UNDERGROUND TANKS

Training Notes by Prof. Bancy Mati

1.1 Ground Catchments and underground tanks

1.1.1 Ground Catchments

Ground catchment is a broad term that describes all types of ground surfaces that serve as source
of surface runoff used in water harvesting. These can range from open land surfaces whether
paved or unpaved, including rocky areas, roads, home compounds, pasture lands, forests and other
open areas. The sizes could vary from a few square metres for micro ground catchments to
extensive land areas and whole watersheds used for large storages such as dams.

Most ground surfaces are covered by soil, thus, water harvesting is hampered by losses due to
infiltration, soil moisture storage, deep percolate losses, evaporation and transpiration by plants.
Therefore, the runoff coefficient of ground catchments is low. Furthermore, ground catchments
yield runoff that is laden with sediments, dirt, as well as other pollutants. But due to the vastness
of available runoff, e.g. in watershed, they offer the best option for large scale water harvesting
projects.

Small/micro scale ground catchments are used to collect rainwater for domestic use at places
where appropriate roofs are not available. Bigger catchments are used for collecting higher flows
in huge storages, which can be used for large-scale water supplies and irrigation. The runoff
coefficients of small catchments covered with soil can be improved as applicable by:
Covering them with plastic or metal sheets, tiles or other non-toxic impervious material;
and plastering them with cement. Such improvements are however relatively expensive
and thus limited to situations where water is much needed.
Treating/adding material to the soil surfaces to seal them and reduce infiltration. Such
material includes cement, lime, clay soil, etc. The durability of such treatments is however
limited due to erosion, weed growth and such other factors, thus need closer follow up
and maintenance.

When compared with roofs, ground catchments in general have the advantage that water is
collected from larger area; this is particularly useful in regions where rainfall amounts are small.
Ground catchments are particularly useful for harvesting water for agricultural uses, such as
irrigation and livestock watering. They have however apparent limitations as follows.
The water is easily contaminated. If the water is to be used for drinking purposes, it has to
be boiled, chlorinated, or filtered say with slow sand filter. It may however be used for
other domestic purposes without treatment.
The water can only be stored below the ground surface such as ponds, dammed reservoirs,
or sub-surface tanks where they normally need some kind of an abstraction device such as
pumps;
Ground catchments have low runoff coefficients; and
The water is silt laden, and thus has poor physical qualities such as color, taste and turbidity.
The excess sediment may need to be removed with silt traps.

1
Water collected from ground catchments can be stored in various types of structures such as dams,
weirs, pans, ponds and underground tanks. This Chapter focuses on underground tanks.

1.1.2 What is an underground tank?

An underground tank (or sub-surface tank), is a water storage structure constructed below the
ground. The term also includes structures that are partially below ground. In most cases,
underground tanks collect and store runoff from ground catchments such as open grasslands,
hillsides, home compounds, roads, footpaths, paved and unpaved areas (Figure 1.1). However, in
certain circumstances, roof catchments can also be channeled into underground tanks.

Figure 1.1 (a) Rainwater harvesting from (b) Road runoff harvesting into geo-
home compound with underground tank membrane lined tank (photo by Bancy Mati)

Underground tanks are especially suited to homesteads having thatched roofs and other traditional
structures or for areas where a roof catchment may not be feasible. However, it may be necessary
to pump (lift) water, except where the ground gradient permits and where gravity outlets are
constructed. Underground tanks can be designed as spherical or cylindrical and constructed using
bricks. Since underground tanks get support from the surrounding ground, thus they can be built
with less reinforcing material. Thus, underground tanks have lower construction costs and
therefore, are more suited for storing agricultural water than surface tanks.

1.1.3 The case for underground tanks

Compared with other ground storage structures, underground tanks are generally small, with
volumes ranging 20 to 150 m3. They permit irrigation of small plots of land and livestock
watering and are suited to smallholder irrigation as individual farm storages. A major limitation
is the lack of adequate expertise at village level to design and construct underground tanks. Also,
the design and construction faces more challenges of functionality, safety, water abstraction and
possibility of failure as compared to surface tanks. However, underground tanks share much of
the features of surface tanks regarding construction materials and methods.

Water harvesting from traditional huts

In the case of grass thatched or other traditional houses e.g. manyatta, where roof catchment
with surface tank is not feasible, underground tanks can be used to supply domestic water as
illustrated in figures 1.2(a) and (b). For grass-thatched houses, circular trenches can be dug and
positioned to receive runoff directly below the roof eves and trench gutters dug around

2
hemispherical traditional houses. The mitre drain from the trench acts as a gutter and should be
positioned on the side or at the back of the house to be accessible. The mitre drains convey runoff
into an underground tank.

Figure 1.2: Illustration of RWH system for (b) Illustration of RWH system for a
grass-thatched house (Source SWALIM, 2007) hemi-spherical house (manyatta)

1.1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of underground tanks

Advantages of sub-surface tanks:
Underground tanks offer a cheaper to install due to its lower cost of reinforcements needed
during construction, as compared to surface tanks. This is due because ground support
provides the strength needed to hold the water
They are appropriate in places where space above ground is limited; and they can be made
larger than surface tanks
The water is sometimes cooler
Larger volumes of water can be stored.

Disadvantages:
Pump or some kind abstraction device (such as rope and bucket) is required to lift the water.
Except where the ground gradient permits and where gravity outlets are constructed.
Higher possibility of contamination and sedimentation sediment inflow.
They cannot be easily drained for cleaning.
If not well managed e.g. properly covered, they pose danger to children and small animals.
Leaks or failures are more difficult to detect
Tree roots can damage the structure from beneath
Flotation of the tank may occur if groundwater level is high, and
Heavy vehicles driving over a tank or other weight can damage the structure.

1.2 Types of underground tanks

There are many types of underground tank, categorized according to shape, size, capacity, lining
material, construction and utilization. The most common types of tanks include the following:

3
1.2.1 Cisterns
A cistern is a small underground reservoir of about 10 to 500 m3 capacity. The term is sometimes
synonymous with underground tank. Cisterns are indigenous water harvesting systems commonly
found in the Middle East and other dry areas. They are normally used for human and livestock
water consumption, and are mostly located at or near homesteads. In many areas, they are dug
into the rock, or they could be constructed as underground tanks lined with concrete. In this
system, runoff water is collected from catchments such as roofs, home compounds, rocky surfaces,
roads or open areas. Stilling basins are sometimes needed to reduce sediment entry. Since the water
is stored below ground. A lifting device, e.g. pump, bucket and rope is used to bring water to the
surface for use. Other than domestic use, cisterns are also used for irrigation of small gardens.
Cisterns require little or no space above ground, and thus are unobtrusive, which is a safety feature.
The main problems associated with this system include the cost of construction, the cisterns
limited capacity, and inflows of sediments and pollutants from the catchment.

Figure 1.3 (a) Square cistern with cover (b) Cylindrical cistern for surface RWH
(photo by Bancy Mati) (adapted from Alemu Seifu, 2011)

1.2.2 Rectangular lined tanks

One of the easier ways of constructing underground tanks takes the shape of a rectangle or square.
However, most rectangular tanks have a trapezoidal profile in volume. This shape accords good
storage with easy design and construction features, as builders use straight lines. The tank can be
lined with geo-membrane plastics, concrete, bricks, and other water resistant material. Lined
underground tanks have the advantage of applicability on almost any soil type (Figure 1.4). The
design also makes it easier to roof or cover the tank with galvanized iron sheets, grass, polythene,
wood or other material. The tank is particularly popular for runoff harvesting for agricultural
purposes, especially supplemental irrigation of small plots.

4
 Figure 1.4 (a) Open underground tank lined (b) Roofed rectangular underground tank
with geo-membrane (photo by Jean Muhinda) (photo by Bancy Mati)

1.2.3 Housed excavated tanks

In areas prone to high evaporation losses, housed excavated tanks (figure 1.5) and used for
rainwater harvesting from the same roof or compound. Such water tanks can hold enough water
to serve as the main source of water supply to a household or irrigation of small gardens. Excavated
earthen water tanks can be lined to reduce seepage. The lining materials include clay, ferrocement,
or plastic sheeting. Sandy soils/earth can also be excavated and lined with 15 cm concrete and
serve as water tight tanks. The method is good for hot areas, and provides security since the house
can be locked.

Figure 1.5 Housed excavated tanks within mud-walled rooms for RWH with
polythene outlet (photos courtesy of MoANRM, 2010)

1.2.4 Concrete (reinforced) underground tank

Underground tanks lined with concrete are used for storage of water for domestic use and
agriculture including irrigation (Figure 1.6). They can store water from harvested rain or from river
diversions and other sources. The tanks are usually rectangular shaped and can vary in size from a
few cubic metres to about 5,000 m3. The larger tanks are built with reinforced concrete. Some of
these tanks are usually covered with a concrete slab which can also serve as a catchment area for
rainwater harvesting. Sometimes the catchment area, ranging about 750 to 1.000 m2 is paved with
concrete to induce more runoff. In the absence of concrete, the catchment area can be graded and
compacted to enhance runoff. These systems are used in areas with as low as 100 mm of annual
rainfall.

5
 Figure 1.6 (a) Cylindrical reinforced (b) A rectangular reinforced concrete semi-
concrete tank (photos by Bancy Mati) underground tank for communal use

1.2.5 Hemispherical tanks

Hemispherical tanks can be built almost anywhere since they are usually lined with of ferrocement,
clay or plastic sheeting. The shape is hydraulically efficient, but the construction can be
complicated and requires expertise to achieve the correct curvature. Hemispherical tanks may be
roofed and covered for safety and to reduce evaporation losses. Like with other ground catchment
systems, sedimentation traps are necessary and some system of water abstraction. Hemispherical
ground tanks can also be built of burnt bricks that are reinforced with chicken mesh nailed onto
the interior of the tank (figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7 Hemi-spherical tank under (b) Roofed hemispherical underground tank
construction (Source, MoANRM, 2009) with silt trap (photo by B. Mati)

1.2.6 Spherical underground tank

Spherical tanks take the shape of a ball and are considered the most hydraulically efficient shape
for tank design. They are commonly used as underground tanks but good workmanship is required.
Spherical underground tanks can be fully buried or partially underground (Figure 1.8). They are
usually made of concrete, burnt bricks, masonry or other strong material. The main limitation with

6
spherical underground tanks is the high labour demands and expertise to excavate the site and
build the structure.

Figure 1.8 (a) Spherical underground tank (b) Spherical underground tank-nearing
under construction (photos by R. K. Cherogony) completion

1.2.7 Cylindrical tank

A cylindrical underground tank is made much the same way as in surface tanks. However, it
requires a lot of digging to achieve appreciable storage volume (Figure 4.9). Generally, cylindrical
tanks are made of concrete or bricks and have good hydraulic properties. They are easy to construct
using local labour and the construction material can be minimized as compared to surface tanks.

Fig. 1.9(a) Brick lined, open cylindrical tank (b) Cylindrical tank partially buried (the
(photos by Bancy Mati) visible pipe is for overflow)

1.2.8 Birkas
A birka is a small underground tank, about 100 to 200 m2, usually used for water harvesting
and storage (figure 1.10). It is an indigenous water harvesting technology in Ethiopia, and is
usually family-owned and are thus located in home compounds. Birkas are used for animal
watering and irrigation of small vegetable gardens. They are dug in a convenient depression and
have walls lined with concrete, stones and mortar or impermeable clay tile. Birkas have different
shapes such as circular, square or oblong. Collected runoff flows into a birka from the roof and
surrounding areas. The main problem is the heavy labor demanded for excavating the

7
foundations. Also, there is the need to pump (lift) water except where the ground gradient
permits gravity outlets. There is also the higher possibility of contamination and sedimentation,
although the latter can be reduced by providing adequate siltation basins.

Figure 1.10 A birka for RWH with cover (b) Inlet into birka through a buried pipe
(photos by Bancy Mati)

1.2.9 Sausage tank

A sausage tank is another name for a cylindrical tank which is constructed lying horizontal in the
ground (Figure 1.11) and thus it is sausage-shaped. This arrangement saves labour since the
depth of excavation is greatly reduced. Construction is also made easier. The length of the tank
can be made longer than would be possible in a birka, whose cylindrical tank is vertical. Also, since
the depth of the tank is shallower, it is possible to design a sausage tank with gravity outflow where
land slope permits. The design is particularly sited for agricultural water since on sloping land, it
can accord gravity fed irrigation.

Figure 1.11 (a)Sausage tank under (b) The completed sausage tank covered with
construction (photos by Bancy Mati) soil with just the opening showing

1.2.10 Berkads
A berkad is a cuboid-shaped ground tank, usually lined with masonry and/or concrete, which
collects surface run-off during intense rainfall episodes. They also receive runoff water from
upstream ground catchments via mitre drains or stone bund diversion and silt traps. Berkads are
common in parts of the Horn of Africa and are used mainly for livestock and domestic use. The
average size of berkads is larger than birkas, with volumes ranging 300 to 750 m3.

8
A berkad consists of an inlet canal, masonry lining and a live fencing (figure 1.12). At the entrance
of the berkad, stairs are constructed to facilitate access inside the tank. Fencing is done as a security
measure for water conservancy or against dangers to livestock and human beings who may fall and
get injured, sometimes fatally. Since berkads collect surface run-off, the risks of contamination is
high. However, in some cases, silt traps are provided to check siltation. Also, many berkads are
exposed and not covered by a roof, thus they have high evaporation losses.

Figure 1.12(a) Illustration of a berkad with conveyance(b) A typical berkad with fence
system (Source: SWALIM, 2007) (Source, De Hass, 2010)

1.2.11 Partially below ground tank

The partially below ground tank incorporates the merits of both above and below ground tanks in
one simple, low-cost design. It is built as a hemi-spherical underground tank of ferrocement
extending above ground level with a cylindrical wall made of blocks or stone masonry (Figure
1.13). It is suited for runoff harvesting from roof catchments which are too short to permit
constructions of a surface tank. A partially below ground tank also takes advantage of the support
given by the soil, to do away with the need for a structural component below ground level. At the
same time protection is given against contamination by surface runoff and damage by vehicles is
an added advantage. Water is drawn from the tank by either a hand pump or buckets. If the water
is lifted out of the tank, some wastage may occur, but the tank can also have a tap outlet by
excavating the water collection area.

9
Figure 1.13 (a)Partially below ground tank (b) The completed partially below ground
under construction (photos by Bancy Mati) tank (spherical) with roof catchment

1.3 Design of underground tanks

1.3.1 Major factors considered
Planning is the first step and helps identify sites for suitability of water-impounding structure and
other basic characteristics. Given water requirements, catchment/improved catchment run-
off/yield, evaporation and leakage over a design period, calculate structure capacity, shape and
dimensions. The layout of the water storage structure, catchment, inlet, outlet and safe overflow
disposal are as shown in figure 1.14. The major factors considered in the design of underground
tanks include:

Figure-1.14 Sketch of an underground tank arrangement (source: Gould and Peterson,1999)

Site characteristics
The first step is to find a suitable site for the underground tank, pan or pond. The site of an
underground tank should be appropriately located in terms of adequate catchment size, some
gradient and positioning of the tank itself. The site should be on soils such as clay that retain water.
Avoid sandy soils unless the pan will be lined to control seepage. The reservoir site should be a
natural depression or small valley so as not to dig too deep to achieve required volume. A good
source of runoff should be identified such as home compound, hillside, road or dry watercourse
as close to the pan/pond as possible. The area from which water flows into the water pan should
be have natural vegetation or grass, to minimize erosion and sediment deposits in the pond.

10
A good site has the following characteristics:
Close enough to the dwelling to avoid long lengths of guttering and downpipe (some
suggest siting the tank mid way along the length of a building to reduce gutter size this is
fine if water from one side of the building only will be fed into the tank)
Reasonably flat where possible otherwise the ground will have to be levelled before
marking out
Away from areas where surface water will gather (i.e. depressions)
Away from trees the roots of trees can be problematic
Away from areas where animals will wander or else the tank should be fenced off
Not so close to the dwelling that the foundations of the dwelling are undermined
Somewhere convenient for extracting water e.g. close to the kitchen area

The ground should be suitable for digging and for siting such a tank. There should be no large
stones, bed rock or sheet rock close to the surface, and one should be sure that the groundwater
table in the area is several meters below the bottom of the tank. This information can often be
gleaned from locals who may have tried digging wells, sinking boreholes or digging garbage pits.

Shape of the tank: Decision whether it will be circular, rectangular or square with consideration
to having the embankment/walls constructed continuously around structure to reduce
evaporation, control inflow and exclude paddock debris generated by severe storms. Consider the
use of circular structures, as this shape has the smallest surface area for evaporation to affect.

Depth of tank: should be adequate for provision of sufficient water supplies allowing for
evaporation loss. Depth should be greater than annual evaporation, or greater than total
evaporation for chosen design period if structure is for drought-proofing.

Side slopes (batter ratio) of the retaining walls - usually, this should be 3:1

Freeboard: should be a minimum of 1 m above maximum water level.

Overflow arrangements: The crest to be set at the maximum water level for the impounding
structure. Where a silt pit is installed, overflow can be set out from the silt pit. Overflow to
discharge clear of walls of structure. Where there is a risk of crest erosion, materials other than
earth can be used flumes and chutes being potential applications.

Silt traps and inlets:

These are very important as they affect the water quality and storage capacity. Silt traps are
necessary in nearly all types of ground catchment structures including ponds and pans. They are
particularly crucial where catchment to trap debris or other eroded materials.

Many designs of silt traps exist (figure 1.15) either made in the form of drop structures, gravel pits,
grassed or soak pits or by constructing a meandering entry channel into the tank.

11
 Figure 1.15 (a) Drop inlet structure for silt (b) Silt trap made of concrete sections
control (photo by Jean Muhinda) (photo by Bancy Mati)

1.3.2 Determining harvestable water

The assessment of harvestable water follows the same procedures as described in Chapter 2.
However, the design capacity or volume of an underground tank can be either supply or demand
based. In a supply-based approach, the equations that predict the discharge from the catchment
are used. A demand-based approach, utilizes the expected water consumption and is matched to
the dry periods for which this water shall be needed as well as the daily water requirements for
domestic use, animal watering and irrigation. Three methods are commonly used as described
below.

Water balance method

This is a month-by-month accounting method whereby inputs of rainfall are compared with
consumption (and overflow if it occurs). It is assumed that the balance remains in the tank. Any
size of tank can be considered using this approach. If a tank is too small, some rainfall will be lost
as overflow and the demand may not be met. If it is too big, it may never fill completely.

The choice of appropriate size in a given situation is not easy and the water balance method is not
really as simple as suggested because the probability of getting a certain amount of rain needs
to be considered along with many other factors. Computer modelling can help in decision-making.

Cumulative supply or demand method

This method involves calculating the cumulative supply and cumulative demand on a month-by-
month basis and showing them as lines on a graph. The maximum difference, during a 12-month
period, between the cumulative supply line and the cumulative demand line indicates the optimum
size of the tank.

12
Dry season storage method
This is the simplest and most preferred method for determining tank size for a RWH catchment.
In this method it is necessary to estimate the longest period during the year without rain and
estimate the daily consumption rate. The size of the tank that will be required is the number of dry
days multiplied by the daily water use. However, if the volume of run-off estimated from the roof
during the rainy season is less than the proposed tank size the latter is reduced accordingly.

1.3.3 Determination of storage capacity required

Water Demand
Water demand is the volume of water requested by users to satisfy their needs. A simplistic
interpretation considers that water demand equals water consumption. However, conceptually, the
two terms cannot be equated because, in some cases, especially in rural parts of Africa, the
theoretical water demand considerably exceeds actual consumptive water use.

Calculating Demand
Calculating the water needs of the user is relatively easy and involves a simple formula which
includes the average daily consumption of water from the tank per person (or livestock), the
number of days in the dry season, and the numbers of people using the tank.

Studies have shown that rural people with tanks next to their houses often use about 20 to 40 litres
of water per person per day. This is high compared to people who must walk long distances for
water who may use less than 10 litres per family per day. As an average, assume that each person
will take 20 litres per day if it is a household tank, and 5 litres per day if it is a school or health
centre tank. The formula is;
Demand (litres) = Total dry days x water required per person x total number of consumers
It is good to note that if the consumption is higher than estimated, the tank will run dry before the
next rainy season.

Volume of storage structure

This is calculated differently depending on the shape of the tank. The general formula adopted for
all shapes is the prismoidal formula expressed as follows:
V = (A +4M + B)d/6
where:
V = volume
A = top area of excavation (area of water surface when full)
B = bottom area of excavation (area of floor)
M = area at depth
d = depth
For convenient calculating, the following derivations of the prismoidal formula can be used for
each particular excavation shape:

13
Circular:

V = [R2 + (R x r) + r2]d/3

Rectangular:

V = [(L x W)+(lf x wf)+[(L x lf)+(W x wf)]]d/6

Square shaped tank:

The design volume is calculated with the following equation:
V = [L2 + (L x lf) + lf2] d/3
where in all formulae:
V = volume (m3)
R = radius of water surface (m)
r = radius of floor (m)
d = depth (m)
= Pi or 227 or 3.14159
L = length of water surface (m)
W = width of water surface (m)
lf = length of floor (m)
wf = width of floor (m)
d = depth of water from surface to floor (m).

Treatment of Catchment area

The catchment area can be made to yield more runoff by paving it with various materials. Concrete,
plastic sheeting, butyl rubber and metal foil can also be used to cover the soil for rainwater
harvesting. Gravel may protect the underlying membrane against radiation and wind damage. Also,
wax, latexes, asphalt, bitumen, fiberglass and silicones can be used as sealants on soils which do
not swell with moisture. Plots treated with sun-melted granulated paraffin-wax yielded about 90
percent of the rainfall as runoff, compared to 30 percent from untreated plots. In some cases, even
when the soil contains a significant amount of clay and fine materials, excessive water losses may
still occur due to well developed soil structure or arrangement of the clay particles. Applying small
amounts of certain chemicals to the porous aggregates may result in rearrangement of the clay
particles. The process is called de-flocculation. This dispersed or dissociated structure reduces soil
permeability. The chemicals used are called dispersing agents.

1.4 Construction of underground tank

Several of the techniques used for building surface tanks can also be used for underground tanks.
For these the tanks are constructed in excavations with the soil being back filled around the outside
of the tank on completion. Where impervious soils exist, such as clay or loess, it is often possible
to construct unlined sub-surface reservoirs. Invariably these suffer from problems of seepage
evaporation and poor water quality.

14
1.4.1 Procedure
Excavation of underground tanks is carried out in two ways i.e. hollowing out method and open
excavation method. Hollow-out way of excavation is adopted only in areas where the sub-soil is
firm enough and involves digging by starting at the top of the ground and hollow out/making
wider the body of the cellar when gets down . Whereas the open excavation method is adopted in
areas where the sub-soil is relatively weak and more loose, to avoid pit collapse when digging in.
Casting (construction) of the top roof structure in the case of open excavation method will be
undertaken after the construction of the tank is completed.

The tank, constructed in areas with firm sub-soil can be plastered by using clay mud or mud mortar
or cement mortar for seepage control. But if the tank is constructed relatively in area with weak
and looser soil lining by using clay mud or cement mortar (thin wall) is not effective. In places
where the soils are clayey, and impervious, it is possible to build unlined sub-surface tanks, but
they suffer from seepage, evaporation and poor water quality.
The following steps can be followed steps
(i) Prepare site by pegging and referencing corners (square and rectangular shapes) or structure
centre (circular shape). Measure fall across site for calculation of any storage volume above
excavation. Install a temporary bench mark in a protected location.
(ii) Remove topsoil and stockpile clear of embankment location.
(iii) Excavate core trench under embankments (walls) if pervious materials are present under
topsoil. Core trench must extend 1 m into impervious material.
(iv) Build the embankments (walls) by excavating in floors and pushing material to correct
location (figure 1.16). Compact embankment with bulldozer weight in 50 to 75 mm layers
or compact 150 mm layers with a sheeps foot roller. Embankment side slope ratios can be
confirmed by using an electronic builders slope finder or battometer. Install inlet and outlet
pipes early in construction of embankments.

Figure 1.16 (a) Stone-pitched trapezoidal (b) Plastic-line tank with trapezoidal
underground tank (photos by Bancy Mati) profile

15
(v) Construct the roof of the tank (figure 1.17)
(vi) Construct the overflow and final trim structure.
(vii) Topsoil outside batters and embankment top using stockpiled topsoil. Topsoiling encourages
vegetation and helps retain embankment moisture and resist cracking.

Figure 1.17 (a) Roofing an underground tank (b) A roofed rectangular underground tank
(source: Danida, 2007) (photo courtesy of Tewodros Teshome)

1.4.2 Choice of construction materials

A good control over the quality of construction materials is a first important step in the
construction of successful water tanks. Cost and availability are as well important initial
considerations. Construction materials constitute a considerable proportion of the costs involved.
It would thus be sensible to make use of available local construction material, such as bricks (figure
1.18) to help in cost saving; these include various types of soils, gravel/pebble, rubble stones and
boulders/rocks.

Figure 1.18(a) Cross-sectional of a hemi-spherical (b) Hemispherical underground tank

tank (adapted from Nissen-Peterssen and Lee, 1990) built with bricks Source: Danida, 2007)

16
Cement
Cement is packed in paper bags of about 50 kg and have a volume of 37 liters per bag. Cement
contains principally lime (CaO) and silica (SiO2); it becomes plastic shortly after contact with
water. After a couple of hours, a chemical reaction stiffens or sets cement to stone hard material,
which bonds well with sand, aggregate and iron/steel, provided it is well cured for a minimum of
three weeks., It is necessary to maintain the right proportion while mixing cement with other
construction material.

Water proof cement

Water proof cement helps in sealing tanks; but it dries too quickly in hot and dry climates making
fine cracks in the sealing coat. An alternative to water proof cement in such climates is a material
called Nil. Nil is made by mixing cement with water to form a thin paste (cement slurry). It is
applied to the final layer of plaster with a square steel trowel on the same day the plaster is applied.
Nil is a cheaper option as well.

Sand
Sand is an important ingredient used for making concrete, mortar, blocks, etc. The main
requirement on sand is that it should be free from organic or chemical impurities that would
weaken the mortar/concrete. Sand should always be sieved before mixing, to remove organic
materials which rot in tank walls and other parts of the structure. There should be a reasonable
proportion of all grain sizes, without an excess of both fine or course sand particles. course sand
with particle sizes of 1-4mm is the most suitable for concreting foundations and flat roof slabs;
finer sand is useful for mixing mortar for plaster. Most clean sands are suitable for use in RWH
structures.

Aggregates
Another name for aggregate is crushed stone; it is used for making concrete. The size aggregate
should be 8-32 mm; it should be very hard with rough surface for a good bonding with other
material. Porous, soft or easily weathered stone should not be used for aggregate; and as with sand,
aggregate should be free from soil and organic matter.

Water
Although water may not have to be necessarily very clean for mixing with and curing cement,
saline water should never be used for construction. Note as well that considerable amount of water
is needed for construction and curing, and mostly it needs to be transported by women from far
places. When construction is completed, some water should be filled in the tank to help in the
curing process. More will be said in 6.2.2 regarding the ratio of water that should be used while
mixing it with other construction material and for making ferrocement.

Reinforcement
There are different types of steel reinforcement mesh, which consist of thin wires either woven or
welded in to a mesh. The main requirement on meshes is that they are handled easily, and that
they are flexible enough to be bent around sharp corners. The wires should be tied and held firmly
in place while the mortar is being applied/trowelled. Generally, various types of reinforcement

17
wire can be used such as weld mesh. BRC (No. 65), galvanized wire 3mm, barbed wire (guage
12.5), twisted 12 mm iron bar, and chicken mesh (25 mm).

Cement Based Mixtures

The preparation of a high-quality mixture of mortar/concrete from cement, sand
aggregate/crushed stone and water is one of the most important stages in building water tanks.
The following the very basic and crucial rules for mixing and applying mortar and concrete. If
neglected, the strength and water proof properties of tanks are greatly reduced, leading to cracks
and leaks.
Cement, sand, aggregate and water should be mixed thoroughly well, without adding too
much water;
Mortar/concrete should be applied while fresh, within half an hour after mixing; and
The cement work should be cured properly by keeping it moist and under shed for at least
three weeks.
Mortar and concrete should be mixed with the right proportions, which varies depending
upon the tank component.

It is necessary to mix cement and sand alone first (for mortar and aggregate as well for concrete),
before adding water. Water should be added to the dry mix when everything else is ready for
mortar/concrete application. This helps in making use of the cement mixture while it is fresh, and
also avoids the extra heavy work of unnecessarily mixing water right at the start with the other
ingredients. Water should be kept to a minimum, just enough to make the mortar/concrete
workable.

The lower the water content the higher the strength of the mortar/concrete. If too dry and stiff
however, it will be difficult to work on to the formwork to achieve full compaction, and is likely
to contain air voids and be imperfectly bonded to the reinforcement. A good mortar should be
moist and never wet, that it spreads out like porridge, but have the consistency of mashed potato,
water should never be visible and should not look shiny in the mixture. Ideally this should be for
a 1:3 cement: Most sand mix ratio of mortar, a water to cement weight (not volume) ratio of 0.5:1
will be satisfactory. Under most conditions, and owing to varying reasons however, workability
needs to be controlled by eye during mixing.

Pumps
Pumps are usually needed to lift water from underground tanks. They can be small motorized or
manual pumps operated by hand or treadle. Pumps however need better management for
operation and maintenance/repair which is generally not easily available, especially in rural areas.
Communally owned tanks are more prone and complicated in this regard, than those individually
owned. The advantage of pumps is however that when they fail/break water is not drained, and
the tank emptied as is generally the case with gravity fed taps. A, rope and bucket can be used to
abstract the water which requires to be cleaned out.

18
Fencing
Tanks should be fenced with suitable material, e.g. barbed wire or life-fence. A lockable door
should be provided to exceptionally avoid the reach of domestic and wild animals and small
children. Holes underneath made by burrowing animals, e.g. moles, should also be checked. Water
take off from underground tanks should use low cost water lifting devices e.g. rope and washer
pump or other manual and small motorized pumps.

1.5 Seepage control methods in underground tanks

Lining with cement mortar, mud mortar or clay mud is applied when the sub-soil is firm and dense
enough to keep the tank stable. It is usually thin lining. It can be kept stable in an excavated vertical
section with a height up to 10 m without any support. The underground tank can work with thin
wall. The stability of the structure mainly depends on the soil and role of the thin lining is to
prevent from seepage. Depending on the firmness of the sub soil, the side slope is utilized varying
from zero slope to 1:10 (horizontal to vertical) to stabilize the wall of the tank

To make the seepage control activity more effective leave earth of the last 3-4 cm at the outer
diameter of the tank unexcavated and to be compacted by wooden hammer to increase the density
of the soil by which the cement mortar will be pasted. This is good for improving anti-seepage
effect and strengthens the combination of soil/cement mortar, mud mortar and clay mud.

Lining with clay mud

When cement is not affordable, clay may still be an option, for seepage control. Application of
clay for lining involves (i) Dry up the clay; (ii) Crush the clay into fine particles by screening; (iii)
Add water in proper quantity and mix hard; and (iv) Press the clay mud by hands or feet and
squeeze it into dough-like mix. Cement mortar is common material for lining underground tank.
It is more expensive than the clay mud, however it is less permeable.

Clay grouting
Clay grouting involves applying a clay blanket to cover the entire surface of the tank or pond over
which water is to be impounded. The material for grouting should contain at least 20% clay
particles by weight. The clay material should be at optimum moisture content and spread uniformly
in layers of 15 cm to 20 cm thick, with each layer being thoroughly compacted before the next
layer is added. There should be suitable clay borrow site that is close enough to get clay soil at
reasonable cost. The minimum thickness of the clay blanket should be 30 cm for all depths of
water up to 3 m. If the water depth is greater than 3 m, the thickness of the blanket should also be
increased proportionally. Generally it is recommended to increase this thickness by 5 cm for every
30 cm of water exceeding 3 m depth. Clay blankets may require protection from cracking that may
results from drying and from rupture caused by freezing and thawing. After completion of the
clay-sealing, it is recommended to spread a cover of gravel 30 cm to 45 cm thick over the blanket.
The method is suitable for underground tanks and ponds which have high percentage of coarse-
grained soils but lacking sufficient clay to prevent excessive seepage.

19
Sealing with Bentonite
Bentonite is clay with a high shrink swell ratio. It is fine-textured colloidal clay, when wet; absorbs
water several times greater than its own weight and, at complete saturation, swells to as much as 8
to 15 times its original volume. This action tends to seal soil that lack clay-size particles. Therefore,
adding bentonite is another method of reducing seepage in soils containing high percentage of
coarse-grained particles and not enough clay. Bentonite, like clay blankets, must also be protected
against drying. Since it returns to its original volume when dry, bentonite is not recommended for
sealing ponds with wide fluctuations in water levels. If considerable time elapses between applying
the bentonite and filling the pond, protecting the treated area against drying and cracking may be
necessary. A mulch of straw or hay pinned to the surface gives this protection.

Lining with stone masonry/bricks

Tanks are usually lined with stone masonry, bricks, or concrete. This involves using a concrete
foundation and then building the concrete wall within the excavation. To ensure a water tight
structure, it is very important to lay the masonry in a proper way. A layer of stone/bricks is laid
and mortar is poured on top of the first layer of stones. The mortar should be pressed into all the
voids between the stones to ensure a dense masonry. Then the next layer of stones is laid as
before. It is important to make sure that the joints between stones should be arranged in an
alternate manner and straight joints in both vertical and horizontal directions should be strictly
avoided. Once completed, soil is squeezed firmly in the space between in the outer space created
during construction to ensure good fit with the ground. The tank can be roofed or covered with
grass or canvas (figure 1.18).

Figure 1.19 (a) Underground tank lined(b) Underground tank lined with stone masonry and
with concrete (photo by Bancy Mati) covered with canvas (Source; MoANRM, 2009)

Plastic geo-membrane linings

Another option is to use plastic geo-membranes (figure 1.20). These are specially made plastic
linings used in dam construction. Normally, a geo-membrane is made to measure in a factory and
the tank is constructed to fit its dimensions. Its cost varies, being cost effective in some countries.

20
The advantage of plastic geo-membranes is that they can be installed by the user easily. Also, if
well protected, they control seepage quite effectively, and can be used on almost any soil. A major
limitation is the shorter lifespan, which rangers 5-10 years. They can also be easily damaged by
agricultural equipment.

Figure 1.20(a) Plastic geo-membrane lining (b) Geo-membrane lining for RWH
ready for sale (photos by Bancy Mati) tank

Care is needed while installing geo-membrane linings to ensure that there is proper handling and
storage i.e. transporting of the sheet in rolling pattern than sharp folding. Also, the surface of the
pond should be smoothened to remove any piercing materials. Proper anchoring of the geo-
membrane in the trench at the top edges. Fencing of the pond in order to protect it from animals
and children.

Advantages of flexible geomembrane

Compared to other sealing methods flexible geomembranes have the following advantages. They
can be applied to various soil types (i.e. fine, medium and coarse course textured soils). The cost
is getting lower as their popularity grows with more manufacturers and suppliers. Geo-membrane
covers can be transported easily to place of use. If punctured, the membrane can be easily repaired
by farmers themselves or local practitioners (by using used plastic products, heat, gluing using
adhesives of bicycle inner tube maintenance techniques). Also, seepage losses can be completely
reduced.

1.6 Water quality

Although ground catchment systems are sometimes used to collect rainwater for drinking
purposes, it is strongly recommended, where possible, that this water should be treated by e.g.
boiling, chlorinated or passed through a slow sand filter before being consumed. Natural treated
soil or compacted surfaces may form suitable catchment surfaces, although excess sediment may
need to be removed from the harvested water. Due to the low runoff coefficients of many natural
soil surfaces, especially where the slopes are small, various techniques have been developed to
increase the amount of rainwater runoff. These basically involve three approaches covering
treating or compacting of the surface.

21
The treatment of catchment surfaces should be done so as to reduce infiltration and hence increase
the runoff from natural surfaces. Among the materials added to soil surfaces to try to seal and
reduce infiltration are cement, butyl rubber, lime, paraffin wax oil, bitumen and asphalt. Sodium
salts may also be used to encourage crusting in soils containing clay is of another approached that
can be used. The compaction and shaping of natural soil surfaces using machinery to form
catchments made of a series of cambered roadways known as roaded catchments. These
catchments feed parallel drains, normally leading into a single surface reservoir. Although not
generally used to provide community supplies, due to the poor quality of the water for domestic
purposes. The potential for developing roaded catchments exists wherever road construction and
earth-moving machinery are available.

1.7 Operation and maintenance

As with other water harvesting systems, underground tanks require proper operation and regular
maintenance. There should be regular checks on the tank for seepage, cracking and piping and
movement cracks within embankment. Also, the side slopes, inlets and outlets should be inspected
any damages. If present and attended to early, most of these problems can be treated.

Regular cleaning of inlets, silt pits and the tank itself of any of debris and eroded soil material
should be done. Vermin can burrow into inlets, outlets, embankments causing damage. Burrows
should be dug out and repacked with clay. Vermin around the structure should be eradicated. The
whole area around the tank should be fenced to improve safety.

22