ~] + po[RTJ - RT2]

[ T2 v2 Pl P2j

R{T~ -
-
~2 .,
I
To 1 1n !J_ - To ln
- T2
~
V2
+ ~~
PI
- ~2}
P2

0 . 275 {...!::!__ 1300.1 K 298 K 2500 1

kg K 0.25 ~ ln 1199.9-298 K ln 8

+ 25~~ K_ 119;.9 K}
0.275 k~JK{S200.4 K- 875 K + 619.7 K +50 K- 400 K}

1263.7 ~~
1i2 JW2rev - JW2 = (e1 - e2) - To (5J - 52) - 1W2

0.27s{k~JK 5200.4 K- 875 K + 619.7 K} 1012.8 ~~

347.0 ~~

156
This is the irreversibility that arises despite the internal revers-
sibili ty of the process and because of the unwanted heat transfer
from the cylinder in expansion.

3. Two alternative forms of supercharging are available for a

diesel engine.
(a) Exhaust driven turbo-supercharger.
(b) An external supply of air from a two-stage, single-acting
reciprocating air compressor.
The exhaust from the diesel enters the turbo-charger at 1.8 bar
and 1000 K flowing at the rate of 6 kg/min.
Calculate the bore of the high pressure cylinder of the recip-
rocating compressor to give the equivalent available energy for
purposes of supercharging when the stroke-bore ratio of the comp-
ressor is 1.5, the compressor rotates at 400 rev/min and delivers
air at 14 bar, 25 C.
Take cp and cv for the exhaust gas as 1.25 and 0.98 kJ/(kg K)
respectively.

.
Bgas - Bo
.
Availability rate in the engine exhaust gas is given by
~gas(bgas - bo) = ~gas[(h- Tos)gas (ho - Toso)]

~gas{Cpgas(T- To) - To [cpgas ln ~0 - R ln ~o] l

6 ~h.25
m1n 1
__g_(lOOO - 298) K
kg K
kJ 1000 kJ
- 298 K[ 1.25 kg K ln 298 - 0.275 kg 1.8Jl
K ln 1.013 f
2842 k~ = 47.4 kW
m1n
For air at 14 bar, 25 C:

Vair [~TJ.ir
RT
= 0.287
kJ 298 K m3
0 . 0611 kg
or Vai r - - X -~'-7..-;-
k K kN
P g 1400 m2

(b - bo)air cp(T - To) - To [c:p ln !_ - R 1n

To Po
L]
ln L =
kJ 14
ToR
Po
298 K x 0.287 kg K ln l.Ol 3

= 224.6 ~~ (since T = To)

rna i r
(B - Bo)ga s
(b _ bo)air for equivalent availability in the air

47.3 kJ
s 0.211 ~
s
224.6 ~~

157
and = 0.211 ~
s m3
x 0.0611 kg= s
0.0129 m3 =

m3
D=}/ 0.0129sx4 [ 6 0s)
or 0.118 m
l~ x l. 5 x 400 str~ke [min ]
m1n

4. When operating at part load the steam supplied to a steam

turbine is throttled from a pressure of 70 bar and a temperature
of 450 C to a pressure of 55 bar before entering the high press-
ure turbine. Steam leaves the high pressure turbine at a pressure
of 3.5 bar and it is then expanded in a low pressure turbine to a
pressure of 0.05 bar; the efficiency of each turbine is 87%. The
steam is condensed using water at the ambient temperature of 20 C.
Determine the loss of availability in each section of the plant
and illustrate on a sketch of the temperature-entropy plane the pro-
cesses involved and the area representing the loss of availability
in each component. Comment briefly on the relative magnitudes of
these losses. (London University 1970)

Figure 14.4

Figure 14.4 refers.

An enthalpy entropy chart for steam was provided and the solution
will be presented making use of this with values of h in kJ/kg,
sin kJ/(K kg), b (specific steady flow availability) in kJ/kg.
To 20 + 273 = 293 K (assumed)
h1 3287 h2 (chart)
h3s = 2648
h2 - h3s = 639
h2 - h3 = 0.87 X 639 555.9
h3 2731.1
h'+s = 2116

158
 h3 - h4s = 615.1
h3 h4 = 0.87 X 615.1 535.1
h4 2196
hs 138 = hs
Correspondingly
5! 6.632 (chart)
52 6.737
53 6.941
54 7.202
5s 0.476 56 (tables page 2)
Tabulate h 5 To5 b
Point
(kJ/kg) (kJ/K kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)
1 3287 6.632 1943.2 1343.8
2 3287 6.737 1973.9 1313.1
3 2731.1 6.941 2033.7 697.4
4 2196 7.202 2110.2 85.8
5 138 0.476 139.5 - 1. 5
6 138 0.476 139.5 - 1.5
assuming that there are negligible changes in kinetic and potential
energies.
Throttle
b) b2 loss in available energy in throttle 30.7 ~~
Turbine T
b2 - b3 + 2W3 b2 - b3 + h2 - h3 To (53 - 52) 59.8 ~~
Turbine T
b3 b4 + 3W4 To(54 - 53) 76.5 ~~
Condenser C
kJ
b4- bs = 85.8- (- 1.5) = 87.3 kg
Note that there are terms allowing for work transfer in both tur-
bine expressions, since work production is available energy pro-
duction and this must be included in the availability balance.
Little can be said about both turbines whose efficiencies are
already approaching optimum values with present day practice and
the metallurgical limitation on turbine inlet temperature which is
inevitable with presently available materials.
It is bad thermodynamically to throttle a fluid since the proc-
ess is irreversible, gives no work and wastes availability.
The condenser has the largest loss in available energy of those
calculated because of the non-recoverable heat transfer to the cool-
ing water. One obvious possibility of improvement lies in the use
of this waste energy in some other process - for example in space
heating.

159
 In fact the most serious source of availability loss is in the
steam generator with the very large temperature gradient between
the primary combustion gases and the secondary fluid (water/steam).
The success of any method of reducing this gradient and thus the
associated irreversibility of this process will be judged by the
balance between capital and running costs. It is quite the most
worthwhile area to examine as witness the attempts (e.g. in fuel
cells) to eliminate the secondary fluid altogether and generate
eJectricity directly from chemical energy. This is very much a
long term prospect.

5. Define what is meant by the 'steady flow availability func-

tion'.
A steam power plant has two turbines which together produce 15
MW. In the high pressure turbine steam supplied from a boiler at
a pressure 140 bar and a temperature of 500 C, is expanded to a
pressure of 12 bar with an isentropic efficiency of 90 per cent.
The steam leaving the high pressure turbine is mixed with steam
which has been expanded from boiler outlet state through an adiab-
atic throttle such that the temperature of the steam entering the
low pressure turbine is 320 C. The steam expands in the low pres-
sure turbine to a pressure of 0.1 bar with an isentropic efficiency
of 90 per cent.
Determine the loss of available power in each section of the
plant relative to an ambient temperature of 300 K.
Abstract from steam tables:
Pressure Saturated Saturated Superheated
bar Liquid Vapour Temp. = 500 oc
140 e/ (kJ/kg) 1548 2477 3007
h/ (kJ/kg) 1571 2638 3322
s/(kg/K kg) 3.263 5.573 6.390
Temp. = 320 C
12 e/(kJ/kg) 797 2588 2823
h/(kJ/kg) 798 2784 3068
s/ (kJ/K kg) 2.216 6.523 7.018
0.1 e/ (kJ/kg) 192 2437
h/ (kJ/kg) 192 2584
s/ (kJ/K kg) 0.649 8.149

Symbols e,h and s represent the specific internal energy, specific

enthalpy and specific entropy respectively.
To determine other states of superheated steam assume that the
specific isobaric heat capacity is 1.74 kJ/kg Kat 12 bar and 1.55
kJ/kg K at 0.1 bar. (London University 1972)
Figure 14.5 refers.
With h in kJ/kg, s in kJ/K kg and Tin K throughout
hl 3322
51 6. 390 52s

6.390 - 2.216 = 0 969

X2s= 6.523- 2.216
h2s = 798 + 0.969(2784 - 798) 2722.4

160
 B

Figure 14.5
h1 - h2s = 599.6
h1 - h2 = 0.9 X 599.6 539.6
h2. 2782.4

X2.
82.
2782.4 - 798
2784.0 - 798 999
2,216 + 0.999(6.523
2.216) 6.520
h3 = hl = 3322
h,. = 3068
Energy balance on Mixer M (see figure 14.5a)
(;, - ;,2.)h3 + ;,2.h2 = ~.. (A)

T3 =T + h3 - h~t 593 + 3322 - 3068 739

'+ Cp 1. 74

Tg2. = 2'3 - h3 ~phg2. = 739 - 332~.;42784 = 429.8

593
s,. Sg2. + Cp ln !L = 6.523
Tu
+ 1. 74 ln 429.8 = 7.083

739
and S3 su + Cp ln .!.L
Tu
= 6.523 + 1. 74 ln 429.8 = 7.466

7.083

Xss
7.083 - 0.649 =0 858
8.149 - 0.649 .
hss 192 + 0.858(2584 - 192) 2244
h,. - hss = 824
h,. hs = 0.9 x 824 741.6
hs 2326.4
2326.4 - 192 0. 892
xs 2584 - 192

161
 55 0.649 + 0.892(8.149 - 0.649) = 7.341
hs 192; 5 6 = 0.649 (assuming saturated liquid at 6)
h1 hs = 192; 5 7 = 5 6 = 0.649 (neglecting feed pump work)
Power
~2Ch1 - h2) + ~(h4 - hs) 15 MW
or 539.6~2 + 741.6~ = 15 MW (B)

Now from equation (A)

~(h3 - h4) = ~2(h3 - h2)
- [h 3 - h4] - [ 3322 - 3068 ] -
m2 - m[h3 - h2 - m[3322 - 2782.4 - 0 471 m

In (B)
539.6(0.471~) + 741.6~ = 15 MW 995.6~

15 X 10 3 kJ
s
m = ---..,-=-- 15.07 kg
s
995.6 ~~
7.10 kg
5

Loss of available power (b = h - To5)

Point h 5 To5 b

1 3322 6.390 1917 1405

2 2782.4 6.520 1956 826.4
3 3322 7.466 2239.8 1082.2
4 3068 7.083 2124.9 943.1
5 2326.4 7.341 2202.3 124.1
6 192 0.649 194.7 - 2.7
7 192 0.649 194.7 - 2.7

Available power loss (or rate of irreversibility)

hA Wrev - W= (BJ - B2) - (H! - H2) = ~2To (52 - 5J)

= 7.1 kg(l956 - 1917)kkJ

s g
= 276.9 kW

ITs = ~To(5 5 -54) = 15.07(2202.3- 2124.9) 1166.4 kW

. .
Ic = Wrev = ~(bs - bs) (since w= 0)

= 15.07 kJ
kg (124.1
s
+ 2.7)kg = 1910.6 kW

.
The feed pump is reversible (assumed) and
0
. . .
IFP =

Iy = Wrev (since w = 0 and h 1 h 3)

162
 (15.07 - 7.1) kg (2239.8- 1917)kJ = 2572.7 kW
s kg

IM = Wrev (since w = 0)

(7.1 X 826.4) + (15.07- 7.1}(1082.2)

- 15.07(961.1) = 5867.4 + 8625.1 - 14 483.8
8.7 kW

In the absence of any information on the high temperature side of

the steam generator no availability power loss can be determined.

6. An open circuit gas turbine plant is to be combined with a

steam plant operating on the Rankine cycle using the exhaust gas
to generate steam as shown in figure 14.6. The following data app-
ly:
Mass flow rate of air -------------------- 56 kg/s
Mass flow rate of fuel ------------------- 1.26 kg/s
Calorific value of fuel ------------------ 30 MJ/kg
Air inlet pressure and temperature ------- 1 bar, 15 C
Compressor delivery pressure ------------- 8 bar
Compressor isentropic efficiency --------- 81%
Gas turbine isentropic efficiency -------- 85%
Specific heat capacities, cp:
for the combustion process ------------ 1.13 kJ/ (kg K)
for the turbine expansion and) -------- 1.16 kJ/ (kg K)
combustion products )
for the compression process ----------- 1.005 kJ/(kg K)
Ratio of specific heat capacities, 'Y:
for air ------------------------------- 1.4
for combustion products --------------- 1.333
Determine the net power output for the gas turbine neglecting
extraneous pressure drops.
Steam is generated in a waste heat boiler in the gas turbine
exhaust duct, steam conditions being 20 bar, 450 C. The "temper-
ature approach" or temperature difference at the "pinch point" is
35 K. The condenser pressure is 0.1 bar and the isentropic effic-
iency of the steam turbine is 85%.
Determine the mass flow rate of steam, the steam turbine power
output and the overall thermal efficiency of the plant.
(Aston University 1978)
Figure 14.6 refers.

522 K

T2s - T1 = 234 K
234
T2 - T1 = 0. 8 l = 288.9 K
T2 576.9 K
Energy addition in fuel 1. 26 ~ X 30 X 10 3 kJ
s kg
37 800 kW

163
 Turbine Plant

Heat Boiler

Steam Turbine Plant

8

Figure 14.6

mm =mass flow rate of air and fuel = 56+ 1.26 57.26 kg

s
37 800 kJ
ha - h2 = 2 ~ 3 =
mm
----:--s-
57.26 kg
660.1 ~~
s

660.1 ~J
---.-kJ'!!-g- = 584. 2 K
1.13 kg K

Ta = 576.9 + 584.2 = 1161.1 K

690.4 K

Ta- T4s = 470.7 K

T3 T4s = 0. 85 x 4 70. 7 400. 1 K
761 K
.
T4

Wnet (gas turbine)

.
Wnet [57.26 ~g X 1.16 k~\ X 400.1 KJ

l
- r56 kg X 1.005 _!LX 288.9 KJ
s kg K
10 316 kW

Tevap = 485.4 K at 20 bar (Tables page 4)

TA = 485,4 + 35 = 520.4 K
57.26 kg X 1.16 kkJK(761 - 520.4) K
msteam
= ~gasCpgas (T4 - TA) s g
h? - h f7
(3357 - 909) ~~
6,.53 kg
s

164
 . ~steam llhs learn
= 6.53 kg X 891.8 kkJ = 5822 kW
.
Wsteam S g

Total Wout 10 316 + 5822 = 16 138 kW

Total Qin 37 800 kW
16 138
37 800 = 0 427
7. A diesel engine-driven electricity generating plant is to be
modified to recover heat from the engine exhaust gases by install-
ing a heat exchanger in the exhaust duct for generating steam. The
steam is used to drive a steam turbine which exhausts to a conden-
ser, the condensate being pumped to the inlet of the heat exchanger
Given the data below, estimate the engine exhaust gas temperat-
ure, the mass flow rate of steam, the turbine power output and the
overall thermal efficiency of the plant.
Diesel engine
Shaft power output ------------------------------ 1 MW
Thermal efficiency------------------------------ 37.5%
Percentage of energy supplied which
is rejected in exhaust gas ---------------------- 30.5%
Datum temperature for energy balance ------------ 298 K
Air:fuel ratio by mass -------------------------- 28.1
Air and fuel inlet temperature ------------------ 298 K
Calorific value of fuel ------------------------- 42 MJ/kg
Specific heat capacity of exhaust gases --------- 1.04 kJ/kg K
Heat exchanger
Exhaust gas outlet temperature ------------------ 160 C
Steam pressure ---------------------------------- 10 bar
Steam outlet temperature ------------------------ 400 C
Condenser and Turbine
Condenser pressure ------------------------------ 0.1 bar
Turbine isentropic efficiency ------------------- 80%
Ignore the feed pump work and assume no undercooling.
(Aston University 1977)

Figure 14.7 refers.

Energy supplied to diesel = ~W = ~

lMW
= 2,667 MW

Thus Energy in exhaust at (2) = 0.305 x 2.666 = 0.813 MW QHE

2.667 MW [ MJ ] _ 0.0 635 kg
mruel = [s MW] - s
42 MJ
kg

mair 28~fuel 1. 777 ~

s

mexh = mair + mfuel 1.841 kg

s

165
 Heat
Exchange 160.
L-~---1;......,

maas
3

Figure 14.7 Distance along HE

= ~gascPgas(T2 - T0 ) where To = datum temperature

0 813 MW [10 3 kW] [....~. .J
. [ MW ][s kW] + 298 K = 722.7 K = 450 C
1.841 ~X 1.04 k~JK

1.841 ~X 1.04 kkJK {450 - 160) K

s g
{3264 - 192) ~~
0.1807 ~ (reading values from tables p.7, p.3)
s
(ignoring feed pump work)
kJ
s~ = s 55 = 7. 464 K kg

Xss
S5s - Sf = 7.464 - 0.649 = 0. 909
S(g 7. 5

hss 192 + 0.909(2392) = 2365.5 ~~ (tables page 3)

kJ
Ms 898.5 kg (hs = 3264 p. 7)
kJ
M = ~~ = 0.8 X 898.5 = 718.8 kg

Turbine power output (~M)steam 0.1807 ~ x 718.8 ~~

129.9 kW

Total power output 1.1299 M'l

1.1299
~overall = 2 . 667 = 0.424

8. Derive an expression for the reversible electric potential

of a fuel cell operating at constant pressure and temperature.

166
 For an ideal fuel cell which operates with propane and oxygen
determine:-
(a) the reversible electric potential when operating at a temp-
erature of 25 C and a pressure of 1 bar, and
(b) the heat transfer per kmol of propane consumed.
Extract from tables of properties giving molar enthalpy (l'lho)
and molar Gibbs function (tog 0 ) of formation at a pressure of 1.0
bar and a temperature of 25 C is as follows.

Mo togo
Substance Symbol kJ/kmol kJ/kmol
Oxygen 02 0 0
Water H20 - 286 042 - 237 310
Carbon Dioxide C20 - 393 768 - 394 648
Propane C3He - 103 916 23 484
Note: l Faraday = 96.5 X 10 6 coulomb/kmol. (London Uni ve?.' 1974)

Second Law of Electrolysis in a Reversible Cell

96 500 coulombs of electricity deposit one gram mol equivalent
of any ion in electrolysis.
Thus for a valency j of an ion and dn, the number of mols of ions
deposited at an electrode
Quantity of electricity flowing
where F is 96.5 x 10 6 coulombs/kmol
The change in charge dz of the cell is
dz = - jFdn Coulombs (l) [negative be cause there is
a fall in charge if elec-
tricity flows from cell)
and the work done by an electrical system
dW = - E x dz where E is the potential difference between
two points on the system boundary between which
a charge quantity dz is flowing
Thus the work done by the cell when discharging is
dw = - ER X dz (2) where ER = reversible emf of cell
(dz is negative and dw is positive)
In particular, in a FUEL cell some of the reactants flow con-
tinuously in and out of the cell and the latter produces electric-
ity only while active reactants (usually active electrodes) flow
through the cell.
Now dw = pdv - eRdz (work done by a reversible cell due to a
flow of electricity)
and from the first and second laws of thermodynamics
dE dQ - dW = dQ - pdV + ERdZ
dE Tds - pd V + ER dz
or (3)

167
and for a fuel cell operating at constant pressure and temperature
between initial state 1 and final state 2, integrating (3)
ER~Z = (Ez - E1) - T(Sz - S!) + p(Vz - V1) = Gz - G1 (4)
where G = Gibbs Function =H - TS
Note that when the cell discharges ~z is negative and G1 > Gz
and when the cell charges Gz > G1.
Now the electrical work dwE for positive work by cell is
dWE =- dG and from equation (1)
- dG = jFdn
dG dng
(5) and for const.p,T and chemical pot-
or - jFdn = - jFdn
ential J.L

dG =- ~J.Lidni or

or _ LJ.Li dni = _ Lxi ~go

ER = jFdn jF (6)

For a propane/oxygen cell

ANODE
lC3He + 80 = 3COz + 4Hz0 + 16e (e electrons,O ions)
CATHODE
40z + 16e = 80
Thus applying equation (6)
_ _ _ _ __..;::.1_ _---::::--- { 3 kmol C02 394648
16 x 96.5 x 106 kmol \3He kmol C3He [
kJ
kmol COz
r J
+ 4(237310) - 1(23484) - 8(0)l
HzO C3He 02 f
1.366 10- 3 kJ [CV]
X
c [J]
1.366 volts

First Law in Combustion

Q = Hp2 - HRl = (Hpz - Hpo) + (HPo - HRo) + (HRo - HR!)
(Hpo - HRo) since T2 T1 = To

Enllho
kmol C0 2 { kJ } H20 C3Ha
3 kmol C3Ha 393768 kmol COz + 4 (286042) 1 (103916)
- 8(0)
02
2 221 556 kJ
kmol C3He

168
Further examples

9. The sketch in figure 14.9 shows diagrammatically a steam

plant incorporating a steam generator G, throttle V, high pressure
turbine TA, low pressure turbine Ts, process heater P, condenser C
and closed hotwell H. The mass flow divides at state 3, one third
going to P and the rest to Ts. The two flows recombine in H which
is at condenser pressure. The processes in V, TA and Ts are adiab-
atic.

1
G

Figure 14.9
8

The heat transfer from the primary fluid in P passes to an ext-

ernal agency at a constant temperature of 100 c, there being no
extraneous heat transfer with the environment.
Determine from the given information the irreversibilities of V,
TA, Ts, P and H per kg in G given that datum temperature is 25 c.
State 1 --------------------------- ----------- 40 bar, 600 c
P2 --------------------------- ---------- 25 bar
P3 --------------------------- ---------- 6 bar
P4 --------------------------- ---------- 0.02 bar
71TA = 71TB --------------------------- --------- 0.82
The states at 5, 6 and 7 are all saturated liquid.
(64 kJ, 38.7 kJ, 132.1 kJ, 120.8 kJ, 33.3 kJ)
10. The steam power plant shown diagrammatically in figure 14.10
incorporates a single, open feed heater in which the entrained mass
flows mix freely.
Calculate
(a) the mass fraction, y, of bled steam per kg at state 2,
(b) the irreversibilities of the two turbine sections TA and T8 ,
the condenser C and feed heater H all per kg at state 2.
Assume an isentropic efficiency of 0. 75 for both turbines, take
the reference temperature To as 20 c and ignore feed pump work and
all extraneous losses.

169
 1 kg

G 2

y kg
Figure 14.10
1

Data:
State 2 ---------------------------------- 30 bar, Satd.Vapr.
P3 --------------------------------- 2.8 bar
P4 --------------------------------- 0.04 bar
State 5 ---------------------------------- Satd.Liqd .. 0.04 bar
State 7 ---------------------------------- Satd.Liqd., 2.8 bar
(0.181, 76.2 kJ, 109.7 kJ, 48 kJ, 38.6 kJ)

11. Explain briefly how a normal steam boiler and turbine system
would have to be modified to incorporate it in a combined cycle
where the exhaust gases of a gas turbine are used as the combustion
air in the furnace of the steam plant.
A gas turbine operates on a simple open circuit using air as the
working fluid with a compression ratio of 6:1.
After compression the air is heated indirectly to 800 C and,
after expansion in the turbine, the air exhausts into a waste heat
boiler producing saturated steam at atmospheric pressure for fac-
tory heating.
Calculate, using tables of properties of air, the percentage of
heat converted to electrical power assuming that:
1. Compressor work is -------------------------- 226 kJ/kg
2. Compressor outlet temperature is ------------ 238 C
3. Overall turbine isentropic efficiency is ---- 88%
4. Electrical generator efficiency is ---------- 98%
5. Air heater efficiency is -------------------- 85%
6. Air heater pressure loss is ----------------- 3%
7. Waste heat boiler pressure loss is ---------- 2%
If the initial water temperature is 27 C and the approach temp-
erature of the waste heat boiler is 10 C, what is the percentage
of the original heat that can be converted to steam? Atmospheric
pressure is 1 bar. (Aston University 1970)
(20.9%, 54.5%)

170