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Chapter 6 Planning Instruction

Planning is the process by which teachers decide (1) what to teach (2) how to teach it (3) how they will
determine whether will determine either students learn and satisfied or no. It especially best for new
teachers, however it usually takes a lot of time and energy in planning

The Kinds of Objective Use result In different Kinds of Domain:

1. Cognitive- learners engage in mental or intellectual tasks. Learners expected to recall, analyze
identify
2. Affective- most teachers hope and promote change in the lives of their student. Students should
come to enjoy and the value their subject area, as well as learning in general
3. Psychomotor- learning physical skills. Course in child or adolescence

Writing Specific Objectives

Every objective should contain ABCD:

A- Audience
B- Behavior expected of learners
C- Condition under which learner identifies every verb
D- Degree of proficiency or correctness

THE POWER OF THE CURRICULUM

What is to be taught and learned-the curriculum-drives life in classrooms. To the extent that it is
presented in meaningful ways and authentic-related to the learner's real world, your students are more
likely to learn and be satisfied

Thoughtful instructional planning is extremely important for you and your learners. It will likely
ensure that you will teach with greater confidence and more creativity. And, importantly, it should
assure that you will accomplish your instructional purposes. Thoughtful planning is important to
students because you will have taken into account their diversity, how they learn best, and what
interests and motivates them. Thoughtful planning is the prelude to good teaching. "
The first task of planning is determining what it is that you are responsible for helping students to
learn. That curriculum results from your state education department which establishes state
standards and from your local school district that uses the standards to prescribe what is taught in
schools. School districts prepare curriculum guides for teachers showing what is to be taught in
each subject at each grade level. Teachers use these guides to develop long- and short-range
instructional plans.
The second task of planning is the preparation of instructional objectives that clearly indicate
what students are expected to know and be able to do. There are three commonly used domains of
instructional objectives: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. When possible, effective
instruction draws upon each. When possible, effective instruction encourages learners to function
at the highest levels within each domain.
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Teachers are advised to prepare specific objectives as part of their instructional plans because
they can be used to let learners know exactly what they are expected to know and be able to do.
Such instructional objectives contain. They designate the target audience, the learning outcomes
expected of the audience, the conditions under which the audience is to exhibit the learned
abilities, and the degree or amount of proficiency expected.
Instructional objectives are good when they are relevant to the curriculum for which learners are
held accountable; achievable by your learners; promote learning in as many of the three domains
as feasible; and pursue higher-order cognition, affective, or psychomotor skill.
Research supports that learners benefit when they know what the instructional objectives are and
when they result in learning experiences that are neither too easy nor too difficult.
Instructional plans are of varying duration: long-range (semester, year), intermediate-range
(monthly, weekly), short-range (daily, lesson). Since all are important and useful, teachers should
be able to craft each.
Lesson plans are critical. There are many formats for use in writing them and unless required to
use one, you should find a model that you like. The format we like has seven parts: objectives,
resources, set induction, methodology, assessment, closure, and reflection. As teachers gain
classroom experience and wisdom, plans are briefer and focus more on the learning activities
(methodology).

Persona

Being a new trainee teacher, this chapter points out the importance of preparation e.g, lesson planning. I need

Chapter 7. Four Instructional Alternatives;

1. Presentation Teaching as telling and showing- A presentation is an informative talk a more

knowledgeable person makes to less knowledgeable persons. The purpose of a presentation is to
inform an audience of certain facts, ideas, concepts, and explanations. However, talks can be very
different in terms of length, formality, and who does the talking
2. Discussion- a discussion is a situation wherein students, or students and a teacher, converse to
share information, ideas, or opinions or work to resolve a problem. Conversely, a discussion is
not a situation wherein a teacher asks a question, a student or students answer, and then the
teacher asks another question. This question-answer-question format is called recitation. Its
purpose is mainly to quiz students to determine what they know or understand
3. Independent Study- Independent study is any assignment learners complete more or less on their
own. Examples of independent study include; reading, writing a composition, rehearsing words
for a spelling test, and preparing a report. If done in school, the assignment is referred to as
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I learn from this chapter that there are four effective instructional alternatives a teacher can employ. In as mu
seatwork: if done at home, homework. We can describe independent study according to purposes,
type, teacher role, and the context in which it takes place.
4. Individualized or differentiated Learning- Individualized instruction and differentiated
instruction are terms used to refer to any instructional maneuver that attempts to tailor teaching
and learning to a learner's, or a group of like-learners', unique strengths and needs. Said another
way, individualized instruction means responding educationally to individuals. Individualized,
personalized instruction has unique attributes. As the name implies, its most unique purpose is to
tailor teaching to an individual's peculiar strengths and needs. No other instructional maneuver
does just that

Summary
An instructional alternative is a way of teaching intended to facilitate student learning
and satisfaction. The most familiar alternatives are presentations, discussion, independent
study, and individualized instruction. Other notable alternatives (presented in the next
chapter) are direct instruction, cooperative learning, discovery learning, and
constructivism. As many as 31 instructional alternatives exist and are depicted on the
Wheel of Instructional Choice

Presentations are informative talks a more knowledgeable person makes to less

knowledgeable persons. These talks draw their strength from the cognitive school of
thought, especially information processing and reception learning. They can be long or
short, interrupted or uninterrupted, formal or informal, given by a teacher or by another
person, and either live or recorded. "
Good presentations have three parts: preparation, delivery, and closure. Preparation
requires the presenter to establish the general purpose and specific learning objectives,
collect and review the information to be presented, and organize and plan delivery.
Delivery requires the presenter to obtain students' attention, present the learning
objectives and expectations, use an advance organizer, present the information in an
organized, step-by-step manner, expect and promote pupil interaction, move from general
to specific ideas, use examples and nonexamples when teaching new concepts, ask
learners to reflect on what they have learned, and then ask them to use the information.
Closure requires the presenter to review, summarize, and relate the new learning to what
students already knew, and check learners for understanding. "

Research indicates that the presenter's style is important, that good presenters are often
friendly, humorous, enthusiastic, and verbally fluent, that attention falls off rapidly after
15 minutes, that note taking aids long-term memory, that presentations are good for
transmitting information and not as good for promoting students' thinking, and that
underachievers need special consideration when using presentations.
In addition to the already This
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contain alternatives,
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Chapter 8: Four More Instructional Alternative

1. Cooperative Learning- Cooperative learning (formerly called student-team learning) is the term
used to describe instructional procedures whereby learners work together in small groups and are
rewarded for their collective accomplishments. Does that remind you of a team sport such as v-
0lleyball or soccer? The whole team does or doesn't do well depending on the contribution of
each individual player and the extent to which they help one another. Cooperation is critical. In
contrast to the many other ways of teaching, cooperative learning encourages learners to work
together for both the common and individual good. teams must be mixed in terms of gender,
academic ability, race, and other traits. Heterogeneity is promoted for at least three reasons.
2. Discovery Learning- Discovery or inquiry learning refers to learning that takes place when
students are asked to find out or figure out something for themselves as Sherlock Holmes does.
Here are some classroom examples. Rather than telling students using watercolors that if they
want to create green they must mix blue and yellow; the teacher asks them to mix the two colors
to find out the result. Purpose: First, they want learners to know how to think and find things out
for themselves. Conversely, they want them to be less dependent on receiving knowledge from
teachers and accepting the conclusions of others. Secondly, users of discovery learning want
learners to see for themselves how knowledge is obtained. Such teachers want students to be able
to learn by collecting, organizing, and analyzing information to reach their own conclusions.
Third, these teachers want learners to use their higher-order thinking skills.
3. Constructivists- (Problem Solving Under Guidance)- Constructivism is a way of teaching and
learning that intends to maximize student understanding. Like discovery learning, it is situated
within meaningful learning in the cognitive school of thought. Constructivism is defined
variously as teaching that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and
making sense of information. Purpose: The purpose of constructivist teaching and learning is to
help students to acquire information in ways that make that information readily understood and
usable. To make learning activities most understood and usable, constructivists have collected a
number of ideas and brought them together to form a mosaic. The ideas, among others, include
4. Direct Instruction- (Teaching In The Most Efficient and Effective Way)- Direct Instruction (DI) is
a variation on the theme of teacher presentations in that it is teacher-dominated and directed.
However, a striking difference is that the principles of DI derive exclusively from research on
teaching and/ or learning; Purpose: The purpose of direct instruction is to help students learn
basic academic content such as reading, mathematics, and so forth, in the most efficient,
straightforward way
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Chapter 10 Personal Attributes And Characteristic Of Effective Teachers.

Effective Teacher one who is able to help students learn more in ways that can be measured.

a). Personal Attributes- motivating includes, enthusiasm, warm and humor, credibility

b). Orientation Toward Success- they are positive people who believe in the ability of students, high
expectation, encourage and supportive.

c). Professional Demeanor- motivating, positive and establish to maintain professional demeanor.
Business like, goal oriented serious, delible, Organized, adapt/flexible and knowledgeable.

Chapter 9: Evaluating Students Learning

The given attributes of an effective teacher given shows, it was just an easy thing to adopt. However, persona
Classroom Assessment, Measurement, And Evaluation

When non-educators think of instructional assessment, they most often think of tests or projects
administered to students at the end of instruction. However, good classroom assessment requires more
than that. It requires teachers to continually gather accurate information about their students' progress
across ranged sources, to synthesize that information, to make judgments about how well or how much
each student has learned, and to adjust instruction accordingly.

Assessment is the process of collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting information to aid in decision
making. This includes a wide range of activities from informal approaches, such as using questions within
a lesson or watching students as they engage in small group discussions, to formal approaches, like
projects or tests. Some of our assessments attempt to assign a numeric value to students' performances.
When we do this, we are using measurement.

Factors Infecting Assessment Quality.

To use assessment effectively, teachers must consider several critical factors that influence the accuracy
and usefulness of their assessments. They must select appropriate sources of information, they must
ensure that their measurements and judgments are accurate, and they must determine how and why they
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will use the assessment. Further, because no single assessment is completely accurate, teachers must draw
from across multiple sources. This process is called triangulation.

Types Of Assessment: Formative Vs Summative.

Formative assessment refers to assessment conducted during the course of instruction. Such assessment
provides feedback while it is still possible to influence the instructional and learning process. Although
student performance may be graded during formative assessment, the primary purpose is to provide
feedback that can be used to plan or alter instruction. Formative assessment enables the teacher to form
effective instruction and thereby improve students' performance. Formative assessment consists of both
informal teacher observations and examples of student work, including responses to teachers' questions or
any work students might complete within a larger unit of instruction. The feedback provided through
formative assessment allows the teacher to adjust instruction and improve students' performance before a
final assessment of learning is conducted.

Summative assessment is the term used to describe assessment conducted after instruction is completed.
This type of assessment is used to make final judgments about a student's learning. Its primary purpose is
not to adapt instruction or to remedy learning deficiencies; rather, it attempts to summarize a student's
achievement or progress, generally in the form of a grade or score. Summative assessment generally
involves information gathered from examinations or other projects due at the end of the term. In many
cases, formative assessment of similar but less encompassing student work has taken place prior to this
final assessment

Standardized Testing And Scores

Standardized tests get their name because they are administered and scored in consistent, uniform ways.
Any student taking a nationally standardized test will take the test under roughly the same conditions as
any other student, no matter where or when the test is administered. This uniformity includes all
controllable factors that might influence a student's performance on the test: the materials used, the time
limits, oral instructions, preliminary demonstrations, policies for handling questions from students, and
any other detail believed to affect test performance. Types of Scores From Standardize Tests

1. Raw score 2. Normal Curve Equivalent 3. Stanine Scores 4. Grade Points Score

Personal Reflection

This chapter she has taught me how to evaluate students. The Summative and Formative assessment. But to
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Chapter 11. Professional Skills and Abilities Of Effective Teacher

1. Focusing And Engaging Students Attention-Effective teachers are able to get students' attention at
the beginning of a lesson and to hold their attention throughout the lesson. To accomplish this,
teachers must be skilled in establishing set (providing a context for the lesson and instruction) and
in using variety.
2. Using Time Efficiently- The most effective teachers learn to optimize the time available for
instruction. It's only reasonable that students learn more when they spend more time engaged in
learning activities. Three factors contribute to more efficient use of instructional time: ( 1) time
on task, ( 2) maintaining momentum, and ( 3) smooth transitions.
3. Conducting Interactive Interaction- Effective teachers are able to conduct instruction that keeps
students actively involved in the lesson. In addition to establishing set and using variety to keep
students motivated, the best teachers are skilled in questioning, in guiding students to a clear
understanding of the content, and in 1nonitoring understanding: Follow up students Responses,
providing clear instruction, Monitoring students progress, provide feedback and reinforcement

Personal Reflection

Besides the personal attributes expected from a teacher, still professional skills. Now I understand there are p

Chapter 13. Problem Solving For Effective Teachers

Challenge Of Teaching

What Is a problem?
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A goal- response interference. We need or want to achieve something but we cannot. Everyone
encounters problem and if anyone does not, he is either very lucky person or skillful. We can avoid many
problems still we solve many.

Sources of Problems:

Virtually, needs come from any source and are all related to the pursuit of either primary biological
needs or secondary learned needs. We are driven to meet these primary needs on a regular basis. Teachers
report Low Socio-economic status frequently come to school without adequate clothing and are often
hungry and sleepy. They arrive cold and wet, stealing lunches, and sleeping in the class. However, HSS
also gone unmet. Some of our problems was fueled by inability to meet our secondary or learned needs:
We learn that we need to be friendly, looking good, successful, or mostly to please others. Failure to meet
this will result in feeling personally unfulfilled and unhappy. Student have a lot of social and
psychological needs or problems.

Fig. 1.1 Sources Of Teachers Goal And Needs:

Primary (Biological Needs) Secondary (Learned Needs)

Air Socio-psychological Needs

Food
Social acceptance
Water
Achievement
Rest
Status
Safety
Personal growth

Job related needs

To plan learning activities

What Kinds of classroom related problems do teachers face?
To facilitate learning
Teacher Area Of Concern for problems: To asses learning

1. Affiliation- teachers need to establish and maintain good relationship with others in the school,
students, faculty colleagues, staff and administers. Signs of affiliation include staff friendliness,
recognition, and support of one anothers professional work

Four things teachers value highly:

I. Having fellow workers, they like

II. Working under pleasant condition
III. Having the respect for others and
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IV. Enjoying job certainty

Affiliation probably is of importance to us and more difficult to achieve because of the nature of our
work. We are constantly in contract with others.

2. Control- the teacher need of having students behave well or appropriately. To teacher
appropriately means; student reasonably quiet, orderly courteous, honest and show respect to
teachers, others and property. Control-related problems: maintaining order, quiet and control, not
knowing ow to respond to improper behavior such as swearing and use of obscenities, aggressive
behavior, ensuring considerate treatment for property, getting student to use leisure time etc.
are sources of frustration and teaching self-discipline

Result of student misbehavior:

I. Anti moisty can develop between teacher and student, thus an affiliation problem.
II. Teachers will feel like being perceived by student, teachers, administrators, and parents as
ineffective classroom manager.

Most teachers believed a classroom to be democratic that both student and teachers were given equal
opportunity to decide things.

Five principles that can make control less of a problem.

I. Pursue only classroom goals that are truly important and attainable, thus modify or scale
down overlying ambitious intentions.
II. Analyze the problem that might be affecting the problem situation. They more you know
about the problem the more likely you will be able to select and employ effective techniques
for resolving.
III. Use positive technique for managing behavior. This requires teaching student what is
expected of them and recognizing and rewarding subsequent desirable behavior.
IV. Use punishment sparingly and appropriately and sparingly. Use only punishment that works,
use only as much as possible
V. Teach student to manage their own behavior or self-control. Managing themselves in the
absence of teacher or an external controller.

3. Parent Relationship and Home Conditions

Parents have great influence in the education of their children, therefore involving constructively
in childs education more likely to improve attendance, achievement, or behavior. Teachers
recognize the significant role played by parents and others in the lives of student. Beginners
report the biggest challenge is communicating and involving parents. Home life meaningfully
impacts students life thus knowing them personally will help a lot in managing them.
4. Student Success-the need teachers must help learners achieve both academically and socially.
Important because attaining it meets the secondary or learned goals for achievement, status, and
acceptance in the teaching profession.

Kind Of Success Problem

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Report shows sources of problems were: Insufficient student interest, working with students who have
special needs, and working with teachers short-coming. Insufficient student interest problem- student
present and on time, getting them participate, getting them to work to ability, prevailing on them to value
grades and overcoming apathy or dislikes of school and learning. special challenges include; helping
those with personal problem, those with special physical, social, emotional, or intellectual needs,
overcoming students frustration with self and getting them to fell succeeded. Personal instructional
limitations include; planning, teaching, and self-assessing the learning that has taken place.

Obstacles To Student Success.

Four obstacles to achieving students success:

a. Knowledge about teaching is at best sketchy

b. Students individual difference
c. Many and vague goals-not all of them are consistent
d. Teaching is greater than sum of its parts-one can carefully construct a lesson and still have
students fail, there is no guarantee.

Teacher Behavior Lead To Student Success.

Teacher attribute and behavior that leads to student success are; clarity, enthusiasm, being dislike and
work oriented, using instructional variety, providing adequate time and opportunity and helping student
get the most out of their school experience.

5. Time-lack of time represent a serious problem for teachers. They do not have sufficient time to
prepare for classes, complete the planned work, and diagnose and evaluate learning. Teachers
constraint on time increase because of : Large classes, the number of classes a teacher, increase
emphasize on testing and the assignment on non-instruction tasks. Time is not a manufacture
commodity.

Management Of Time:

a. Know yourself
b. Know your goals
c. Know your work environment
d. Do planning
e. Learn to set prioritize and to say no
f. Know your system
g. Concentrate
h. Act- dont procrastinate
i. Follow through and finish

Preventing And Resolving Classroom Problems:

Problems arise when goals are set were not attained due to obstacles and hindrances.

Prevention: To avoid problems related to affiliation, control, parent relationship, student success, and
time. Teachers to immune to these must possess or acquired specific abilities. See table below.
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Resolving: No doubt few teachers exhibit the different abilities noted below thus few without problems.
Obviously, the best way to escape from problem is to solve it. A problem is solved or resolved only when
you are able either to give up the goal or (need or want) or get closer to it _while at the same time to
avoid unpleasant side effects.

If you have concern related to Then you must.

Affiliation Be accepting, caring and supportive of other
Be corporative
Be professional in relationship
Know and use interpersonal skills
Know of and can meet reasonable expectations for work and
behavior
Control Appear to students to have reasonable expectation for work
and behavior
Recognize and reward and behavior that meet your
expectation
Get student to monitor and control their own work and
behavior
Parent relationship Have good affiliation skills (see above)
Be able to establish a system of mutual support
Get parent and care givers involved in students education
Be able to create and maintain learners interest
Student success Be able to meet individuals differences
Be thoughtful and skillful in planning and facilitating learning
and assessment
Have qualities and abilities of effective teachers
Concentrate on doing what is most important
Time Know what part of the day you and learners works best
Plan
Share mutual work and responsibilities with colleagues
Avoid procrastination and finish what you finished

The Problem-Solving Approach

Stage 1. Problem identification and ownership-

a. State the problem. What is it that bothersome?

b. Identify the goals. What do you want to happen that is not?
c. Identify the problems owner. Who needs or wants the goal?

Stage 2. Determine the value of the goal

d. Value the goal. After thinking about it, decide whether the goal is of
-unquestionable value -little value -great value -no real consequences -value but negotiable
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Personal Reflection
Ive learnt many positive attitudes that a teacher who is problem solver should poses I want to be a teacher
Stage 3. Analysis of the problem situation-

e. Identify the obstacles to goal achievement

f. Project ways in which achieve the goal by either getting rid of, overcoming, or circumventing
obstacles, or thinking of ingenious creative solutions.
g. List some possible consequences each solution might have

Stage 4. Rate the proposed solutions

h. Rate each potential solution according to the likelihood it would help reach the goal and cause
few, if any, unfavorable side effects.

Stage 5. Implement and evaluate the best solution

i. Decide specifically how to make this solution to work

j. Decide to what extent the best solution is working.

Developing a Problem-Solving Attitude

The way you react to problems reveals your problem- solving attitude. Teachers lounge a nourisher for
hosting this activity, though it may be good way to let off steam but it seldom accomplishes much.

Teachers positive problem solving attitude:

Lets solve this: approach

Refuse to blame others
Accept their problems and respond
Focus on the present and future rather than past
Refrain from jumping into conclusions or solutions
Search for new approaches when learned from the past
Expect disagreement, accept and respect others view
Work towards betterment
Time cautious
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Chapter 14. Reflective Skills Of Effective Teachers

The mind is very powerful. Some asserts it creates reality for us because what we think determines what
we and cant. Reflection enables us to learn from our past experiences. Reflection is the ongoing process
of critically examining and refining teaching practice by considering the personal, educational, social and
ethical aspects of teaching and learning. It helps teachers describe and think about what they do, to
anticipate and solve classroom problems and is important to beginning teachers.

Characteristics Of Relative Practitioners.

Reflective are those who can look back on the teaching and learning in their classrooms, make
judgements about them, and teaching behavior as a result. They are open minded, deliberative, open
minded, responsible, and sincere, they have a spirit of inquiry.

Benefits of Reflecting On Teaching.

Reflection sounds a lot of work but preservice teachers confess its beneficial and holds both immediate
and long-term benefits. It enhances learning about teaching, increase ability to analyze and understood
classroom events, enhances your classroom life as a teacher by helping establish an inviting, predictable,
and thoughtful environment. And it makes teachers become self-monitoring.

The Reflective Process

Three levels of thinking in reflective process:

1. Descriptive Reflection- describe what happen in the teaching situation

2. Comparative reflection- explore alternate perspectives or interpretations that help you understand
why the event happened that way.
3. Evaluating Reflection- move beyond the describing and evaluating and seeing it from another
point of view or with to making a judgement about how best to proceed with the next steeps or
making changes.

Reflection is a personalized process because it is rooted in an individuals own background and

experiences, current situation, and approach to life.

Becoming a Reflective Teacher.

Five methods for doing reflection:

a. Discussion- focused and purposive rather than random.

b. Dialogue journals-powerful tool for promoting reflection. Help describe, compare and evaluate
your classroom experience. Help creating a significant classroom events and carry on a running
conversation that express thoughts, questions, and problems related to your roles, responsibilities,
and practices as a teacher.
c. Portfolio- provides a structured opportunity for documentation and description of teaching to
connect to knowledge about teaching and learning to reflect on how and why teaching that way.
d. Action research-conducting a classroom research to answer questions or solve problems about
teaching and learning involving a specific group of students in a particular setting
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e. Reflective teaching- provides a teaching experience in a supportive environment that serves as a
basis for subsequent reflection. Engage in al aspect of teaching; (planning, implementing,
assessing, and reflecting)
f. Laboratory Experiences-teaching experiences carried out on campus often with a small group

Teaching is a complex activity but in spite of this, one can increase the likelihood that will make an
effective teacher if developing the ability to reflect on teaching and the teaching practice of others.

Chapter Summary (Source: Acts of Teaching, 469)

Teaching is a complex activity that requires teachers to think about or reflect on what they do.
Good teachers become effective by reflecting on teaching
Reflective practitioners share certain characteristics:
1. Routinely and purposefully reflect on teaching
2. Open minded, freely questioning their own views and reactions to their teaching practices.
3. Consider and accept responsibilities for the consequences of the decisions they make in the
learning environment
4. Enthusiastic and eagerly focus on ways to improve their teaching
5. Students of Teaching by inquiring into theory and practices related to teaching and learning
Reflective thinking offers immediate and future benefits for preservice teachers
Reflection is a deep-thinking process involving three levels of learned to think rather than innate
lability
Teachers can develop reflective thinking skills in many ways:

Focused and purposeful discussion, Dialogue Journal, Teaching Portfolio, Action research and
laboratory experiences.

Personal Reflection
This chapter was far more interesting because it affirms my research topic on education leadership. Some sch