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Qualitative Methods in
Psychology: A Research Guide

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QUALITATIVE METHODS
IN PSYCHOLOGY
A Research Guide

Peter Banister, Erica Burman,

lan Parker, Maye Taylor and
Carol Tindall

Open University Press

. ... .... "'
...... .. ..... ..... .
139678

mI11 III III11 I 11

 CONTENTS

Preface iv

1 Qualitative research 1
2 Observation 17
3 Ethnography 34
4 Interviewing 49
5 Personal construct approaches 72
6 Discourse analysis 92
7 Action research 108
8 Feminist research 121
9 Issues of evaluation 142
10 Report writing 160

Index 180
 INDEX

Abbott, P., 109, 118, 121, 122 Berger, P.L., 30

Abrams, D., 105 Bewley, C., 125-30, 131, 133, 134,
accountability, 156-7 135, 137, 156
in feminist research, 126, 133, 134, Bhavnani, K.K., 65, 132, 138
135-6 'bias' interpretation, 7
action-in-research, 110-12 Billig, M., 119
action research, 3, 8, 35, 51, 93, 102, Bingham, W., 51
108-20 Boston Women's Health Collective,
and empowerment, 112, 119 Our Bodies, Ourselves, 112
'Hawthorne effect' in, 119 Bott, M., 75
and social change, 156-7 Bowers, ]., 105
spiral, 114 Brannen, ]., 148
Adelman, c., 37 British Psychological Society, 32, 153,
Albert, S., 21 161, 162, 173, 174, 175-6
American Psychological Association, Brunswick, E., 5
162, 173, 177 Bruyn, S.T., 44
Amos, V., 122 Burgess, B., 121
anonymity, 155-6, 175, 176 Burgess, R., 37
Argyle, M., 21, 83 Burman, E., 15, 65, 66, 67, 105, 135,
Atkinson, P., 36 137

Bales, R.F., 20 Callaway, H., 150

Banister, P., 168 Cary, M.S., 22
Bannister, D., 75 change, see social change
Barker, E., 35 Cobb, S., 84
Bart, P.B., 112 Cohen, L., 109, 110, 113
Bern, D.}., 163, 164, 170 confidentiality, 155-6, 175, 176
 Index 181
'conscientization', 157 field role relations in, 37-9, 42
consistency, 143 gender and ethnicity issues, 39
'constructive alternativism', 74 and interviewing practice, 52
constructs, 73-4, 75-7, 78, 82, 87, multimethod approach, 36, 37,
88-90 40-1
in the ABC model, 85-6 natural history model of writing up,
and concepts, 88-9 45
core, 73, 85-6 note-taking, 40
hierarchical networking of, 73 study of West Ham supporters,
sociocultural context on construing, 41-6, 46-7
89-90 evaluation research, 111-12, 142-59
conversational laddering, :12, 81, Evans, M., 122
82-4, 85 exchange grid, 75
Coulson, M., 132 experimenter effects, 7, 11
counselling, 38, 117, 150
creativity cycle, 143-5 feminist research, 3, 8", 15, 46, 50,
'crisis' in psychology, 4, 8, 92 51, 102, 121-41, 149
cultural feminism, 122 and action research, 110-12, 113
commitment to reciprocity, 126
Darley, J.M., 18 and compromise, 135
Data Protection Act, 155 and interviewing practice, 52-3, 55
data triangulation, 146 role of men in, 121-2, 137
Davies, B., 93 and social change, 137, 156
demand characteristics, 6, 7, 11 Fielding, N., 46
democratization of research, 74, 119, Figueroa, H., 52
154 Finch, J., 123; 137
diaries, 131 Foucault, M., 94, 95, 97, 103, 105
'disciplinary reflexivity', 172 Frankel, B., 109
discourse analysis, 3, 92-107 Fransella, F., 73, 87, 90
Ditton, J., 19 Freire, P., 109, 119, 157
Donzelot, J., 103 functional reflexivity, 151
Dooley, D., 84
DuBois, B., 84, 151 Gauld, A.O., 7
Gergen, K.]., 9
ecological validity, 4-5, 6, 7, 11 Gilbert, N., 95
Edwards, R., 137 Glaser, B.G., 35, 40, 46
egalitarian feminism, 122 Goffman, E., 22
Eichler, M., 122 Gold, R.L., 39
Eisner, E., 109 Graham, H., 123
Elliott, J., 109, 110, 113, 114, 115 Griffin, c., 35, 145, 146, 148
empirical research, 10, 11 Gross, E., 136
Epstein Jaratne, T., 124 Gubrium, J., 53
ethics, 5-6, 152-7
in action research, 112-13 Hammersley, M., 36, 121, 124
in observational research, 19, 22, Handy, C.B., 84
23,25, 26, 32 Hanmer, ]., 111
and report writing, 169, 172, Haraway, D., 138
173-6 Harding, S., 121, 122, 123, 124,
in the utilization of research results, 138
178 Ham'!, R., 4, 8, 9, 93
ethnographic research, 3, 8, 34-48, Henwood, K., 10, 68, 123
93, 113, 138 hernieneutic research, 9
 - I

182 Qualitative methods in psychology

Heron, Jo, 150 laddering, 72, 81, 82-4, 85
Hinkle, Do, 82 Landfield, AoWo, 82
Hogg, M.A., 105 Langer, Eo]', 31
Hollway, Wo, 95, 105, 121, 123, 124, language
142, 144, 145, 150, 151 and discourse analysis, 92-3, 94,
Hunt, ].e., 39 105
and personal construct research,
idiographic research, 9 88
inconcludability, 3-4, 11-13 and positivist research, 7-8
indexicality, 3, 10-11 and qualitative research, 14-15
individuals, and personal construct of report writing, 161-3
research, 90 Latane, Bo, 18
informed consent, 54, 66, 153-4, Lather, Po, 111
174, 175-6 Lee, MoL., 37
interpretation, 2, 3-4 Lee, Ro, 121
'interpretative repetoires', 94 Lewin, Ko, 108-9, 111
intervening variables, 112-13 Lewis, So, 149
interviewing, 3, 35, 49-71, 93,148 Lofland, ]., 32
in action research, 115 Louis-Guerin, e., 84
constructing material, 53-5, 56 Luckmann, To, 30
conversationalladdering, 72, 81,
82-4 McDermott, Mo, 173
effects of prior relationships, 66-7 Macdonnell, Do, 94
and exploitation, 66 McKee, L., 68
in feminist research, 137, 138 MacKinnon, Co, 111
gender and sexuality issues, 59, 61, Manicas, PoTo, 9
66,67 Manion, L., 109, 113, 114
and 'grounded theory', 68 Mann, L., 25, 27
intentionality, 65 Marks, Do, 67
reflexivity in, 52, 56, 62, 63-7 Marshall, Co, 19
selecting material, 53-5, 56, 65-6 Marshall, ]., 143, 150, 150-1, 152,
semi-structured approaches, 50, 51, 156, 158
56, 67, 69 Marsh, Po, 35, 93
transcripts, 57, 63-4, 169 Martineau, Ho, 35
investigator triangulation, 146 -7, May, To, 47
149 Melamed, Eo, 148
methodological horrors, 3-4, 10-14
Jackson, SoEo, 83 method triangulation, 147-8
Jahoda, Mo, 72 Mies, Mo, 121, 157
Jefferson, Go, 169 Miligram, So, 110
Jefferson, Jo, 122, 133 Minuchin, So, 21
Mishler, Eo, 51
Kasl, SoVo, 84 Mixon, Do,S
Kelly, Ao, 37 Moore, Bo, 51
Kelly, Go, 72-4, 87, 88-90, 144 Morgan, Bo, 38-9, 122
Kelly, L., 124 Moss, Po, 148
Kelman, Hoe., 5 Mulkay, Mo, 95
Kemmis, So, 112
Kessler, So, 21 narrative approaches to research,
Kincheloe, J., 118 53
Kitzinger, e., 133, 146, 150, 153 naturalistic observation, 18, 19, 32
Kremer, Bo, 122 Nencel, L., 52

'new paradigm' research, 19, 108
and discourse analysis, 93
and feminist research, 137, 138
and interviewing practice, 52-3
Newton, T.]., 142
non-verbal behaviour, observation of,
21-2,24,29
'null hypothesis', confirming, 2
Oakley, A., 123, 137, 147, 150, 154,
157
O'Brian, M., 68
O'Brien, P., 112
observational research, 17-33, 102,
148
biases of the observer, 29, 30
defining, 18-19
disadvantages of as a method,
29-30,30-2
ethical considerations in, 19, 22,
23,25, 26, 32
naturalistic, 18, 19, 32
non-verbal behaviour, 21-2, 24, 29
note-taking, 20, 23, 31, 32
of queuing behaviour, 25-9
verbal behaviour, 20-1, 24
why, who and what of, 22-3, 30-1
writing up reports, 23-5
see also participant observation
Ochs, E., 57
Opie, A., 53, 64, 123
Orne, M.T., 6
paradigm 'crisis', 4, 8, 92
Parker, I., 4, 96, 105, 106
Parmar, P., 122
participant observation, 3, 18, 19
in ethnographic research, 35, 38,
39,41-2,47
participants, protection of, 154-5,
173-6
participatory research, 111
Pels, P., 52
Perkins, R., 150
personal construct research, 3, 8, 13,
72-91, 93, 102, 149
ABC model of, 85-6
by drawings, 87
elements, 75-7, 81
exchange grid, 75
laddering, 72, 81, 82-4, 85
repertory grids, 72, 75-82, 93
Index 183
self-characterization, 87
see also constructs
personal reactivity, 5
personal reflexivity, 150-1
Phoenix, A., 123, 137
Piaget, ]., 52
Pidgeon, N., 10, 68
Poland, F., 131
Polyani, M., 109
positivist research, 4-8, 12
poststructuralism, 53, 55, 94, 104-5,
106
Potter, ]., 94, 104, 124
power relations
and action research, 108, 111
and discourse analysis, 103
and ethics, 154-5
and feminist research, 123, 124,
127, 128-9, 134, 137
and interviewing, 51-2, 61, 68
and report writing, 172
practitioner research, 109, 112
procedural reactivity,S
psychotherapy, 38
Pugh, A., 124
qualitative research, definitions, 2-4
quantitative research, 1, 2, 3, 14-15,
148
and observation, 18
validity and reliability in, 10-11
Raymond, J., 124, 125, 126
realism, 8, 9, 10
Reason, P., 4, 19, 35, 36, 52, 93,
145, 147, 150, 152, 157, 178
Reber, A.S., 17, 18, 143
reflexivity, 4, 13-14, 37, 149-52
and discourse analysis, 102
and feminist research, 124, 125,
132-4
functional, 151
and interviewing, 52, 56, 62, 63-7
personal, 150-1
and personal construct psychology,
74, 84-5
and report writing, 163, 170-1,
171-2
Reinharz, S., 35, 110, 149, 158
reliability
in qualitative research, 143
in quantitative research, 11
 -,

184 Qualitative methods in psychology

Renetti, C., 121 Stanley, L., 47, 121, 122, 123, 124,
Rennie, D.L., 38 131
repertory grids, 72, 75-82, 93 Steier, F., 53
report writing, 45, 131, 132, 160-79 Sternberg, R.]., 165
ethical considerations, 169, 172, Stewart, A., 124
173-6 Strauss, A.L., 35, 40, 46
language used in, 161-3 Stubbs, M., 57, 64
and reflexivity, 170-1, 171-2 subjectivity, 13-14, 36, 130
researchers
and disciplinary gatekeeping, 133, Tedlock, D., 57
156 theoretical research, 10, 11
personal involvement by, 131-2 theoretical triangulation, 148-9
and personal reflexivity, 150-1 Thomas, L.F., 75
Reynolds, G., 68 Torbert, W., 147
Ribbens, J., 123, 137, 138 Toukmanian, S.G., 38
Rose, N., 104 triangulation, 145-9
Rosenthal, R., 6, 7 Tschudi, F., 85
Roskies, E., 84
Rossman, G.B., 19 validity
Rowan, J., 4, 19, 35, 36, 52, 93, in qualitative research, 143, 152, 157
145, 147, 150, 152, 157,178 in quantitative research, 10-11
Rowe, D., 82 values, 176-7
Rychlak, ].F., 90 verbal behaviour, observational
research on, 20-1, 24
sampling, 6-7, 12-13, 170 volunteer characteristics, 6-7, 11
Sapsford, R., 109, 118, 178 Vrugt, A.]., 21
Saunders, S., 111
Savin, H.B., 173, 176 Walkerdine, V., 67
Schein, E., 127 Wallace, C., 121, 122
science, and qualitative research, Warren, B., 89
9-10 Webb, E.]., 21
Scott, S., 137 Weedon, c., 123
Sears, D.O., 6 Wetherell, M., 94, 104, 149
Secord, P.F., 4, 8, 9, 93 Wilkinson, S., 15, 84, 124, 149-50,
self-characterization, 87 151, 172
Sharpe, S., 122, 133 Wilson-Barnett, J., 37
Shepherd, S., 177 Wilton, T., 122
Shotter, J., 5, 7 Wise, S., 47, 123, 124, 131, 153,
Silverman, D., 8, 12, 53, 143 154, 156
single case studies, 12 Woolgar, S., 3
Smith, F.V., 168 Wright, F., 35
social change, bringing about, 137,
156-7, 177-8 Yin, R., 37
social constructionism, 8, 9-10, 53 Yuval-Davies, N., 137, 138
Spender, D., 53, 133
Spradley, J., 52 Zamorski, B., 115-16
Squire, c., 95, 122 Zimbardo, P.G., 173

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