1

11
VISCOUS FLOW
11.1 Introduction
Fluid flow may be either viscous (laminar or streamline) or turbulent, the type of
flow depending on Reynolds number, i.e.
VD VD VD
Re = , or Re = = (i)
/
where = mass density
= dynamic viscosity of fluid
V = mean velocity
D = diameter of the pipe
= kinematic viscosity.
For viscous flow, Re < 2100; and for turbulent flow, Re > 2500. The transition
occurs in between, i.e.2100 < Re < 2500. The velocity at which the flow changes from
laminar to turbulent is termed critical velocity.
Apart from laminar flow in pipes, laminar flow may also occur in underground flow
and flow of oil in measuring instruments
Characteristics of laminar flow include:
du
(i) Shear stress between fluid layer s due to viscosity given by = for flow
dy
in x-direction.
(ii) The flow is irrotational.
(iii) No slip occurs at the boundary.
(iv) Energy has to be supplied externally to compensate for loss of energy due to
dissipation of energy by viscous shear.
(v) Loss of energy is proportional to velocity or viscosity raised to some power.
(vi) No mixing between different fluid layers (except by molecular motion which
negligible).
(vii) The flow remains laminar as long as Reynolds number is less than the critical
value.
11.2 Reynolds experiment
Two types of flow can be observed in Osborne Reynolds experiment which he
carried out in 1883 using simple apparatus as shown in Fig 11.1.

Tank Dye (same sp. gr as water) (i)

Water
Glass tube
Valve (ii)

(iii)

Filament dye
(a) (b)
Fig 11.1: Types of Flow

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When the valves are opened, dye and water will start to flow through the
transparent pipe, and the following observations will be made as per Fig 11.1(b).
(i) At low velocities, dye moves along a well defined path, and this is termed
laminar or viscous flow.
(ii) As the velocity is increased, the tread of the dye begins to disintegrate
(transitional stage).
(iii) At higher velocities, dye particles mix completely with water and this is
termed turbulent flow.
11.3 Flow of Viscous Fluid Through a Circular Pipe
(a) Shear Stress Distribution
Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R, in which a fluid element of radius r, slides in
a cylindrical fluid element of radius (r+ dr), as shown in Fig 11.2.
2 rx
dr

A D R dr
r r r
Flow r
x

B C

p 2
pr2 x p + x r
x
(a) (b)
Fig 11.2

Let: length of fluid element = x

intensity of pressure on face AB = p
p
intensity of pressure on face CD = p + x
x
Forces acting on fluid element are:
(i) Pressure force on face AB = p r 2
p 2
(ii) Pressure force on face CD = p + x r
x
(iii) Shear force on surface of fluid element = 2 rx
Since there is no acceleration, summation of all forces in the direction of flow must
be zero;
p
p r 2 - p + x r 2 - 2 rx = 0
x
p
x r 2 2 rx = 0
x
p r
= (ii)
x 2
p
Since across a section is constant, across a section varies with r, as
x

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shown in Fig11.3(a).

R r y r

(a) Shear stress distribution (b) Velocity distribution

Fig 11.3

(b) Velocity Distribution

Shear stress distribution is given by:
du
= (iii)
dy
In a pipeline, y is measured from the pipe wall, i.e.
y =R-r, hence dy = -dr
du du
= =
dr dr
Substituting in equation (ii),
du p r
=
dr x 2
du 1 p
or = r
dr 2 x
Integrate equation w.r.t r
1 p 2
u= r +C (iv)
4 x
Constant of integration C is obtained from boundary condition: u = 0 when r = R
1 p 2
0= R +C
4 x
1 p 2
C= R
4 x
Substitute value of C in equation (iv);
1 p 2 1 p 2
u= r R
4 x 4 x
1 p 2
=
4 x
[
R r2 ] (v)

p
In equation (v), , and R are constant i.e. u varies with the square of r, hence
x
velocity is parabolic, as shown in Fig 11.3 (b).
(c) Ratio of Maximum Velocity to Average Velocity
The velocity in equation (v) is maximum when r = 0.

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1 p 2
Umax = R (vi)
4 x
Average velocity through the pipe,
disch arg e(Q)
u=
area (A )
Discharge Q across the section is obtained by considering the flow through a
circular ring element of radius r and thickness dr as shown in Fig 11.2.
Fluid flowing/s through elementary ring,
dQ = velocity at radius r area of ring element
= u2rdr
1 p 2
=
4 x
[
R r 2 2 rdr ]
Total discharge,
R R
1 p
Q = dQ = [ ]
2 2
2 R r rdr
0
4 x 0
p 4
= R
8 x
Area of pipe,A = R 2
p 4
R
Q 8 x 1 p 2
Average velocity u = = 2
= R (vii)
A R 8 x
Divide equation (vi) by equation (vii);
1 p 2
R
U max 4 x
= = 2 .0 (viii)
u 1 p 2
R
8 x
i.e. ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity =2.0
(d) Drop of pressure for a given length (L) of a Pipe
Consider a portion of a pipe as shown in Figure 11.4.
1 2

r
p1 p2
Flow x

1 2

x1 L
x2

Fig 11.4

From equation (vii),

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1 p 2
u= R
8 x
p 8 u
= 2
x R
Integrate above equation w.r.t x;
2 2
8 u
p = 2 dx
1 1 R

8 u
-(p2-p1) = (x 2 x 1 )
R2
8 u 8 uL 32 uL
or p1-p2 = L= =
R 2
(D / 2) 2
D2
where (p1-p2) = drop of pressure
Loss of pressure head,
p p 2 32 uL
hf = 1 = (ix)
g gD 2
Equation (ix) is called Hagen Poiseuille formula. The equation is based on the
assumptions; (i) Newtons law of viscosity is obeyed (ii) No slip of fluid particles occurs
at the boundary, hence velocity is zero at pipe wall.
From Darcys equation,
4fLV 2
hf = , where V= u
2gD
4fLV 2 32VL
=
2gD gD 2
16 VD
or f= , where R e = (x)
Re
16
Thus in viscous flow, the frictional factor, f =
Re
Example 11.1: Water flows through a 250mm diameter pipe with coefficient of friction
f=0.05. If shear stress at a point 50mm from pipe axis is 100N/m2, determine the shear
stress at the pipe wall.
Solution
Given: Diameter of pipe, D=250 mm= 0.25m
Shear stress at r = 50mm, =100N/m2
Frictional factor, f = 0.05
Let o= shear stress at pipe wall
First, determine if flow is viscous or not: (flow is viscous if Re< 2100)
16 16
f= or 0.05 =
Re Re
Re =320, and flow is viscous.
Shear stress in case of viscous flow through a pipe,

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p r
=
x 2
p
But is constant
x
r
At the pipe wall, r = 0.125m
100
= o or = o
r 0.125 0.05 0.125
o = 250N/m2
Example 11.2: A pipe of diameter 200mm and length 12km is laid at a slope of 1 in 225.
The pipe conveys oil of specific gravity 0.9, viscosity 0.16 Ns/m2 and is pumped at a rate
of 25 litres/s. Determine: (a) the head lost due to friction (b) the power required to pump
the oil.
Solution
Given: Diameter of pipe, D=200 mm= 0.2m
Length of pipe, L = 12km=1200m
1
Slope of pipe, i= 1 in 225 =
225
Specific gravity of oil, s = 0.9
Viscosity of oil, = 0.16 Ns/m2
Discharge , Q= 25l/s=0.025m3/s
(a) Head lost due to friction, hf:

Area of pipe, a = 0.2 2 = 0.0314m 2
4
Average velocity through the pipe,
disch arg e (Q) 0.025
u= = = 0.796m / s
area (A ) 0.0314
w 0.9 9.81 10 3
Density of oil, = = = 900 kg/m3
g 9.81
VD 900 0.796 0.2
Reynolds number R e = = = 896
0.16
Since Re <2100, the flow is viscous
16 16
f = = = 0.0179
Re 896
Head lost due to friction,
4fLV 2 4 0.0179 12000 0.796 2
hf = = = 138.737m
2gD 2 9.81 0.2
(b) Power required to pump oil, P:
Due to slope in pipe of 1 in 225, height through which oil is to be raised by the
Pump,
= slope length of pipe = i L

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 7

1
= 12000 = 53.333m
225
Total head against which the pump has to work,
H= hf + (i L) = 138.737+53.333=192.07m
Power required to pump oil,
P= wQH = 9009.810.025192.07 = 42395w = 42.395kw
11.4 Flow of Viscous Fluid Between Two Parallel Plates at Rest
(a) Velocity Distribution
Consider the flow of viscous fluid between two parallel fixed plates kept at a
distance t apart, as shown in Fig 11.5.

p y 1 + y x 1 Parallel plate
y
A D
r
p
y y p + x y 1 t
y
x y B C

x Parallel plate

x 1
Fig 11.5: Parallel plates at Rest

Let: x = length of fluid element

y = thickness of fluid element distance y from lower fixed plate
intensity of pressure on face AB of fluid element = p
p
intensity of pressure on face CD of fluid element = p + x
x
shear stress acting on face BC =

shear stress acting on face AD = + y
y
Taking width of fluid element in the direction perpendicular to paper as unity,
forces acting on fluid element are:
(i) Pressure force on face AB = p y 1
p
(ii) Pressure force on face CD = p + x y.1
x
(ii) Shear force on face BC = .x 1

(iii) Shear force on face AD = + y .x 1
y
For steady and uniform flow, there is no acceleration, hence resultant force in the
direction of flow is zero.

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p
p y 1 - p r 2 - p + x y 1 - .x 1 + + y .x 1 = 0
x y
p
or x y + y x = 0
x y
Dividing by x y, we get
p
+ =0
x y
p
= (xi)
x y
du
To obtain velocity distribution across a section, substitute = in equation (xi).
dy
p du 2u
= = 2
x y dy y
2 u 1 p
or =
y 2 x
p
Integrating above equation w.r.t y, and taking as constant, we get
x
u 1 p
= y + C1
y x
Integrating again:
1 p y 2
u= + C1 y + C 2 (xii)
x 2
The constants C1 and C2 can be obtained from boundary conditions:
(i) u = 0 at y = 0
(ii) u = 0 at y = t
Substituting first boundary condition in equation (xii);
1 p
0= 0 + C1 0 + C 2 or C2 = 0
x
Substituting second boundary condition in equation (xii);
1 p t 2
0= + C1 t + 0
x 2
1 p t 2 1 p
C1 = = t
x 2t 2 x
Substituting values of C1 and C2 in equation (xii);
1 p 2 1 p
u= y + y t
2 x 2 x
1 p
u=
2 x
(
ty y 2 ) (xiii)

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p
In equation (xiii), , and t are constants i.e. u varies with the square of y,
x
hence velocity distribution across a section between parallel plates is parabolic as
shown in Fig 11.6 (b).

o v

(a) Shear stress distribution (b) Velocity distribution

Fig 11.6

(b) Shear Stress Distribution

This is obtained by substituting the value of u from equation (xiii) into the equation
for shear stress distribution:
d 1 p
=
dy 2 x
(
ty y 2 )

1 p
or = (t 2 y ) (by differentiation)
2 x
1 p
= (t 2 y ) (xiv)
2 x
p
In equation (xiv), and t are constants i.e. t varies linearly with y. Shear stress
x
distribution will be as shown in Fig 11. 6(a), and will be a maximum at the walls of
t
the plate (when y = 0 or t), and is zero at the centerline (when y = ) between the
2
two plates.
The maximum shear stress 0 is given by,
1 p
0 = t (xv)
2 x
(c) Ratio of Maximum Velocity to Average Velocity
t
In equation (xiii), velocity is maximum when y =
2
1 p t t
2
1 p 2
Umax = t = t (xvi)
2 x 2 2 8 x
Average velocity across the section,
disch arg e (Q)
u=
area of sec tion ( t 1)
Discharge Q across the section is obtained by considering the rate of flow of fluid
through strip of thickness dy and integrating it.

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Rate of flow through strip,

dQ = velocity at distance y area of strip
1 p
=
2 x
[
ty y 2 dy 1 ]
Total discharge,
t t
1 p 1 p 3
Q = dQ =
2 x
(
ty y 2 dy = )
12 x
t
0 O

1 p 3
t
Q 12 x 1 p 2
u= = = t (xvii)
area t 1 12 x
Dividing equation (xvi) by equation (xvii), we get;
1 p 2
t
U max 8 x 12 3
= = = (xviii)
u 1 p 2 8 2
t
12 x
3
i.e. ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity =
2
(d) Drop of pressure for a given length (L)
Consider a short length as shown in Fig 11.7.
From equation (xvii), we have
1 p 2
u= t
12 x
p 12 u
or = 2
x t
1 2

p1 p2
Flow
y
x
1 2

x1 L
x2

Fig 11.7

Integrate above equation w.r.t x,

2 2
12 u
p = 2 dx
1 1 t
12 u
or -(p2-p1) = 2
(x 2 x 1 ) = 122uL
t t

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 11

12 uL
p1-p2 =
t2
where (p1-p2) = drop of pressure
If hf is the drop of pressure, then:
p1 p 2 12 uL
hf = =
g gt 2
12uL
hf = (xix)
gt 2
Example 11.3: Oil of viscosity 0.02 Ns/m2 flows between two stationary parallel plates
1.2m wide maintained 12mm apart. If the velocity mid-way between the plates is 2.5m/s,
determine: (a) the pressure gradient along the flow (b) the average velocity (c) the
discharge.
Solution
Given: Viscosity =0.02 Ns/m2 ; width b= 1.2m
Distance between the plates, t= 0.012m
Velocity mid-way between the plates, Umax=2.5m/s
p
(a) Pressure gradient, ;
x
1 p 2
Umax = t
8 x
1 p
(0.012 )
2
2.5 =
8 0.02 x
p
= 2778N/m 2 per m run
x
(b) Average velocity, u ;
u max 3
=
u 2
2 2
u = u max = 2.5 = 1.667m/s
3 3
(c) Discharge, Q;
Q = area of flow u
= (b t) u =(1.20.012)1.667 = 0.024m3/s
11.5 Momentum Correction Factor, for Pipeline Flow
This is defined as the ratio of momentum of flow/s based on actual velocity to the
momentum of flow/s based on average velocity across the same section, and is denoted by
.
momentum / s based on actual velocity
i.e. =
momentum / s based on average velocity
Considering Fig 11.8:
Velocity distribution through a circular pipe for laminar flow at any radius r is given
by,

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 12

1 p 2
u= R r
4 x
2
( ) (v)

Consider an elementary area dA in the form of a ring at a radius r and width dr:
dA= 2rdr

dr

R dr dA
r r r
Flow

Fig 11.8

Rate of fluid flowing through the ring,

dQ = velocity area of ring element
= u 2rdr
Momentum of fluid through ring/s,
= mass velocity
= dQu
= (2rdru) u =2 u2rdr
Total actual momentum of fluid /s across section,
R
= 2 u 2 rdr
0
Substitute value of u from equation (v):
Total actual momentum of fluid /s across section,
2
1 p
R

(
= 2 R 2 r 2 rdr
4 x
)
0
2
1 p 2 R
= 2 R 2 r 2 [ ]
rdr
4 x 0
2
p 6
= R (xx)
48 2 x
Momentum of fluid/s based on average velocity,
= mass of fluid/s average velocity
2
= A u u = A u
where A = area of cross-section = R 2
u max
u = average velocity =
2
1 1 p 2 1 p 2
= R u max = R
2 4 x 4 x

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1 p 2
= R
8 x
Momentum/s based on average velocity,
2
2 1 p
= R R 2
8 x
2
p 6
R
= x
(xxi)
64 2
momentum / s based on actual velocity
=
momentum / s based on average velocity
2
p 6
R
48 2 x 64 4
= 2
= = (xxii)
p 6 48 3
R
64 2 x
11.6 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor, for Pipeline Flow
This is defined as the ratio of kinetic energy (K.E.) of the flow/s based on actual
velocity to the kinetic energy of flow/s based on average velocity across the same section,
and is denoted by .
K.E. / s based on actual velocity
i.e., =
K.E. / s based on average velocity
Kinetic energy of fluid/s through elementary ring of radius r and width dr,
1
= mass u 2
2
1 1
= dQ u 2 = (u 2 rdr ) u 2
2 2
3
= ru dr
Total actual K.E. of flow/s,
R
= ru 3 dr
0
3
R
1 p
(
= R 2 r 2 rdr )
0 4 x
3R
1 p
(R )
2 3
= r 2 rdr
4 x 0
3
p R 8
= (xxiii)
64 3 x 8
Kinetic energy of flow based on average velocity,
1 2
= mu
2

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1 2 1 3
= A u u = A u
2 2
1 p 2
Substitute value of A = R2, and u = R :
8 x
3
1 1 p
K.E. of flow/s = R 2 R 2
2 8 x
3
p
= 3
R8 (xxiv)
128 8 x
K.E. / s based on actual velocity
=
K.E. / s based on average velocity
3
p R
8


x 8
Eq(xxiii) 643
= = 3
= 2.0 (xxv)
Eq(xxiv) p 8
x R
128 83

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