F A 0 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE PAPER

small hydraulic. , . *TfTTp;.sd

;%$-a&;
vz. v-
"W

8
F&+?%'-#
SfrUCfUreS *.v;,~,*3$:,?52&!:2h
s.&;.+iki!;..
*, .,?.? ~,W*U. a<~*.;,<:.+-.

:
. .-:.*.:~A$A
*,~,%-.

.. .
&
m$;;\:%?a
$. .a , >
. .
. .

OOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION

IF THE UNITED NATIONS ROME
Already issued in this series:

1. Irrigation practice and water management, 197 1 (F, S) *

2. Irrigation canal lining, 1971 (F, S)
3. Design criteria for basin irrigation systems, 1971
4. Village irrigation programmes - a new approach in water economy, 1971 (F)
5. Automated irrigation, 197 1 (F, S)
6. Drainage of heavy soils, 1971 (F)
7. Salinity seminar, Baghdad, 1971 (F)
8. Water and the environment, 197 1 (S)
9. Drainage materials, 1972 (F)
10. Integrated farm water management, 1971 (S)
1 1. Planning methodology seminar, Bucharest, 1972 (F)
12. Farm water management seminar, Manila, 1972
13. Water use seminar, Damascus, 1972 (F)
14. Trickle irrigation, 1973 (F, S)
15. Drainage machinery, 1973 (F)
16. Drainage of salty soils, 1973 (F)
17. Man's influence on the hydrological cycle, 1973 (F, S)
18. Groundwater seminar, Granada, 1 973 (F, S)
19. Mathematical models in hydrology, 1973
20. Water laws in Moslem countries, vol. 1, 1973
2 1.. Groundwater models, 1973
22. Water for agriculture, 1973 (F, S)
23. Simulation methods in water development, 1974
24. Crop water requirements, 1974
25. Effective rainfall, 1974

Inquiries concerning docun~entsissued in this series should be addressed to the Water

Resources, Development and Management Service, Land and Water Development Division,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Romei

(*) Also issued in French (F) and/or Spanish (S)

irrigation and drainage paper

small hydraulic
structures

BY D. B. KRAATZ
HYDRAULIC ENGINEER
AND I. K. MAHAJAN
SECRETARY, lCID

PREPARED WITH THE

SUPPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL
COMMISSION ON IRRIGATION AND

Water Resources Development and

Management Service
Land and Water Development Division

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION

OF THE UNITED NATIONS ROME 1975
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Page

PREFACE

1. INTRODUCTION

2. IRRIGATIONNETWORKOPERATION

2. 1 General Considerations
2.2 Entirely Manually Operated Systems
2.3 Hydro-Mechanically Automated Flow Control Systems
2.4 Electrically-Electronically Automated Flow Control
2.5 Manual Versus Automated Control
2.6 Water Distribution on the F a r m

3. INTAKE STRUCTURES

Introduction 33
Intakes of Small Canals (Punjab Type) 38
Silt Selective Head Intake 55
Constant-Head Orifice (CHO) Intake 63
Neyrpic Orifice Module Intake 81
Double Orifice Module Intake 90
Open Intake Structure made of P r e - C a s t Reinforced Concrete
(U. S.S. R.) 91
Intake Structure Discharging into a Flume Channel (U. S. S. R. ) 107
Pipe Regulator with Crossing made qf P r e - C a s t Reinforced
Concrete (U. S. S. R. ) 110
Intake Structure on Secondary Canals (Calombia) 119
Gate Valve Intake (Czechoslovakia) 128
Venturi Head Intake 134
Square Head Intake 138
Dupuis Canal Intake 142
Intake with Stone ' ~ e s Weir
h (~ustralia) 151
Groyne Intake and Ancillary Works (Cyprus) 158
King's Silt Vanes 162
Gibbl s Groyne 166
 Table of Contents
Cont'd.

Page

INTAKE STRUCTURES (Cont'd. )

3. 19 Curved Wing with Silt Vane@

3. 20 Silt Platforms
3.21 Reverse Vanes
3.22 Vortex Tube Sand T r a p
3.23 -
Sloping Sill Sand Screer

4. FLOW DIVIDING STRUCTURES

4. 1 Introduction
4. 2 Fixed Proportional Divisors
4. 3 Structures with Adjustable Splitter
4.4 Proportional Distributors
4.5 Division o r Diversion Boxes

5. OUTLETS OR FARM TURNOUTS

Introduction
Constant-Head Orifice F a r m Turnout (U. S. A. )
Neyrpic Orifice Module (France)
Double Orifice Module o r Siphon Module
Dethridge Meter (Australia)
P l a s t i c Siphon Outlet fitted with an Intake Tube (Turkey)
Open Flume Outlet (India and Pakistan)
Adjustable Orifice Semi-Module (India and Pakistan)
J a m r a o Type Orifice Semi-Module (Sind, Pakistan)
Pipe Semi-Module (India and Pakistan)
Fayoum Standard Weir F a r m Outlet (Arab Republic of Egypt)
Scratchley Outlet (India and Pakistan)
Pipe Outlet (India and Pakistan)
F a r m Outlet (U. S. S. R. )
P r e - Cast F a r m Turnout (Turkey)
Adjustable Weir F a r m Outlet (Malaysia)
PVC Pipe Turnout (Republic of Korea)
Pipe Outlet (Philippines)
Gated Pipe Outlet ( F e r r a r a Type, Italy)
Outlet Structures on the F a r m
 Table of Contents
Cont'd.

Page

LIST OF REFERENCES

NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS

 LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure
2- 1. - Sketch of a typical irrigation system (Punjab) 7
2- 2. - Diagrammatic layout of an upstream controlled network. 15
2-3. - Diagrammatic layout of a downstream controlled network. 17
2-4. -
Example of tampering. Brush and stone dam built by f a r m e r s
across a minor irrigation canal to increase flow through a pipe outlet 28

3-1 (a) and (b). - Silt deposition at the intake to a secondary canal.
3-2. - Intake to small c a n a s (Punjab type) - details of pre-cast RC
roof block.
3-3. - -
Intake to small canals (Punjab type) standard sections for wing
walls and abutments of CDO type fall (Punjab).
3-4. - Intake to small canals (Punjab type) - intake structure for a
minor canal at 60.
3-5. - Silt selective head intake.
3-6. - Diagram of a constant-head orifice intake o r turnout. ,

3-7. -
Constant-head orifice f a r m turnout with check-gate in foreground -
East Ghor Canal Project, Jordan.
3- 8. - A single-barrel constant-head orifice turnout.
3- 9(a). - Standard constant- head orifice intake o r turnout design guide.
3-9(b). - Constant head orifice intake o r turnout.
3- 10. - Stilling baffles to reduce water surface fluctuations a t staff gauges.
3- 11. - Dimensions for a constant head orifice.
3-12. -
Various arrangements of Neyrpic orifice module with auxiliary
equipment and structures.
3- 13. - Perspective views of Figures 3- 12(a).to 3- 12(c).
3-14. -' Neyrpic orifice module before and after installation of the fixed
plate.
3-15. - Neyrpic distributor with compartments for 5, 10, 15 and 30 11s .

3- 16. - Upstream view of Neyrpic distributor type XX1300. 85

 L i s t of F i g u r e s
Cont'd.

Figure Page

3-17. -
P e r cent variations in discharges of modules types X and XX for '

variations of H(,,t) within pre-determined limits. 87

3- 18. - Double orifice module intake 89
3-19. - Open intake structure made of p r e - c a s t reinforced concrete 93
3- 20. - Intake structure discharing into a flume channel. 105
3-21. - Pipe regulator with crossing made of p r e - c a s t reinforced concrete. 11 1
3-22. - Intake structure on secondary canals. 117
3-23. - Intake structure on secondary canals, construction details. 121
3- 24. - Intake structure on secondary canals, spillway and-wooden gate. 123
3-25. - Intake structure on secondary canals, outlet to t e r t i a r y canal. 124
3- 26. -
Gate valve intake, relationship between head, discharge and pipe
diameter. 130
3-27. - Gate valve intake, gate valve. 132
-
.3- 28. Venturi head intake.
3-29,. - Square head intake.
3-30. - Dupuis canal intake.
3-31. - P r e - c a s t concrete inlet box for intake with stone mesh weir. 149
3-32. -
General view of the stone m e s h weir and inlet box. (Almost all
the flow -
12 f t 3 / s - i s being diverted.) 152
3-33. - Another view showing stone m e s h basket construction and inlet box. 152
3-34. -
Stone mesh basket construction, stone m e s h apron, and location and
general construction of inlet box with s c r e e n and screw type gate. (About
3 ft3/ s passing over the weir. ) 154
3-35. - Dissipation structure and measuring weir a t the pipe outlet.
(Discharge 10 ft3/s)
3-36. -
Model t e s t rating for measuring weir, capacity 30 f t 3 / s , 6 ft c r e s t
suppressed weir. 155
3-37. - Intake structure with stone m e s h weir. 157
3-38. - Groyne intake and ancillary works. 159
3- 39. - Groyne intake s t r u c t u r e (Cyprus). 161
3-40. - King's silt vanes, layout plan of the vanes. 163
3-41. - King's silt vanes, details of layout. 164
3-42. - Gibb's Groyne, general layout. 167
 L i s t of Figures
Cont'd.

Figure Page

3-43. - Curved wing with silt vanes, general layout.

3-44. - Silt platform.
3-45. - Silt platform with a guide wall.
3-46. - General layout of r e v e r s e vanes.
3-47. - Vortex tube.
3-48. - Sloping - sill sand screen.

4- 1. -
Simple fixed proportional flow divisor on small irrigation canal in
Cyprus.
4-2. - Simple fixed proportional flow divisor of low accuracy.
4-3. -
Fixed proportional divisor splitting a given flow into four s t r e a m s
of exact constant proportion:
4-4. - Dimensions of a fixed divisor splitting flow into two equal s t r e a m s .
4-5. - Fixed flow divisor - Relationship between discharge capacity and
m a t e r i a l s required.
4- 6. - Unflumed divisor with a triangular sill.
H(c-b)
4- 7. - Divisor with triangular sill - -
Relation ship between Y2 and
Hc . Hc
4-8. - Flow divisor with adjustable splitter, Argentina.
4-9. - Flow divisor with adjustable splitter, Spain.
4- 10. - Flow divisor with adjustable splitter, U. S. A.
4- 11. - Flow divisor with adjustable splitter, F r e n c h type.
4- 12. - Flow divisor ( ~ e ~ r ~ iOned
c ) , Fodda network, Algeria.
4- 13. - Three-way distribution by m e a n s of two consecutive flow divisors.
4- 14. - Three examples of proportional distributors.
4- 15. - Proportional distributor (Punjab - India).
4- 16. - Khosla's safe exit gradient curve.
4- 17. - USBR Division boxes - types 5 and 6.
4-18. - Sketch of standard division box for e a r t h canals - Italy
4- 19. - P l a n for a concrete rectangular division box - U. S. A.
4-20. -
Distribution s t r u c t u r e with proportional weirs constructed f r o m
prefabricated p a r t s - E a s t Ghor Extension P r o j e c t - Jordan.
4-21. - Standard division structure using prefabricated parts.
 List of Figures
Cont'd.

Figure Page

4- 22. - Prefabricated division box - Taiwan.

4-23. - Prefabricated division boxes - dimensions.
4-24. - Concrete block division box. 227
4-25. -
Concrete block division box - People's Democratic Republic of
Yemen. 228
4-26. - Typical timber division box. 229
4-27. -
Three-way timber division box - standard design USDA Soil
Conservation Service. 229
4-28. -
Standard timber division box - Alberta Department of Agriculture,
Canada. 230
4-29. - Layout of furrow irrigation using an automatic irrigation diverter. 230
4- 30(a) and (b). - General views of irrigation diverters. 23 1
4- 31. - Sketch of diverter installation. 23 2

'5- 1. - Dethridge m e t e r outlet details. 24 6

5-2. -
P r e - c a s t large m e t e r emplacements with wheels installed; note
reinforcement to tie into cut-offs and pre-cast head wall.
5-3(a). - Large Dethridge m e t e r outlet.
5-3(b). - Section CC of Figure 5-3(a) and details of meter wheel of large
Dethridge meter outlet.
5-4(a). - Small Dethridge m e t e r outlet.
5-4(b). -
Section CC of Figure 5-4(a) and details of meter wheel of small
Dethridge meter outlet.
5-5. - Large Dethridge m e t e r outlet in operation with free outfall.
5-6. -
Typical setting of Dethridge meter just upstream of a regulator.
The supply level of the canal i s indicated by the bottom of the slot in the
wall on the right hand side of the regulator.
5-7. - Channel design, f r e e board and setting of Dethridge m e t e r outlets.
5-8. -
Dethridge m e t e r . Gate calibration tables for LMO and SMO
rivetted galvabond type gates.
5-9. - Plastic siphon outlet fitted with an intake tube.
5- 10. - q l a s t i c siphon fitted with an intake tube. Relationship between
discharge and depth of submergence.
5- 11. - Plastic siphon fitted with an intake tube. Efficiency of siphon.
5-12. - Photographs of open flume f a r m outlet (Punjab type)
 L i s t of Figures
Cont'd.

Figure Page

5- 13. - Open flume f a r m outlet (Punjab type).

5-14. -Adjustable plate iron block for open flume outlets for B(t)
6 c m to 20 cm.
5-15. - Open flume outlet. Details of roof block.
5- 16. - Arrangement of open flume outlet upstream of a fall. 27 6
5. 17. - Open flume outlet. Plan of tail cluster of two, three and four
f a r m outlets. 279
5- 18. - Open flume f a r m outlet. Relationship of discharge to B(t) and H(crt). 283
5- 19. - General view of an AOSM outlet to a f a r m watercourse (Haryana,
India) . 290
5-20. - P l a n of adjustable orifice semi-module. 29 1
5-21. - Adjustable orifice s,emi-module. Details and fixing of roof block. 29 3
I
5-22. - Adjustable orifice semi-module. Design graph ( B ( t ) = 7.5 cm). 30 1
5-23. - Adjustable orifice semi-module. Design graph ( B ( t ) = 6 cm). 303
5-24. - Adjustable orifice semi-module. Design graph ( B ( t ) = 9 cm). 305
5-25. - Adjustable orifice semi-module. Design graph ( B ( t ) = 12 cm). 307
5-26. - Adjustable orifice semi-module. Design graph ( B ( t ) = 15 cm). 309
5- 27. - J a m r a o type orifice semi-module. 312
5-28. - Pipe semi-module. Four examples. 3 15
5-29. - Fayoum standard weir f a r m outlet; general structural design. 32 1
5-30. - Fayoum standard weir f a r m outlet with a group of field outlet
w e i r s o r "nasbas". 322
5-31. - Fayoum standard weir f a r m outlet. Relation of upstream c o r n e r s
to width of weir. 323
5-32. - Fayoum standard weir f a r m outlet. Relationship between H(crt)
and H(s) for all values of H(crt) egv o r of Q. 326
5-33. - Scratchley outlet. 331
5- 34. - Submerged pipe outlet.
5-35. -
F a r m outlet (U. S. S. R. ) to a temporary feed ditch for discharges
-
of up to 150 11s outlet submerged. 342
5- 36. -
F a r m outlet (U. S. S. R. ) to a temporary feed ditch for discharges
-
of up to 150 l / s f r e e outfall. 343
5-37. - P r e - c a s t f a r m turnout. 347
5- 38. - Rating curve of p r e - c a s t f a r m turnout. 349
 L i s t of F i g u r e s
Cont'd.

Figure Page

5-39. - Adjustable weir f a r m outlet.

5-40. - Adjustable weir f a r m outlet. Q v e r s u s H(,,t).
5-41. - Adjustable weir f a r m outlet. Q v e r s u s J.
5-42. -
Sectional view of the PVC outlet installed through a canal
embankment. 3 60
5-43. - View of the PVC pipe assembly.
5-44. - View of bell-mouth inlet with c r o s s b a r s .
5-45. - View of PVC pipe outlet closed.
5-46. - View of PVC pipe outlet open.
5-47. - PVC pipe turnout, for D(p) = 107 mm.
5-48. - Discharge diagram for a PVC pipe turnout for D(p) = 107 rnrn.
5-49. - Pipe f a r m outlet with standard inlet.
5-50. - Prefabricated gated outlet ( F e r r a r a type).
5-51. - Prefabricated gated outlet ( F e r r a r a type).
5-52. - Prefabricated gated outlet ( F e r r a r a type).
5- 53. - Prefabricated gated outlet ( F e r r a r a type).
5-54(a). - Gated pipe outlet ( F e r r a r a type).
5-54(b). - Pipe stand in gated pipe outlet ( F e r r a r a type).
5-55(a) - Complete outlet stand (high type) for 400 m m p b e .
5-55(b) - Complete outlet stand (low type) for 400 m m pipe. '

5-56. - Concrete pipe outlet f r o m p r i m a r y to secondary f a r m ditches.

5-57. - Concrete pipe outlet with tap at one end.
5-58. - Wooden outlet for furrow irrigation.
5-59. - Wooden outlet for basin o r border irrigation - maximum discharge
around 85 l / s.
5-60. - Wooden outlet for basin o r border irrigation.
5- 61. - Snake River auto- s t a r t siphon.
5-62(a) and (b). - Outlet boxes for border irrigation.
 PREFACE

This publication i s the result of a joint effort by the Food and Agriculture Organ-
ization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Commission on Irrigation and
Drainage (ICID) in producing a Handbook on small hydraulic structures and devices used
in open- channel irrigation distribution systems. There has been general recognition of
a need to review the abundant information and experience available on the subject and to
condense and dovetail them into a comprehensive and practical Handbook. Much basic
material for the Handbook has been generously provided by National Committees of the
ICID and by F A 0 projects and contacts in Member Countries, while complementary data
and information have been assembled from the extensive survey of the literature.

The scope of the Handbook i s confined a s the title suggests to small structures
used a t the f a r m level in fields, and in networks with small discharges at the intakes,
such a s from small surface o r ground water resources. Such. structures, having
capacities of l e s s than 1 cubic m e t r e per second, and, indeed, many of them having
capacities of l e s s than 300 l i t r e s per second, account for more than 70 per cent of all
the hydraulic structures installed in many irrigation networks.

In the past these small structures have not always received the attention they
deserve from planners and designers. It .should be recognized that irrigation head
works, and other irrigation engineering works, however spectacular, would have little
value without an efficient distribution system (requiring small structures) extending
right down to the f a r m e r s ' fields. The heavy investments normally involved in an
irrigation system can be justified, through conversion into cash benefits and the social
welfare of the r u r a l population, only by paying full attention to the function and place of
each of the small structures described in this Handbook.
 xiv.

The Handbook i s published in three volumes. Volume 1 comprises Chapters

1 to 5. The types of small hydraulic structures available, and their importance for
efficient distribution of irrigation water supplies a r e discussed in Chapter 1.
Chapter 2 discusses the operation of irrigation systems and how this governs the
choice of the type of small hydraulic structure best suited to the purpose. Chapters
3 to 5 deal with small intake structures, small flow-dividing structures, and outlets
o r farm and field turnouts. Volume 11 comprises Chapters 6 and 7. Chapter 6
deals with small water-level and velocity control structures (i.e. checks or c r o s s
regulators, falls o r drops, and chutes) and Chapter 7 with small hydraulic structures
and devices useful for measuring flow in irrigation networks. Volume 111, which will
be issued a t a later date, will cover small cross-drainage works, escapes and
miscellaneous structures and will include a chapter on the detailed design of
gate s.

F o r definitions of terms, reference should be made to the ICID Muitilingual

Technical Dictionary on Irrigation and Drainage. Units of measurement a r e generally
expressed in the units from which the formulae, designs, tables and graphs have been
derived (and a r e thus best known in that system) but in certain cases it has been
considered advantageous to convert English to Metric units for application in countries
using only the Metric system.

Since the Handbook attempts to assemble and describe many types of small
hydraulic structures which have proved successful in certairi countries, and which
may be used elsewhere under similar conditions, i t i s hoped that i t will prove useful
to.young engineers, technicians and extension workers involved in the remodelling
of existing irrigation systems o r in the design of new projects. It i s also hoped that
the Handbook will stimulate exchanges of ideas and information on techniques and
designs which have often been evolved in isolation.

The present edition i s a provisional version; it i s intended that an updated

version covering Volumes 1 to 111 will be printed in final form at a later date.
Any comments o r further contributions which readers might like to offer will be
gratefully received and will be considered for incorporation in the next
edition.
 Acknowledgments a r e due to the many who have assisted in the production of
this Handbook, some with systematic contributions, such a s the ICID National
Committee s of:

.Arab Republic of Egypt E duado r

Australia Federal Republic of Germany
Bulgaria Guyana
Canada Hungary
Columbia India
Czechoslovakia Japan
Republic of Korea Republic of China
Malaysia S r i Lanka
Mexico Turkey
Philippines U.S.A.
U. S. S. R.

and personnel of F A 0 and individual contacts who have rendered valuable information
and advice, and to Mr. I. Constantinesco for his lucid editing of the manuscript.

Dated

Edouard Saouma K. K. Fraviji

Director Secretary General
Land and Water Development International Commission
Division on Irrigation & Drainage
Food & Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations
 1. INTRODUCTION

Irrigation, with an adequate water supply, suitable soil, and good management,
should ensure sustained high yields of c r o p s 2 e r unit a r e a of land. When the water
supply i s l e s s than adequate o r costly, the a i m m u s t be to obtain the best possible yields
p e r unit of water in combination with carefully selected agronomic and managerial
practices. The success of an irrigation project in meeting these requirements depends,
to a l a r g e extent, on the proper functioning of i t s water conveyance and distribution
system. P r o p e r functioning i s essentially identified with proper operation of the system
so that equitable and reliable apportionment of water among u s e r s and the conveyance of
water with minimum l o s s e s can be ensured. While operation i s dependent on good
organizational and institutional backing, i t s effectiveness i s basically dependent on awe11
planned, designed and constructed network f r o m the source of the water supply down to
the f a r m e r ' s field.

Engineering planning, design and construction of dams, b a r r a g e s , diversion weirs,

main intake works, pumping stations and main canals a r e usually c a r r i e d out a t a high
degree of efficiency. Generally the operation of such headworks i s also efficient and
well organized and thus the amount of water l o s t f r o m the total supply i s usually small.
Sometimes, however, secondary and t e r t i a r y canals and control s t r u c t u r e s a r e l e s s
carefully made, while smaller canals and those a t the f a r m level and their s t r u c t u r e s
a r e m o r e often badly made o r omitted entirely from engineering plans. It m u s t not be
overlooked that besides headworks and l a r g e r canals, irrigation works involve the
building of many small s t r u c t u r e s and s m a l l earthworks of unsophisticated design spread
over extensive a r e a s of land. Engineers have often neglected these "minor" works,
particularly those required a t the f a r m level; to contractors they do not mean much
profit and they a r e dispersed and d.fficult to supervise; and l a s t but not least,
authorities have sometimes appeared l e s s willing to invest in tens of thousands of such
small scattered works than in l a r g e works having g r e a t e r prestige value. This r e s u l t s
in many omissions of essential small structures, and failures o r unnecessary
deficiencies in some irrigation systems.
 The g r e a t impact of small s t r u c t u r e s on satisfactory operation and overall
performance of gravity irrigation systems i s , however, apparent from their l a r g e
number. In gravity flow systems, 90 out of 100 s t r u c t u r e s usually have capacities of
l e s s than 1,000 l i t r e s p e r second. The total number p e r unit a r e a depends largely on
the s i s e of holdings and fields, on the delivery pattern and on the topography, but ranges
f r o m a few hundred to several thousand p e r thousand ha. The total i r r i g a t e d a r e a of
the world a t present exceeds 200 million ha and potentials exist for doubling this a r e a .
The number of small hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s already in existence exceeds 100 million,
and the number that will need to be modified, replaced o r newly built every y e a r i s
likely to run into millions.

In view of their g r e a t impact on the savinp, equitable delivery and reliable supply
of water, small hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s m u s t be designed, built and operated with much the
sarne completeness, efficiency and accuracy a s l a r g e ones.

The factors governing the design and subsequent construction and operation of
irrigation works a r e the water r e s o u r c e s available, the methods of water delivery to
f a r m e r s , and the methods of water application practised by them. Successful operation
r e q u i r e s adequate facilities for the control and measurement of flow at all strategic
points along the whole network, including the f a r m and field levels. Each small
hydraulic structure m u s t be efficient, simple in design, construction and operation,
and m u s t be durable.

The "largest" s t r u c t u r e s discussed in this publication a r e the intakes f r o m

t e r t i a r y canals o r intakes f r o m small rivers'into complete irrigation systems, the head
discharges of which do not exceed one cubic m e t r e per second. Intakes a r e required
to control flow into a subsequent canal o r canal system; often they a r e combined with
silt- excluding devices, Intakes should be designed to control and regulate water with
minimum entrance l o s s e s and a s little disturbance a s possible. Flow-dividing
s t r u c t u r e s o r proportional distributors a r e c l o s ~ l yrelated control structures, but a r e
d i s c u s ~ e dseparately in this handbook.

F o r the purpose of this manual an intake s t r u c t u r e is one for regulation of flow

into an offtaking canal with a full supply capacity of not m o r e than 25 p e r cent of that of
the parent canal. When the offtaking canal o r canals leave l e s s than 75 p e r cent of the
discharge in the parent canal downstream, the structure effecting the division of the
flow into two, t h r e e o r m o r e portions i s considered a "divisor" o r "proportional
distributort'. The proportions may be fixed, o r adjusted by varying the control opening.
A divisor on a f a r m channel i s usually called a 'division box'.

An outlet (or f a r m turnout), the purpose of which i s to control water delivery to

the f a r m , i s a structure. a t the head of a watercourse, f a r m supply ditch o r field channel
which connects with a distribution canal ( e . g. a t e r t i a r y o r a quaternary). The distri-
bution canal i s under the control of an operator of the authority in charge of the
irrigation system. Thus, the f a r m outlet is the connecting link between the authority
and the f a r m e r . The fact that there a r e approximately a s many f a r m outlets a s t h e r e
a r e f a r m holdings, o r even a s many field outlets a s t h e r e a r e fields in an irrigation
system, underlines the importance of this type of structure.

A check o r c r o s s regulator i s a structure designed to r a i s e the water level in a

channel. This would be necedsary, for example, during periods of low discharge in the
parent channel when the check would r a i s e the water level sufficiently to feed an offtake
canal, o r several in rotation. A check may a l s o s e r v e to close temporarily and divert
the supply to the downstream end of a parent channel to allow time for r e p a i r s o r
maintenance. Checks a l s o help in temporarily absorbing fluctuations of water supply in
various sections of the canal system, in controlling flow velocities and in preventing
breaches in the tail reaches. F a l l s , measuring structures, bridges and other
s t r u c t u r e s can also be combined with checks o r c r o s s regulators. At the f a r m level,
checks a r e required to divert water from one to another canal o r to serve a s a control
for water delivery to the field.

Whenever the slope of the land i s g r e a t e r than the grade required of the irrigation
canal, the difference i s adjusted by constructing drops ( o r falls) o r chutes a t suitable
intervals. Generally, a water level control structure will be called a drop o r fall when
the reduction of the slope i s accomplished over a short'distance. When water i s con-
veyed over longer distances and along slopes that a r e m o r e gentle, but still steep enough
t o maintain high velocities, the s t r u c t u r e s used a r e known a s chutes.

The measurement of irrigation water i s an essential element for i t s f a i r distri-

bution and economical use. Measurement s e r v e s to ensure the maintenance of proper
delivery schedules, to determine the amounts of water delivered and to single out
anomalies in distribution. Knowledge of the amount of water delivered facilitates proper
application to the field and, where applicable, provides a basis for water charges. It
i s also useful for estimating conveyance losses and detecting their origin. A variety of
measuring methods, devices and structures has been developed to suit various con-
ditions. Measuring structures and devices a r e commonly combined with other
structures, such a s farm outlets, checks o r falls. Some types have been standardised
-on a national scale in several countries; others a r e available commercially.

Whenever an irrigation canal intercepts natural streams o r drainage channels in

i t s fiassage, cross drainage works have to be constructed. Cross drainage works may
be either syphons, aqueducts or level crossings, which pass the drainage water either
under o r above o r s t the same level a s the irrigation canal. Sometimes drainage and
irrigation water i s deliberately intermixed.

Escapes act a s safety valves for dioposing of surplus water resulting from
conditions such a s the follo+ng: slack c r no demand for irrigation water due to
excessive rainfall on the comrrianded area; sudden closure of a canal due to a breach o r
breaches; admittance of drain water into the canal through inlet and level crossings;
temporary closure of a canal for urgent repairs; e r r o r s in regulation; and failure of
P-PS
-.
The regulation and distribution of flow through a hydraulic structure on an
irrigation system i s , to a large extent, controlled by gates of various types. The type
1

of gate required for a particular purpose depends on the dimensions of the gate, the
water pressure, the mode of operation and on the availability and cost of local materials.

The wide range of types of gates available has merited a special chapter in this
handbook, to deal in detail with the design of gates which have proved successful in
practice.

In addition to the structures mentioned above, distribution systems may require

bridges, road culverts, cart and cattle crossings; and other complementary structures.

Automatic mechanical gate control has become a common asset in headworks and
large conveyance canals, while in the terminal distribution system and on the farm such
means of control a r e still quite r a r e .

&ideal completely automatic irrigation system i s one in which the water require-
 ments of the plants a r e m e t by means of devices which m e a s u r e soil moisture and
initiate a s e r i e s of operations to convey the necessary water through the network a t the
right moment and a t the required r a t e and duration. Technically, automation i s much
m o r e difficult to introduce in open flow networks than in p r e s s u r e pipe systems. There-
fore, in new projects where labour and other conditions favour automatic delivery on
demand, the trend i s toward's piped, systems, rather than open-channel systems.
However, existing open-channel systems cannot be readily converted into closed pipe
systems. Yet social changes and changes in cultivation practices (multiple cropping,
use of high yielding varieties, etc.) may call for modification of traditional gravity flow
networks.

The problem h e r e is how to provide economically for the large capacities required,
whilst minimising modification of existing engineering works. This requires recon-

.
sidering existing safe limits with a view to increasing water levels and velocities, i. e.
flow capacity and reduction of spill and other losses, especially in the terminal portion
,, of a network.

Auto-mechanisation of the control of irrigation water supply i s being tried a t the

f a r m level in some countries with a view to economising on water deliveries to the field
and to save labour.

In new f a r m distribution networks it i s sometimes difficult to plan in advance the

layout of the entire distribution system so that i t meets actual operational demands in
respect of locations, dimensions and types of outlets and control structures. Therefore,
i t i s sometimes advantageous to install temporary structqres a t f i r s t and then to replace
them with permanent ones after gaining experience of operating the system.
.
F a r m irrigation structures that remain in place for m o r e than one irrigation
season a r e considered permanent; those that a r e moved from place to place during each
irrigation a r e considered portable o r temporary. Provisional and temporary structures
m a y be m a d e of wood, metal o r plastic, while permanent ones a r e usually built of
concrete o r masonry. Water levels and discharges a r e regulated by wooden flashboards
o r wooden o r steel gates.

In m'any gravity irrigation systems maintenance i s poor, resulting in reduced

efficiency and the deterioration of the structures. Where the reasons for poor mainten-
ance cannot be easily overcome, the only remedy i s the construction of simple, robust
and "over -dimensioned1' structures . Where technically feasible, multifunctional
structures such a s drops, outlets, flow-dividing structures and measuring equipment,
should be employed.

The large number of structures of the same types and sizes used in l a r g e projects
lends itself to standardization and centralized production. In fact many small irrigation
structures have been standardized and a r e m a s s produced o r precast in quantity in
central workshops. The advantages a r e savings in costs; better co-ordination of
supply and transport; reduction in time of construction; better quality and uniformity
of the final products; and quicker r e p a i r s o r replacements. (It i s noteworthy also that
the off-demand periods of irrigation in many a r e a s coincide with unsuitable weather for

--
in situ construction.) Furthermore, stock-piled precast components of structures can
be installed relatively quickly a t any convenient time. Savings of 20 to 30 per cent in
precast a s compared with in situ construction have been cited from experience in the

There i s also a t r e n d t o be noted in the production of prefabricated p a r t s o r

components which can be combined and assembled to form different structures, thus
reducing both initial cost and repair o r replacement expenses.

Despite i t s advantages prefabrication i s unrealistic in countries and a r e a s w h e ~ e

labour-intensive construction would help to diminish under-employment and a t the same
time result in a saving in costs.

Successful irrigation ultimately depends to a large extent on the response of the

f a r m e r , and thus the irrigation facilities made available to him must be designed and
maintained with a view to meeting his requirements and aptitudes. Wherever possible,
f a r m e r s and the staff operating the irrigation network should be encouraged to
participate together in the selection of suitable structures, and in their operation and
maintenance. Such co-operation can prevent the'design and installation of structures
which may prove too complicated o r difficult to be mastered by people lacking the
necessary technical training, and which would in practice be found to be functionally
inadequate.
 2. IRRIGATION NETWORK OPERATION

2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

An irrigation system comprises all the physical and organizational facilities

and services required to convey water for the irrigation of crops f r o m a source of
supply to the f a r m e r s ' fields. Systems may vary in size, scope and design from
one m e r e l y aiming at spreading the flood water of a r i v e r over adjacent a r e a s , o r
conveying small flows f r o m a surface o r ground water source over limited
distances and a r e a s to l a r g e networks ramifying over the land like the branches of
a t r e e (Figure 2- 1)

FIGURE 2- 1. - Sketch of a typical irrigation system (punjab).

 Networks for gravity flow irrigation may consist of open canals and hitches
o r of low p r e s s u r e buried pipes, o r both, in the tail portion of the system.
Buried pipes a r e not usually economical -in gravity flow irrigation systems where
the pipe diameter has to be large enough for a flow exceeding 1000 l / s e c .

2.1.1 Need for Flow Control

Irrigation is in effect synonymous with artificial flow control from the

water source to the plant. Artificial flow control i s achieved by the interaction
of physical facilities (e. g. hydraulic structures) and organized operation (e.g. an
irrigation programme). Planning and design ob a flow system should extend
from the f a = m e r s l fields towards the source of water supply. The basic data for
the entire system a r e those related to the soil, the climate, the plant, the f a r m e r
and his fields. The adequacy of these data and their correct application will
ultimately determine the success of the project. The distribution system must
allow the delivery of a definite quantity of water to each field and i t must be
possible to vary the quantity with time. In addition to irrigating efficiently, o r
m o r e precisely, and thus satisfying the crops' needs for water, the quantities
delivered to each point must be so determined that they also satisfy certain
economic and practical requirements. This i s usually achieved by establishing
in advance a "programme" for the system a s a whole and for each branch canal
a s well-1 1.The establishment of a programme shoufd be the joint concern of the
agronomist, the i'rrigation practices specialist, the f a r m e r and the engineer.
The latter then h a s to take all the steps necessary to ensure that the operations
can be smoothly and accurately carried out. If the water cannot be distributed
strictly to programme the crops will suffer and a danger of exhausting the water
resources o r of waterlogging, salinity, etc. could develop. The need to save
water and to provide accurate metering facilities from which realistic unit costs
of water can be computed must always be the primary consideration. The amount

e
of water to be suppli d to each f a r m plot varies f r o m year to year, and even
during the same year, depending on the crops grown and the needs of the plants
during the various stages of their growth. And, lastly, the effects of the weather
during the growing period have to be taken into account.

L' Guidance a s to the synthesis of the different factors involved i s provided in

references (77) and (2'3)
 Since the very aim of irrigation i s to supply crops with the water they need
for their growth at the right time, ideal distribution implies the ability to control
the discharge from each canal a t any instant so that the canal o r i t s branches can
satisfy'the net demand of the a r e a they serve. In other words, the response to
demand must be a s accurate and immediate a s possible.

At the same time a s the discharges to the water consumers ( i r r i g a t o r s ) a r e

met the water level must be controlled, for two main purposes, depending on
circumstances: to r a i s e the water level a s high a s economically possible with a
view to increasing the a r e a under irrigation; and to control variations in the
water level:

- to a minimum level, to prevent canal deterioration o r to store water in the

network

- to a maximum level, i f there i s a danger of overflowing

- to a predetermined level for crops that have to be completely submerged

(such a s rice), the depth depepding on the stage of growth of the plants

- to a r e s t r i c t e d range, a s an aid to discharge control at intakes, f a r m

outlets, etc.

The conveyance and distribution of water can be controlled by two principal

methods - upstream control and downstream control, and by combinations of both
these methods.

Upstream Control

In an upstream controlled irrigation system water i s discharged from the

supply in a predetermined amount at the head of the main irrigation canal. The
amount of water to be discharged i s specified in a previously drawn up irrigation
programme. The subsequent distribution in the branch and various distributary
canals occurs according to recognized demands o r "water duties".

Hydraulic structures for this system a r e designed to maintain a constant

and predetermined upstream water level, the discharge capacity of the structure
being set by a fixed c r e s t o r by manual o r automatic means using such devices a s
stop-logs, slide gates and radial gates. The
"
volume of water in upstream con-
trolled canals remains practically constant during operation, whatever the flows
 through the various sections may be.

Upstream control of an irrigation system i s used where water r e s o u r c e s

a r e limited, a t l e a s t during p a r t of the y e a r . Where water i s delivered in
rotation, it may be applied in this way to entire sub-networks o r may be
practised among single l a t e r a l canals such a s distributaries, minors, and water-
courses o r among individual, f a r m s along a lateral, depending on the size of the
whole system, the supply-demand situation and other factors ( s e e also Chapter 5).

Downstream Control

If the supply available a t the head is always g r e a t e r than the demand, dis-
chsrge control considerations become l e s s imperative, and each u s e r can be
allowed to regulate his own supply, providing that the effect of the amount he
draws i s transmitted step by step to the head of the system and causes the overall
supply to the network to be adjustec?.to suit the cumulative demand. In the
practical application of downstream control some form of automatic control
equipment i s necessary. (See 2 . 3 and 2 . 4 below. )

2.2 ENTIRELY MANUALLY OPERATED SYSTEMS

Under entirely manually operated systems water supplies a r e released

from upstream (upstream control) on a cropped a r e a basis, o r on a volumetric
basis, o r according to special agreements. The intake to the main canal and all
subsequent regulating and control s t r u c t u r e s a r e manually controlled ( o r a r e of
fixed c r e s t o r fixed orifice type in which case, except for periodical inspection,
no human interference i s required). Large gates in these systems a r e often
operated by motors, but the motors have to be manually started and stopped.
Manual operation i s the most wide- spread and traditional form of conveyance
management and continues to be dominant in' all major irrigation a r e a s of the
world. Manual operation differs little f r o m one country to another except in
organizational aspects. Within the scope of this Handbook manual control a s
practised in India s e r v e s a s an example.

Example from India

In the case of r e s e r v o i r storage ensuring adequate water supplies the water

is manually released ( f r o m upstream) a t the time and to the extent required by
the recognized demand. In the case of run-of-the-river supplies t h e r e a r e often
seasonal shortages of water and under these conditions the principle employed i s
equitable distribution of the supply available. Either each distributary system i s
run in rotation with full supply o r with a supply proportional to the total available
supply in the system at the time. (Usually there i s an acceptable period every
y e a r during which the whole network i s closed down for maintenance work; in
Northern India this period i s three weeks).

The staif responsible f o r the manual operation of a canal system i s headed

by a "Divisional Engineer", in charge of the headworks; under him i s a "Sub- '

Divisional Officer (Headworks)", who i s s u e s o r d e r s for the regulation of supplies

in the canals under the instructions of a "Regulating Officer". These o r d e r s a r e
based on the recorded knowledge of the water levels throughout the system of
canals down to the head of the distributaries and of the "indents" (requests) for
water supply received f r o m other officers responsible for the detailed d i s t r i -
bution of water in individual canals o r p a r t s of the system.

E a r l y every morning gauges installed at various control points on a canal

system a r e read by appointed gauge-readers and the data a r e communicated to a
staff of signallers who transmit them by telegraph to the Regulating Office a t the
headworks where they a r e tabulated on a printed form. This tabulated f o r m i s
generally delivered to the Regulating Officer by 8.00 a . m . each day. By this
time he will have received the indents for a reduction o r an i n c r e a s e of
discharges of water a t different control points of the system. He i s thus in a
position, (by correlating gauge readings and discharge indents) to i s s u e the
o r d e r s n e c e s s a r y to bring about a redistribution of the water supply in
accordance with the indents. Twenty-four hours' notice i s usually required to
meet an indent.

F o r the safety of the canal system, i t i s important that the amount of water
in each.cana1 be within i t s safe capacity. In o r d e r to allow for mis-regulation
and for e r r o r s and omission by gauge r e a d e r s and gate operators, for unforeseen
rainfall and for preventing canal breaches, safety devices (such a s escapes) a r e
provided in the system for the disposal of surplus water.

In the summer, when supplies from the run-of-the-river o r the storage

r e s e r v o i r a r e plentiful, all canals of a canal system a r e run a t full capacity
throughout the season, except when t h e r e i s little o r no demand for irrigation
water due to heavy rainfall, o r when t h e r e a r e major floods in the r i v e r from
which supplies a r e being taken, (in which c a s e the canal h a s to be partially o r
fully closed a t the head to p r e u m t excess silt entering Qntoit).

During the winter, r i v e r supplies a r e limited and i t i s not possible to run

all the canals a t the same time, and thus partial supplies a r e run in the main
canal o r the branch canals but distributaries a r e run ' f a 1 in rotation. For
efficient distribution i t is highly desirable that d i s t r i h t a r i e s and/or m i n o r s run
either full o r remain closed; in Northern India it i s common practice to open
them for 20 days and to close them for 10 days. (This practice h a s been
developed in India to suit local conditions; there a r e .of course alternative ways
of dealing with seasonal water shortages. )

Manual control by the Irrigation' Authority does aot usually r e a c h further

down the system than the intake gate to a minor canal. F r o m this canal a
number of f a r m outlets r e l e a s e the water "automatically" into f a r m water
courses. A water course may s e r v e an average of 15 f a r m s . The water i s
shared according to an agreed r o s t e r on the basis of equitable distribution. It
may be n e c e s s a r y for the Irrigation Authority to intervene in the internal
rotation system when disputes a r i s e among u s e r s . In India t h e r e a r e two
systems on which the r o s t e r distribution of water supplies i s planned: the
"fixed-turn" system and the tffollow-on" system.

Under the "fixed-turn" system, individual holdings take water for a definite
period according to the size of the fields, so that the'tarn of each holding o c c u r s
once a week on a fixed day at a fixed hour for a fixed time. The t u r n s a r e so
computed that the total of their periods i s equal to one week. The advantage of
this system i s that every cultivator knows exactly when he i s responsible for
handling the discharge from the watercourse. On the other hand, should i t be
n e c e s s a r y to employ rotational running and different t i m e s of delivery because
of a water shortage one o r m o r e of the cultivators may completely m i s s a turn, o r
even two, and the crops may suffer in consequence.

Under the "follow-on" system, the turn t i m e for each cultivator is cal-
culated on the basis of s o many hours u s e of discharge per 100 a c r e s . The
rate varies in different localitiee according to the crops grown and other relevant
factore. When one cultivator has finished his turn, he hands over the supply to
the next on the roster. The obvious advantage of thie aystem i s that every
cultivator gets his turn in due course.. The cultivator who irrigates at the end
of one period of the channel rotation, resumes irrigation at the next running and
thus finishes his allotted turn. This requires careful assignment of hours to
each area.

Under both these systems the roster l i s t s have to be prepared very care-
fully. The water should be turned into the fields nearest to the outlet, first to
the right and then to the left, but always proceeding down the watercourse. On
reaching a branch watercourse irrigation should proceed down that branch and
be completed on all areas covered by it. Then irrigation should s t a r t again from
the junction and proceed down the o ~ p o s i t ebranch, if any, in a similar manner.
Finally, irrigation should then proceed down the main watercour se again. This
method ensures that water i s utilized a s soon a s there i s water in the supply line.
When a cultivator's turn a t the end of a rcain watercourse o r branch water -
course i s over, the branch watercourse i s closed off and the water left in the
channel may run into his field. This 'balance' of water compensates the
cultivator for any shortfall in supply because of the distance of his field from the
water source. When the watercourse i s long the volume of water left in i t i s
eubetantial. Even so, disputes can a r i s e among the cultivators at the extreme
end of a watercourse a s to their share in this 'balance' water. These disputes
can be settled by letting the cultivators take turns at being last to receive water
and by making due allowance for the amount of balance water received by
adjusting the time. The problem of irrigating high areas, too, may be eettled
by experimenting on the site, in the presence 01 all the cultivators involved. The
exact extra time of flow required for the cultivator concerned in such a r e a s
during a turn would be accepted by all once they had seen the justice of the
arrangements made.

In order to avoid hardship to any cultivator whose turn falls during the
night, two sets of r o s t e r s a r e drawn up, each differing from the other by twelve
hours. Each of these sets i s operated by rotation in alternate years.

Systems varying slightly from these practices, in accordance with local

 14.

needs, a r e followed in different p a r t s of India.

1/
2.3 HYDRO-MECHANICALLY AUTOMATED FLOW CONTROL SYSTEMS--

Hydro-mechanically automated flow control systems a r e those in which

various types of gates equipped with floats and w e i r s with long c r e s t s a r e used
for automatic regulation of water levels in irrigation systems. The m o s t
important of these a r e the NEYRPIC constant level upstream gate (AMIL) and the
constant level downstream gates (AVIS) and (AVIO). Technical descriptions of
these gates and the weirs a r e given in Chapter 6. 1. Functional aspects a r e
discussed below.

2.3.1 Hydro-mechanical Devices for Automatic Control of Constant Upstream

Water Level

Hydraulically-automated conscant upstream water level gates (AMIL), o r

weirs of long c r e s t (such a s duckbill weirs o r diagonal weirs) divide the canals
into successive reaches. The constant upstream level gate, a s i t s name implies,
automatically maintains a constant water level upstream with only insignificant
variations. Similarly, a long c r e s t weir, (because of its cl'est length in relation
to discharge), automatically controls the upstream water level within n a r r c v
limits, and m o r e o r l e s s independently of variations In discharge.

The intervals between these automatic level control s t r u c t u r e s depend upon

the grade of the canal and the number and size of offtakes along it. Regulation
a t the main intake i s achieved by manual means and follows a previously
established programme. Subsequent distribution in the branch o r distributary
canals i s c a r r i e d out in accordance with recognized demands. The demands may
be based on the a r e a served o r the actual demands of the f a r m e r s based on their
c r o p water requirements.

Figure 2-2 illustrates the function of this system; in a given canal reach
the smallest level range between full and z e r o discharge o c c u r s immediately
upstream of the gates o r weirs, while the highest level range o c c u r s downstream

It This section i s largely based on reference (69)

 Off take channel
\ 1
rI Off take channel

\ I
I . I Duckbill Weir (as alternative to
I the upstream constant water
e I level gate)7
Upstream constant
~ ~ ~ o c l u l
water level gate7

V II" I

Downstream constant -- - .

'TI
water level gate Module

k:::echanneIs-l Off take channel

FIGURE'2-2. -
Diagrammatic layout of an upstream
controlled network.
 of these control structures. Consequently i t i s desirable to group offtakes in the
vicinity upstream of the control structures (Zone B). Offtakes which for other
reasons have to be located near the downstream side of a control structure (Zone
A) have to be equipped with a device for automatic constant downstream level
regulation (e. g. an AVIO o r AVIS gate) in order to ensure that the discharge in
the offtaking canal is independent of variations of water level in the parent canal.
Alternatively, the distances between the constant upstream control gates in the
parent canal may be reduced. The optimum design to employ has to be arrived
a t by comparing the results, and construction costs, of using a given number of
small level gates in the offtaking canals with the addition of one large gate in the
parent canal.

In this system, the shutters of the offtakes o r outlets a r e usually of semi-

module type and manually operated. Once set they give the desired discharge.
The most commonly used devices a r e the NEYRPIC distributors (described in
Chapter 3).

2.3.2 Hydro-mechanical Devices for Automatic Control of Constant Downstrealh

I I
Water Level

A downstream-controlled distribution system i s one in which the discharges

through it a r e controlled by the a s e r e along the canal. Each individual demand
i s automatically transmitted back to the head of the system and causes the overall
supply to the network to be adjusted to suit the cumulative demand. The step-by-
step transmission of the demand i s ensured by constant downstream level gates,
regularly spaced along the entire length of the network. At a call for water in
a given canal section, the gate a t the upstream end of the canal opens to com-
pensate for the falling level; this causes the section upstream of it to s t a r t
emptying, whereupon the next gate lifts - a process repeated ali along the line.
Decreasing demand has the opposite effect; all the gates close one after the
other, downstream to upstream. heref fore the m e r e act of setting a water
intake to a plot of land to the required flow i s enough to ensure that the c o r r e -
sponding amount i s supplied right through the entire network.

Figure 2-3 is a diagram showing the layout of a downstream controlled

system. As can be seen, the offtakes equipped with shutters only a r e grouped
immediately downstream of the constant level gate (I in Zone A) while offtakes
 located further down the reach and particularly those near the upstream side of
the control gate (I1 in Zone B) a r e equipped with additiofral constant downstream
level gates (111), in order to ensure that the discharge i s iddependent of level
variations in the parent canal (level range "a"). Similar to the upstream control
system there i s an economical optimum between the length of the control reaches
in the parent canal and the number of offtakes to be equipped with constant down-
stream level gates. Shutters a r e of the same type a s in the upstream controlled
system, (see also Chapter 3).

--- T--pB - eve1 ~t zero discharge

Freeboard -
Level at full
supply disch-
c

---------- arge

i
-----
-

Offtake canals
Downstream Downstream cons-
.constant water tant water level

Supply channel -
tant water level ITI

Off take canals

FIGURE 2- 3. - Diagrammatic layout of a downstream controlled network.

 Comparison between Upstream and owns stream Control Systems
Wherever the consumers cannot be provided with unlimited water because
of inadequate supplies o r for other reasons, u p s t r e a m control i s the only possible
method - a t l e a s t a s f a r a s the t e r m i n a l portion of a network i s concerned, since
i t enables each u s e r ' s consumption to be fixed fairly in accordance with the water
supplies available.

However, the supply of water to the head of the s y s t e m and the sharing out
of the water available among the u s e r s r e q u i r e s a l a r g e and highly experienced
operating staff. It i s practically impossible t o s e t all the individual discharges
in a network exactly equal to the sum of the discharge drawn off f r o m the supply
canal plus leakage and evaporation. Thus deficits in distribution, o r some
wastage due t o over-distribution, can hardly be avoided. Since the lower
r e a c h e s a r e only supplied when the upper r e a c h e s a r e full, a certain amount of
e x c e s s water h a s to be kept in r e s e r v e u p s t r e a m a s a safety m a r g i n . This i s
obviously wasteful, causing a l o s s of a s much a s 100/o of the total water supplied,
even assuming a carefully drawn up p r o g r a m m e and painstaking distribution (69).

A further drawback i s the unavoidable time lag in the t r a n s m i s s i o n of

orders. This a r i s e s f r o m the fact that the amount of water stored in each canal
section, and t h e r e f o r e the storage capacity of the network, i n c r e a s e s with canal
discharge, ( s e e hatched section in F i g u r e 2-2). If t h e amount of water supplied
a t the head i n c r e a s e s , the f i r s t section h a s to f i l l up to the level associated with
the higher discharge before the f i r s t gate lifts; s i m i l a r l y , the second constant
u p s t r e a m level gate does not open until the second r e a c h h a s found i t s new level,
and s o on a l l the way down the line. The aforementioned applies, with only
negligible variations, to long c r e s t e d w e i r s for u p s t r e a m control. To i n c r e a s e
the discharge a t the tail of such a system, a c e r t a i n amount of water (which i s
s t o r e d in the successive, u p s t r e a m , r e a c h e s ) h a s f i r s t t o be sent through the
system; conversely, closure of the head gate does not have any effect on the flow
a t the downstream end until some of the water in all the r e a c h e s h a s f i r s t run off.
Thus, s e v e r a l h o u r s may sometimes be required for a given discharge s e t a t the
headwork, to r e a c h the f a r m e r s , particularly where canals a r e long and con-
veyance velocity i s low.

The main feature of downstream control i s that it provides a completely

 automatic distribution system that responds immediately to every demand.
Water i s saved because the quantities supplied a r e exactly the same a s those
drawn off, even allowing for leakage and exceptional demands. Another out-
standing feature i s that no water i s wasted i f consumption ceases completely;
the discharge supplied to the head of the system, during the interval of time
required for the closing o r d e r to be transmitted, i s m e r e l y added to the amount
already stored in the system, where it remains available until a f r e s h demand is
made.

However, downstream control also h a s serious drawbacks. It i s seldom

possible to get i r r i g a t o r s to limit their demand, and during a water shortage,
therefore, the canal will gradually empty section by section from i t s upstream
end downwards, and deprive the consumers depending on the upper reaches of
water, whilst those a t the lower end a r e still drawing their full supply. The
same situation would occur in the case of a breakdown in the system, such a s
blockage of a gate, breakdown of a pump, o r a canal breach. In such c a s e s all
automatic gates situated downstream of the point of accident would open, in o r d e r
to m e e t the current demand. Consequently the network below would be com-
pletely emptied. Apart from inconvenience to the consumers, serious damage to
the canal (e.g. uplift of linings) might occur.

Downstream control generally requires fairly large canals, since their

capacities have to be l a r g e enough to contain the volume of water corresponding
.to the levels a t z e r o discharge which a r e of course above those for full discharge.
Therefore, extensive e a r t h and canal lining works a r e required. A comparison
between the costs of establishing downstream and upstream controlled s y s t e m s
shows that the cost of the f o r m e r rapidly becomes prohibitive a s the slope of the
ground i n c r e a s e s . Slopes of m o r e than 30 centimetres per kilometre may be
considered a s a practical upper limit for downstream control (69).

The specific limitations of either the upstream o r downstream control

methods can be alleviated o r eliminated by combining them with each other o r by
integrating them with other control m e a s u r e s discussed in the following Sections
of this chapter.

2.3.4 Combined Hydro-Mechanical Control Systems

There a r e two systems in u s e where upstream and downstream control a r e
combined; one may be described a s the "longitudinally combined system" and the
other the "composite gate system".

The longitudinally combined system

In many instances i t i s advantageous to use different control systems

in the lower and upper part of an irrigation network.

Upstream control i s usually resorted to for the terminal portions of a

network in view of the general necessity of keeping the offtakes under the super-
vision of the operating staff, to avoid exhausting the water resources and to enable
the consumption to be checked. The main supply system, however, (that i s to
say the main conveyance canals), may be equipped for downstream control, thus
making i t very much easier to c a r r y out the irrigation programme by doing away
with the necessity of going all the way to the head intake (sometimes situated a
considerable distance away) whenever the discharge supplied to the network has
to be changed. Moreover, the system can be brought into operation much m o r e
quickly and no water will be wasted when setting the controls. With such a
layout, the programme can be made very comprehensive and even allow for
unexpected demand. Finally, a system of this kind can usually be kept within
economic bounds since the main canals a r e often laid out along a contour line and
the secondary canals run m o r e o r l e s s down the steepest slope.

The composite gate system

I

The composite gate system i s confined to the use of NEYRPIC hydro-

mechanical gates of composite type in the main network and constant downstream
level control gates, followed by shutters (distributors), in the offtakes o r outlets.

When conditions a r e normal, (i.e. when the supply i s equal to the

consumption) composite control gates behave in exactly the same way a s constant
downstream level control gates and therefore have all their characteristics.
When the water supply exceeds the consumption, the gates, which then control a
constant level upstream, open to prevent overflowing. Here the composite gate
s e r v e s exactly the same purpose a s emergency siphons o r escape structures in
downstream controlled systems, without however wasting water. When the supply
to the canal i s below the overall downstream demand, the gates close before the
reaches upstream of them a r e completely exhausted so that some water i s always
 kept in r e s e r v e throughout the system. This means that the canals a r e no longer
in danger of running dry, nor do the upstream u s e r s suffer, while those down-
s t r e a m a r e still drawing their .full supply. Thus the total r e s e r v e available can
be shared out fairly among all the u s e r s until f r e s h supplies a r e made available.

A canal network thus equipped with composite control gates can be

made to function a s a compensation reservoir, which can absorb supply-demand
differences and these differences may be caused by:

varying head supplies resulting from upstream hydro-power

generation;

the need to make use of a constant flow supply while demand

varies during the course of an irrigation day;

sudden r i s e s due to storm water entering into the system;

sudden drops due to a canal breach o r other breakdown.

2.4 ELECTRICALLY-ELECTRONICALLY AUTOMATED FLOW CONTROL

2.4.1 Local Electric Control, Telemetering and Remote Electric Control

Electrically operated gates can be used for any of the previously described
control methods - upstream, downstream and combined. They can be controlled
either locally o r remotely. Control is usually based on electrical sensing of the
water level using floats o r electric probes. Variations in water level in the
control section of the canal a r e conveyed to the gate by means of a transmitter,
an amplifier and an integrator in accordance with the operational scheme adopted.
Thus individual control gates can act automatically in much the same way a s
hydro-mechanically operated gates. Electrically controlled gates a r e usually
chosen for intakes and other structures on large canals, where a supply of
electricity i s readily available and where gate dimensions a r e too l a r g e for
hand operated o r hydraulically automated devices. Usually the controls a r e set
to operate one gate while the other gates o r stop-logs have to be adjusted manually
a s demand changes during the season.
 Telemetering and remote control

Electric sensing of water levels or flows and electric operation of gates

lend themselves to telemetering and remote control, which provide the advantage
of integrating single gate operations into the overall operation of the network a t a
central point. Telemetering o r remote metering i s a means by which water
level, flow, p r e s s u r e and other data can be m e a s u r e d remotely and communicated
to a control point for display o r recording o r both.

Remote control o r supervisory control in this context i s a means whereby

an operator a t one location can control the function of devices a t a location remote
f r o m himself with electrical o r electronic equipment, o r both. The operator
simply controls the operation of the remote devices by activating push-buttons o r
other kinds of switches'on a console. Gates o r valves can be opened o r closed,
with indicator lights showing their position. Pumps can be started o r stopped,
f
with indicator lights showing whether they a r e working o r not. A l a r m s may be
activated to a l e r t operators t o a high o r a low water level, a power failure, o r
the l o s s of a communication o r control channel.

An examplebf a remote o r supervisory control system i s the one installed

on the Salt River P r o j e c t in the U. S. A . , which s e r v e s about 100,000 ha of
i r r i g a t e d land. The operating agency i s installing a supervisory electronic
control system by means of which i t will monitor and operate 174 canal gates and
54 of i t s 250 deep well pumps f r o m a central operating station (109). The system
comprises and provides remote control and information facilities a s listed below:

- stilling wells with water level t r a n s d u c e r s (to permit sensing of

upstream and downstream water levels)

- gate position transducers (to sense and indicate gate positions)

- gate controls (to open o r close a gate o r to s e t the gate a t the

required opening)

pump controls (to turn the pumps on o r off)

valve controls (to adjust a valve from open to closed)

a l a r m system to sense =ii a l e r t the operator to high o r low

water, local power failures, and communication link
failure
 - device for information retrieval

- data logging for special records

- graphic display panel of the canal and lateral system

- operations console with all means for control and warning

- all central control equipment for the whole system.

2.4.2 Comparison of Hydraulically and Electrically Controlled Systeme

Among the advantages of hydraulic control a r e :

- simplicity of installation (prefabricated devices .available)

- robustness of the devices (float equipped gates)

- automatic functioning not requiring skilled operators

- little maintenance

- no electric energy supply needed.

Unfavourable points a r e :

- a greater amount of earthwork and lining i s required

(concerns only downstream control)

- the working parameter s of a hydraulic control gate cannot

easily be modified once the gate has been installed, while
a change in the working parameters of an electrically
automated gate simply means modification in the transmitters

- the hydraulically automated device cannot be operated by

remote control, thus the many advantages of centralized
operation (with o r without computer aid) cannot be obtained

- susceptibility to blockage by debris, algae, etc.

As a consequence of the factors listed above i t i s preferable in most cases

not to introduce either of the systems alone throughout an irrigation network but
to control the supply canals electrically and the distribution canals hydraulically,
o r manually.
 accurate regulation (estimates of consumption, time of
transit, etc. )

- g r e a t e r flexibility a s to the choice of r e s e r v o i r s i t e s

- reduction in overall, size of canal reache s and s t r u c t u r e s

a s compared to conventional downstream controlled
systems (in which each reach i s calculated to cope with
any demand o r non-acceptance, even the m o s t improbable).

Dynamic regulation also affords a g r e a t e r safety margin in the event

of random accidents. Any conveyance system i s m o r e o r l e s s susceptible to
accidents o r malfunctions at the gates o r faulty operation of recording devices
o r other failures, which in conventional systems may result in wrong operation.
A dynamic regulation system through a p r . o g r a m e f o r comparing data received
can recognize that the data f r o m a level recording'device i s wrong o r that the
1
device i s out of action and can o r d e r a temporary remedy.

Even in case of failure during transmission the computer i s warned

of the abnormal condition because of a built-in self-control system. The
computer itself i s provided with an automatic protective system against power
supply breakdowns, etc., and signals an a l a r m to the operator in c a s e of
improper working of the control programme.

With dynamic regulation, the flow at the head of each main branch of
a canal is adjusted, for example, in line with the state of the water r e s e r v e s a t
a given moment and in accordance with estimated consumption. If the
probability of this estimate i s known a s a result of a preliminary statistical
study, the amount of regulation can be determined in conformity with the
standards chosen by the operator. Fine adjustments to distribute the volume of
water in line with demand among the various reaches i s achieved by the
automatic hydraulic devices on the basis of water levels, a s mentioned e a r l i e r .
Thus the average water level in the canal will often be low. In c a s e of an
accident this leaves a much g r e a t e r margin of manoeuvre before the accident
causes over- spill.

2.5 MANUAL VERSUS AUTOMATED CONTROL

Manual control essentially r e f e r s to visual level measurement, verbal
transmission of data and o r d e r s , and hand operation of gates, stop-logs o r valves
in regulating s t r u c t u r e s along an irrigation network. The dlrrnount of water
passed, for example, t!hrough a gate depends both on the extent to which the gate
i s open and on the aapstx-eam and downstream water levels, so that, even i f stable
upstream and downstream levels a r e assumed to exist after a setting h a s been
made, the d i s c h g e is difficult to a s s e s s , since it h a s to be calculated, o r
determined, from tables. F u r t h e r m o r e , the water levels never remain constant
because of &hesettings being c a r r i e d out on neighbouring offtakes and changes in
a n d conditions. The fact that the amount of water supplied to an individual
parcel of land thus depends on such an extensive group of regulating works and a
large number of control operations, all of which a r e likely to occur anywhere
along many kilometres of canals, may c r e a t e a fairly complicated system.
Finally, any change in the operation of a network requires a certain'time lag, and
scetthgs a r e bound to be inaccurate because the control operations often have to be
c a r r i e d out before the new conditions have been stabilized. Control can be made
e a s i e r , and distribution improved, by in stalling regulators o r checks at suitable
points along the main canal, which divide i t into successive reaches and reduce
the amplitude of the water level variations above the offtakes; this a l s o partly
solves the problem of controlling the levels. Nevertheless the r e s u l t s obtained
in this way a r e still incomplete, and not only the head l o s s e s remain high, but
the positions of the gates o r heights of the stop-logs frequently have to be
adjusted, requiring a considerable amount of handling.

In the terminal portions of manually operated sy atems distribution i s often

c a r r i e d out in the "automatic" fashion described under Section 2. 2, i.e.
proportional distribution through ungated outlets designed to provide equitable
delivery of water over each a r e a . This system functions reasonably well, a s
long a s operational conditions remain close to those f o r which the system was
designed. In practice, however, i t often fails because of poor supervision,
inadequate supply level, tampering ( s e e Figure 2-4) and lack of f a r m e r s '
confidence that they a r e receiving their fair s h a r e of the supply. The system
also lacks flexibility, which m a y become desirable a t a l a t e r date, to enable,
for example, changes in water delivery o r cropping pattern.
 FIGURE 2-4. - Example of tampering. B r u s h and stone
dam built by f a r m e r s a c r o s s a minor irrigation canal to
i n c r e a s e flow through a pipe outlet.

When considering improvement of existing s y s t e m s o r the design of new

ones t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l possibilities to be examined before introducing automated
control. Such possibilities include organizational and supervisory improve-
m e n t s (for example, extending control of water delivery by an irrigation
authority to the f a r m level). F u r t h e r improvements which could be introduced
a r e : regular water m e a s u r e m e n t , r e c o r d keeping and evaluation of r e c o r d s for
improved irrigation p r o g r a m m e s , equipping of f a r m outlets with gates, road
a c c e s s along canals, etc.

The introduction of automation into the conveyance and distribution of

irrigation water i s not m e r e l y a replacement f o r human action but i s p r i m a r i l y
a m e a n s of making water t r a n s p o r t m o r e efficient, m o r e reliable and m o r e
flexible. It i s c l e a r that, when water conveyance efficiency r e m a i n s a t a low
level, while demands i n c r e a s e steadily, o r when labour costs exceed a certain
limit, i t i s advisable to consider whether and how to make u s e of automation in
one f o r m o r another.

The change f r o m manual t o automated control can be made gradually,

 starting perhaps with the electro-mechanization of the head gate and proceeding,
a s know-how in handling the equipment i n c r e a s e s , t o downstream regulating
structures. .Because of cost considerations, the u s e s of supervisory control o r
dynamic regulation s y s t e m s a r e r e s t r i c t e d to l a r g e complex water t r a n s p o r t
s y s t e m s having a number of functions. However, remote control and tele-
m e t e r i n g equipment may be considered f o r use in s m a l l e r s y s t e m s .

Questions of considerable c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t with r e g a r d to automation a r e the

modification of rigid rotational s y s t e m s to ones which a r e m o r e demand oriented,
and conversions of non- stop delivery s y s t e m s into ones of daytime delivery only.
The m a i n problem to be solved h e r e i s how to provide for the l a r g e r capacities
required without, f o r economic r e a s o n s , having t o make m a j o r modifications of
existing engineering works. This r e q u i r e s reconsideration of existing safeguards
with a view to increasing water levels and velocities, i. e. capacity and reduction
of spill and other l o s s e s , especially in the t e r m i n a l portions of the s y s t e m s . In
other words, an elaboration of the entire physical a s well a s the organizational
s y s t e m s i s required, and this can only be accomplished with some f o r m of
automation o r remote control.

2.6 WATER DISTRIBUTION ON THE FARM

Conventional Surface Irrigation

After water h a s entered the f a r m unit through the f a r m turnout, i t i s con-

veyed in a system of p r i m a r y and secondary channels ( o r ditches) to the head of
the field to be i r r i g a t e d . The system h a s to be laid out so that water can be made
available t o each p a r t of the f a r m a t the c o r r e c t r a t e and elevation for the
selected method of water application. The capacities of channels in s m a l l f a r m s
a r e usually designed to accept the total r a t e a t which water i s delivered. In l a r g e
f a r m s the flow m a y be split into s e v e r a l s t r e a m s , especially during peak demand
periods, to i r r i g a t e s e v e r a l a r e a s simultaneously. Operation of the field channel
i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a period of flow of a few h o u r s only, whereas the main channel
m a y be in operation f o r one o r two days during each irrigation period. The
dimensions selected for the channels which deliver the water should be such that
one man can handle the flow o r that two men can handle i t in the c a s e of long
channels o r b o r d e r s . The system should be sufficiently flexible to m e e t monthly
variations in demand and to allow f o r possible future changes, e. g. in cropping
patterns and intensity of cropping. The actual field application r e q u i r e s a depth
of water which depends on the s s i l m o i s t u r e content and on the depth of wetting
required which for efficient irrigation m u s t be m u c h the s a m e a s the depth of the
plant root zones a t the time of application. The water i s applied f r o m the f a r m
channel(or d i t c q to the fields by f r e e surface outlets, pipe outlets, siphons o r
spiles, depending mainly on the method of irrigation. These s t r u c t u r e s a r e
discussed in Chapter 5.

In o r d e r to apply water efficiently to the fields the water level in the head
channel should be 15 to 30 c m above the level of the ground to be i r r i g a t e d . If
possible the channels should be nearly level ( l e s s than 10 c m p e r 100 m fall) so
that the water can be backed up for a maximum distance, thus requiring a
minimum of checks and labour to control the flow. It should be kept in mind,
however, that the higher the water h a s to be dammed up in the head channel, the
l a r g e r will be the wetted p e r i m e t e r , and the water l o s s e s in the channel, i f i t be
unlined. Accurate distribution of water to the various fields i s controlled by
various types of s t r u c t u r e s . F o r efficient operation i t i s important that the
c o r r e c t type of s t r u c t u r e be selected and properly located. F a r m irrigation
s t r u c t u r e s m a y be permanent, semi-permanent o r portable. Although i t i s
desirable to u s e permanent s t r u c t u r e s f r o m the very beginning of the construction
of f a r m irrigation s y s t e m s , i t i s sometimes hardly possible to avoid e r r o r s in
location o r elevation, with the r e s u l t that the s t r u c t u r e s work ineffectively and
have to be removed l a t e r on; thus i t i s e a s i e r to u s e ' s e m i - p e r m a n e n t s t r u c t u r e s
such a s wooden division boxes, checks and outlets o r portable checks o r siphons.
When i t i s known that no changes will be made in the elevation o r location of a
s t r u c t u r e , both the original and replacement s t r u c t u r e s a r e usually made of
concrete o r masonry.

Operation of f a r m distribution s y s t e m s i s to a 1-arge extent conditioned by

the skills of f a r m e r s , t h e i r experience, habits and traditional outlooks. Thus
in the design of new irrigation s y s t e m s o r in the remodelling of existing s y s t e m s
both social and technical a s p e c t s m u s t be considered. During the planning and
designing of a new irrigation project i t i s difficult to f o r e s e e all future f a r m
operations with accuracy, but the establishment of field t r i a l s o r pilot f a r m s a t
the e a r l i e s t possible moment can do much towards providing the data n e c e s s a r y
f o r forward planning. The various physical data required on irrigation p r a c t i c e s
can be accumulated f r o m these t r i a l s but the exact behaviour of the f a r m e r s will
stiil be difficult to predict. Therefore allowances f o r unpredictable behaviour o r
events should be incorporated in the designs of the supply and distribution s y s t e m s
without, however, supplying water in e x c e s s of 'realistic field requirements.

Auto-Mechanization of s u r f a c e Irrigation

Auto-mechanization of surface irrigation on the f a r m r e f e r s to the u s e of

mechanical gates, s t r u c t u r e s , o r other devices and s y s t e m s that automatically
divert water onto a f a r m field in the right amount and a t the right time t o m e e t
c r o p demands; i t enables the f a r m e r to apply water m o r e efficiently and with a
minimum of labour.

B o r d e r and basin, irrigation s y s t e m s a r e particularly well suited f o r

automation and have received the m o s t attention. F u r r o w and corrugation
s y s t e m s a r e much m o r e difficult to automate; obtaining uniform water
distribution for a l l furrows i s a problem. ~ b t o m a t e ds t r u c t u r e s operate a s
either water level control o r a s discharge control devices. In either c a s e they
automatically terminate irrigation on one portion of the field o r f a r m and d i r e c t
water to the other sections in sequence. They can be portable o r permanent and
a r e used in both lined and unlined channels o r ditches.

Mechanical irrigation s t r u c t u r e s , devices and s y s t e m s a r e normally

classified a s semi-automatic o r automatic, depending upon their method of
operation. Some portions of a given system may be automatic while o t h e r s a r e
semi-automatic o r manual. Semi-automatic s y s t e m s and equipment r e q u i r e
manual attention for each irrigation. These normally u s e mechanical t i m e r s ,
such a s a l a r m clocks, o r e l e c t r i c o r hydraulic devices to t r i p the s t r u c t u r e s a t a
p r e s e t time. The i r r i g a t o r usually determines the need for irrigation and i t s
duration, and also manually r e s e t s o r r e t u r n s the devices to their initial position
o r moves them f r o m one location to another p r i o r to an irrigation. Automatic
s t r u c t u r e s , on the other hand, normally operate without attention f r o m the
o p e r a t o r other than for periodic inspections. The i r r i g a t o r frequently
determines when and for how long to i r r i g a t e , t u r n s water into the system, and/or
s t a r t s programmed controllers before the automated portions of the s y s t e m
function. Fully automatic s y s t e m s sense the need for irrigation, introduce water
to the f a r m distribution channels, and complete the irrigation without operator
intervention. The need for irrigation i s customarily determined by soil moisture
sensors, such a s electrical resfstance blocks o r tensiometers; these activate
electrical control apparatus when the soil moisture has fallen to a predetermined
level. The duration of irrigation i s usually controlled by programmed t i m e r s ,
o r soil o r surface water sensors. Technical design of automatic control gates
will be discussed in Volume I11 of this Handbook.

Auto-mechanization enables more efficient water conveyance and

application to be achieved in addition to the saving of labour. The higher
equipment costs and the greater emphasis that needs to be put on maintenance
and operational skills compared to conventional surface irrigation suggests that
the use of auto-mechanized equipment is feasible only where i t i s important to
save labour a s well a s water.
 3. INTAKE STRUCTURES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Intake s t r u c t u r e s o r head r e g u l a t o r s a r e hydraulic devices built a t the

head of an irrigation canal. (Irrigation canals in t h i s context include main canals
and branch canals o r distributaries, m i n o r s and sub-divisions of t h e m . ) The
purpose of these devices i s to admit and regulate water f r o m a parent canal o r
original source of supply, such a s a dam o r a r i v e r . These s t r u c t u r e s may a l s o
s e r v e to m e t e r the amount of water flowing through them.

The scope of this chapter i s based largely on p r a c t i c e and experience in

India and i s limited to the intakes of s m a l l to medium sized distribution canals,
whose source of supply may be a r i v e r o r a s t r e a m , the main canal, a branch
canal o r a minor, and to the intakes of m i n o r s (and sub-divi sions of them) whose
head discharges a r e one cubic m e t r e p e r second o r l e s s . In c a s e s where the
discharges of the offtake canals a r e m o r e than 25% of the capacity of the parent
canal, the control s t r u c t u r e s regulating the flow into two o r m o r e sub-canals a r e
called "flow dividing s t r u c t u r e s " ( s e e Chapter 4); on the f a r m they a r e usually
called "division boxes".

The flowing water in the parent canal may be s i l t - f r e e o r charged with

sediment, and the discharge may be constant, a t a l m o s t constant water level, o r
i t m a y vary.

F o r constant head discharge, the intake s t r u c t u r e m a y be a module of one

kind o r another, and be operated manually or automatically (built-in o r remotely
controlled). In this c a s e t h e r e is no need for a check s t r u c t u r e on the parent
canal. But, when the parent canal r u n s periodically with low discharge, i t i s
essential to build a check o r c r o s s - r e g u l a t o r in the parent canal to r a i s e the
water level sufficiently to feed the offtake canal up to i t s full demand, o r to r a i s e
the water level for installing automatic hydraulically operated u p s t r e a m o r down-
s t r e a m constant level gates. The c r o s s regulator o r check a l s o helps to a b s o r b
FIGURE 3- 1 (a) and ( b ) . - Silt deposition at the
intake to a secondary canal.
fluctuations in the various sections of the, canal system, to facilitate the provision
of a bridge a c r o s s the canal at little additional cost, and to shut off o r reduce flow
temporarily for repairs to breaches in the lower sections of the canal.

When the water in the parent canal i s silt-free, the centreline of the offtake
canal may be a t any angle with the centreline of the parent c a n d . When the water
i s laden with silt an important function of.the intake i e to control the entry of silt
into the offtake canal so that i t draws i t s fair share of the sediment charge, which
should a s far a s possible, be carried in suspension to the fields. This may
require either having a suitable offtake from the outside of a curve in the parent
canal, o r a suitable alignment of the offtake to the centreline of the parent canal,
or silt-excluding devices in the parent canal a t the head of the intakes. Figure
3- 1 (a and b) illustrates the magnitude of the silt problem when an intake i s not
properly located or designed. In this case the silt content i s very high, while
the intake - a gated pipe - i s taking off laterally instead of being inclined towards
the direction of flow.

This chapter provides descriptione of 15 types of intake structures and 7

types of devices for controlling the entry of silt into offtake canals a s listed below.
The reference numbers correspond to the section numbers in the text and the
Table of Contents.

A. INTAKES

3.2 Intakes of small canals (Punjab type).

3.3 Silt selective head intake.
3.4 Constant-head orifice intakefturnout.
3.5 Neyrpic orifice module intake. ,
3.6 Double orifice module intake.
3.7 P r e - c a s t R C C open regulator.
3.8 Intake discharging into a flume (U. S. S. R. ).
3.9 pipe regulator (with pre-cast R C C crossing, U. S. S. R. ) .
3.10 Intake for secondary canals, combined with f a l l (Colombia).
3.1 1 Gate valve intake (Czechoslovakia).
3.12 Venturi head intake.
' 3.13 Square head intake.
 3.14 Dupui s canal intake.
3.15 Intake with stone-mesh weir.
3.16 Groyne intake and ancillary works (Cyprus).

B. SILT CONTROL DEVICES

3. 17 King's silt vanes,

3.18 Gibbls groyne.
3.19 Curved wing with silt vanes
3.20 Silt platforms :
( a ) simple platform;
(b) silt platform with a guide wall
3.21 Reverse vanes.
3.22 Vortex tube sand trap.
3.23 Sloping- sill sand screen.

Designers should study the designs particularly a s r e g a r d s relative costs,

simplicity and e a s e of construction, and availability of labour and local
m a t e r i a l s , with a view to selecting the structure best suited to their con-
ditions. General guidelines a s to which structures may be suitable under
given conditions of water supply a r e summarized below.

(a) Under constant water supply in the parent canal (at designed
discharge) and f r e e from silt.
Use one of the intake s t r u c t u r e s 3. 1 o r 3.3 to 3.8, o r 3. 10
to 3. 13. All these s t r u c t u r e s may be used in combination
with falls o r bridges if required.

(b) Water supply in the parent canal lower than the designed
discharge and f r e e f r o m silt.
Use one of the intake s t r u c t u r e s 3. 1 o r 3. 3 to 3.8, o r 3. 10
to 3.13 with a check o r c r o s s regulator i n the parent canal,
o r constant upstream o r downstream water level gates.

(c) Water supply in the parent canal constant (at designed

discharge) and charged with silt.
Use one of the intake s t r u c t u r e s 3.1 to 3 . 3 o r 3.6, 3.8,
3. 12 o r 3.13. Suitable silt-excluding devices may be used
i n conjunction with 3. 1, 3.3 and 3. 12, if necessary.
 (d) Water supply in the parent canal below the designed discharge
and charged with silt.

Use of the intake structures 3.3 o r 3.12 o r 3.13.

Structures 3. 1 to 3. 10 and 3. 13 have features which enable them to m e t e r

the water let into the offtaking canals.

Structure 3. 14 i s particularly suitable when there i s gravel sub- stratum

a t the site, when the use of sheet pile protection of the weir i s precluded, and
when, due to the porous nature of the strata, the conventional type of weir i s
either impractical o r too expensive.

Structure 3.15 i s used on large gravel bed r i v e r s with a bed width up to

600 ft.

Among the silt-excluding devices, 3. 17 i s not suitable where a small

offtaking canal i s situated between two large canal branches and when i t s bed i s
a t a high level, and/or where the water level i s likely to surge over a con-
siderable range. When the offtaking canal has its bed a t a high level, the
device 3.20 i s preferable.

3. 18 i s used when both the offtaking and the supply canals have the same
sediment carrying capacity. When the effect of this device i s not sufficient to
control the entry of silt into the offtaking canal, the device 3. 17 may be used in
addition to enhance the performance of 3.18.

The silt platforms (3.20) a r e suitable only where the parent canal i s deep.
The device 3.20 (b) has the advantage that (on account of the slight heading caused
by the curved wing) a small head of 3 to. 4.5 cm i s created a t the offtake which
increases the velocity of the water and prevents silt being deposited in the head
reach of the offtaking canal.

When a canal divides into two canals, one of which sil!s up very badly, and
there i s not enough room to accommodate vanes, the device 3.21 may be built to
pass m o r e silt into the canal which does not silt.

The device 3.22 i s suitable for small canals whose bed widths a r e l e s s than
3 metres. It requires that some extra discharge be let into the offtaking canal
 f o r the operation of the tube.

The device 3.23 h a s been used in Egypt to c o r r e c t local asymmetry in the

flow pattern a t the intake of distributary canals.

A. INTAKES

3.2 INTAKES OF SMALL CANALS (PUNJAB TYPE)

3.2.1 General

The intakes for minor and sub-minor canals developed in Punjab and
Haryana a r e designed for proportional distribution of supplies. The types in
common u s e a r e the "Open Flume" and the "Adjustable Proportional Flume
(APF)". Whichever of the two types a r e adopted the following conditions should
be satisfied.

(a) F o r open flumes the setting of the c r e s t should be a t 0.9 of the full supply
depth of the parent canal (Y i ) ; the c r e s t m u s t be above the level of the
downstream canal bed; the width of the c r e s t a c r o s s the flow must be a t
l e a s t 6 cm.

(b) If the above conditions cannot be satisfied, an adjustable proportional

flume should be used, where the c r e s t will be a t 0.75 of the full supply
depth of the offtake canal (YZ), and s o that the-depth of the underside of
the roof block below the full supply level in the parent canal (H(,,~))
ranges between 0.35 y 1 to 0.48 y 1. The setting of the c r e s t must also
be above the level of the downstream canal bed.

I n b o t h c a s e s , thedrowningratio shouldbe 0 . 8 o r l e s s . These t y p e s o f

intakes, designed and set according to the conditions indicated above, will ensure
proportional distribution over a wide range of flows.

No control work i s required in the parent canal. Even paving of the bed
section of the parent canal opposite the intake i s not needed. However, when a
bridge i s required over the parent canal a t the site of the intake, a common wing
wall i s provided between the intake and the bridge. The intake structure itself
may have a bridge over it, i f required.

These intake s t r u c t u r e s a r e automatic in action and need no manual control.

 Very little maintenance i s required except for routine inspections. The capacity
of the A P F can be i n c r e a s e d o r d e c r e a s e d , when needed, by simply adjusting the
roof block.

Structural Design

The Open F l u m e intake s t r u c t u r e consists of u p s t r e a m approach walls to

the throat walls, u p s t r e a m curved glacis jbining the bed of the parent canal with
the c r e s t and u p s t r e a m curtain wall, c r e s t , downstream glacis and downstream
expansion, c i s t e r n , curtain wall and downstream protection.

The Adjustable Proportional F l u m e (APF) h a s the s a m e s t r u c t u r a l p a r t s

and details except that i t i s fitted with a roof block having i t s face s e t 5 c m f r o m
the starting point of the parallel throat.

The entire s t r u c t u r e (except the roof block, which i s made partly of

reinforced concrete) i s in brick m a s o n r y .

3.2.2.1 Upstream approaches to the throat

When t h e r e i s no bridge on the parent canal, the radius for the curve
joining the u p s t r e a m side walls of the throat of the intake to the toe of the 0 . 5 : 1
o r 1 : 1 side slopes of the parent canal should be equal to 7 . 5 , The downstream
Y1
side walls of the throat should be c a r r i e d straight into the parent canal to m e e t
i t s side slopes.The depth of the u p s t r e a m curtain wall (including concrete
grouting) should be equal to Y 1.
3

3.2.2.2 Crest

The throat should s t a r t f r o m the point where the u p s t r e a m curve approach

wing wall m e e t s the side walls of the intake tangentially. The length of the
t h r o a t o r length of the c r e s t will be equal to 2H (where H
(crt) (4i s the head
over the c r e s t ) .

In the c a s e of the A P F a roof block of reinforced concrete ( F i g u r e 3-2) i s

s e t with i t s face 5 c m f r o m the s t a r t of the throat. It h a s a laminated curve a t
the bottom with a tilt of 1 : 7 . 5 in o r d e r to converge the water, (instead of a +

horizontal base which would diverge it). The reinforced roof block should be
about 30 c m thick.
 rr~~ Bar 3mm

Bar No.1

Front elevation

Bar 3 m m

Bar No. 2

Cross section on 0-0

S.W.G.(Standard wire gauge

Bar No.3
Detoils of precast R. C. Roof I F A O - I C I D I
INTAKE TO SMALL CANALS (PUNJAB T Y P E )
DETAILS O F P R E C A S T R . C . R O O F BLOCK

Project, Region , Country

Note: A// dinensions ore in centimetres. lndio and Pokiston

I Figure No. 3 -2 I
 The c r e s t should be joined with the upstream bed level of the parent canal
with a radius R(b,c) = 2.5 H(crt). ,

Let L(app) be the length of the upstream glacis

Then yapp) = J { 5 H(crt) - H(b-c) } H(b-c)

where H(b.c) is the height of the c r e s t above the upstream bed level.

3.2.2.3 Downstream glacis

The downstream glacis should have a 2.5 : 1 slope and will join the c r e s t
with a curve of radius 0.60 m .

Let L(gl) be the length of the downstream glacis.

Then L(gl) -- 2. H ( c - ~ ~ )

where H(c-SB) i s the depth of the cistern floor below the c r e s t .

3.2.2.4 Cistern

The depth of the cistern should be calculated thus:

q = -Q . 0.67 (approximate discharge intensity a t point

B(t) of standing wave)
2 1.
Find Hc by the formula Hc = ( )
g

F o r a given working head, h(wk) (difference between the full supply

levels in the parent canal and the offtake canal), calculate the value

F r o m Table 3- 1 find the value of -

-

Hc
L.
for the calculated value

Then E 2 can be worked out.

TABLE 3- I
 The depth of the c i s t e r n below the bed level of the offtake canal, HSB,
will be E 2 - y2, and in no c a s e should be l e s s than 7.5 c m .

The length of the c i s t e r n LSB should be equal to Y 2 + h(wk).

3.2.2.5 owns stream expansion

The length of the downstream expansion, L(exp),

The r a d i u s of expansion, R(exp),

3.2.2.6 - Curtain wall and downstream protection

The depth of the downstream c u r t a i n wall

- 2 subject to a minimum of 0.45 m .

2
The length of the bed protection of b r i c k b a t s

The thickness of the bed protection

The thickness of the walls of the t h r o a t , u p s t r e a m approach, and

downstream expansion should be a s given in F i g u r e 3-3.

3.2.3 Design

3.2.3. 1 Open F l u m e
-3
Value of 'C' to be a s follows:
\

Mosonry wing wolls

Note! Coping to be of cement concrete ( l : 3 : 6 ) with

brick ballast. Thickness to be 15 c m .

When bed is unprotected When b e d is protected

Rood level Road level

Rood level

Road level

-125-

Not less than 60 cm Not less than 60 crn

Mosonry obutrnents with protected floor

Note: Bearing slobs for the decking t o be of 15 cm thickness,
cement concrete 1 : 3 : 6 with brick bollost.
R.C. Slab
Rood level Rood level Brick on edge 12 Cm
I

Floor

Not less than 30 crn

Not less thon 60 cm Not less thon 60 cm

/A// dimensions are in centimetres) r

F A 0 - ICID
INTAKE TO SMALL CANALS (PUNJAB TYPE)
STANDARD S E C T I O N S FOR
WING W A L L S AND ABUTMENTS OF
C.D.O. TYPE F A L L ( P U N J A B )

Country, Region, Project

Punjob and Horyono (India 1
thon 45 cm cm
' Figure No. 3 - 3
 Q Value of ' C 1

Intake angle 60 Intake angle 45O

up to 0.56 m 3 / s 1.60 1.61
0.57 to 1 . 4 m 3 / s 1.61 1.63'

3.2.3.2 Adjustable ~ r o p o r t i o n a lF l u m e ( A P F )

Where H(orf) = the height of the opening o r orifice above

the c r e s t ,

H(sOf) = the depth of the underside of the roof

block below the full supply level i n the
parent canal,
B(t) = width of throat.

The value of H(sof) should fall within the range of 0.375 y

1
to 0.48 y

3.2.4 Numerical Example

3.2.4. 1 Design an intake s t r u c t u r e for a minor canal with the following data:

P a r e n t Canal , Minor Offtake

U p s t r e a m Downstream

Discharge
Bed level
, (above s e a level)
F u l l supply depth
F u l l supply level
Bed width
Angle of offtake
Working head
(100.96 -
100.36)
(i) C r e s t l e v e l and t h r o a t width

-- 0 . 9 ~ ~
H(crt)
- 0.9 . 0.96
-- 0.864 m .

C r e s t level -- 100.960 - 0.864

- 100.096

which i s higher than the bed l e v e l of the offtake channel

-- 1 . 60 ( f r o m section 3. 2. 3.1).

Fluming ratio - 0.39

2. 18

Length of c r e s t ,
L(crt) = ycrt)

(ii) Glacisandcistern

q, a f t e r allowing 67% f o r splay

working head,
?wi> -
h(wk) - 0.60 1
 Now h(wk) -- -
0.60
I% 0.42
-- 1.43

F r o m Table 3- 1, f o r h(wk) - 1.43

Hc

-
E2 - 2. 181 1 (by interpolation)
Hc

Depth of c i s t e r n below bed level of the offtake canal

- 0.916 - 0.50
-- 0.416m.
F l o o r level of c i s t e r n = 100.36 - 0.916
-- 99.44

Length of downstream
glacis - 2.5 . 0.652

Length of c i s t e r n - Y2 + ywk)
-- 0.50 + 0.6
-- 1. l m .

(iii) Down s t r e a m expansion

o r , length of Glacis + c i s t e r n length

 LL(~XP) t B2 - B(t)
Radius of expansion =
B2 - B(t) 4

(iv) Downstream curtain wall below floor level of c i s t e r n

L e t dwc2 be depth of downstream curtain wall.

Then dwc2

Minimum r e q u i r e d - 0.5m.

(v) U p s t r e a m curtain wall

L e t dwc be depth of u p s t r e a m curtain wall.

1
Then dwcl -
- -
Yl
3

Adopt 0.45 m minimum, i.e. 0.30 m m a s o n r y o v e r 0. 15m concrete.

(vi) Downstream bed protection

Let L(prot)2 be length of bed protection.

Then L(prot)2 = Y2 + h(wk)

-
- 0.50 + 0.60
- 1. l m .
 Thickness of bed protection of brick-bats

(vii) Upstream approach

Setting of c r e s t above the u p s t r e a m bed level,

H(b- c )
-- 100.096 - 1oo.00
- 0.096

Radius joining the c r e s t with the u p s t r e a m bed,

-
-
R(b c) 2. H(crt)

The design i s shown on F i g u r e 3-4.

3.3 SILT SELECTIVE HEAD INTAKE

3.3.1 General
The design of a s i l t selective intake was evolved by the l a t e K. R.

Sharma of the Punjab Irrigation Department in 1936 on the assumption that

the concentration of s i l t in a s t r e a m in the lower l a y e r s i s g r e a t e r than that
in the upper ones, and i f the lower l a y e r s were allowed to escape without
interfering with the silt distribution, the remaining water would have l e s s
s i l t p e r unit volume than the water u p s t r e a m of the intake. Full-sized
glazed models w e r e made to t r a c e the s i l t laden s t r e a m - l i n e s and the
following conclusions were a r r i v e d a t :

(a) Under ideal conditions, the ability of the intake to conduct silt does
not vary with the discharge of an offtaking canal so long a s the
depth in the approach chamber i s not changed;

(b) The ability to conduct s i l t v a r i e s according to some power ( h e r e 113)

of the r a t i o of the depth in the approach channel to the depth in the
 Plan
SILT S E L E C T I V E H E A D INTAKE

Note: All dimensions are in metres unless otherwise stated.

Project, Region , Country
Punjob, India

Figure No. 3 -5
 parent canal.

The structure s e r v e s to regulate, to reduce silt in the offtaking canal and

to m e t e r the water flowing through i t .

3.2 Structural Desipn

The structure consists of t h r e e p a r t s : the approach chamber; the

regulator; and the flume. Silt selection i s c a r r i e d out in the approach chamber
The discharge i s regulated upstream of the weir flume which m e t e r s the supply.
In addition, side and bed pitching i s provided in the parent a s well a s in the off-
taking canals .
A platform i s provided in front of 'the structure' in the parent canal and the
bed of the platform i s 10% higher than the average depth of the parent canal.
The length of the platform i s equal to three times the depth of the platform
upstream and two t i m e s the depth of i t downstream.

The floor of the approach chamber m u s t be higher than the canal bed. The
slope from the platform to the approach chamber i s set a t 0.5 : 1 because a
vertical wall would cause disturbance. The width of the approach i s determined
by the formula -

where B(ac) = width of approach chamber

C = a constant varying between 1 . 5 and 2.0

Q = discharge of offtake canal

Q1 = discharge of parent canal

B1 = width of parent canal
= depth of parent canal
Y1
y(ac) = depth in approach chamber.

The radius of the upstream wing wall of the approach chamber i s 3 t i m e s

the depth in the approach chamber and the wing wall i s flared a s shown in
Figure 3-5.
 Q2 Y1
The projection of the downstream wing wall i s given by Q T +7
( B ~ )
,

in m e t r e s and i t s radius i s two t i m e s the depth in the approach chamber.

Grooves a r e provided for regulation by stop-logs o r vertical needles. A

gauge chamber a t a distance of 2.5 H(crt) downstream of the grooves i s provided
up to the c r e s t of the flume, where H(crt) = head over c r e s t of the flume.

The width of the flume, B(t), should not be l e s s than

2

The length of the c r e s t i s 2.5 H(crt), and the vertical approach curve f r o m
floor to c r e s t has a radius of 2H(crt).

The c r e s t i s followed by a glacis a t 1:5 which r e s t s on a toe wall.

The floor length i s calculated according to Blighls theory. (Refer to

"square- head intake" for computation procedure. )

Bed and side pitching of 3 m beyond the glacis i s provided, which i s

followed by a 3 m brick-bat protection in the bed and side brick pitching in the .
same length. The bed pitching r e s t s on a toe wall.

3.3.3 Hydraulic Design

(a) The required silt selective ability, r ( s c h ) l , i s determined f r o m the

formula,

where r =' ratio of critical velocity ratios downstream of the intake of an

(cv.1
offtake to that in the parent canal. The method of determining critical velocity
ratio, (cvr), i s given below.

= ratio of silt charge downstream of the intake to that in the

r(s~h)l
parent canal

r(sch)2 = r a t i o of silt grade downstream of the intake to that in the

parent canal
\

= ratio of depth in parent canal to depth in offtake

r(sch)3
 (cvr) =
v
- , where v =
a
- Q = discharge,
3
in m / s ;
vc A '
A = a r e a i n m2 . vc = cO'64,' where
Y
y = depth in m e t r e s ,

and C i s a constant d e t e r m i n e d a s tabulated below in the Kennedy f o r m u l a .

~ - ~~

Type of s i l t Value of C

F o r s o i l s of Punjab and
U t t a r P r a d e s h (UP)
C o a r s e s i l t and sand 0.70 ( a s in South India)
Sandy l o a m 0.65 ( a s in T a m i l Nadu)
Light sandy s i l t of c o a r s e r 0.59 ( a s in B u r m a )
variety
F i n e sandy s i l t 0.55 ( a s i n Punjab and UP)
V e r y fine s i l t 0.41 ( a s in Sind)
P e a gravel 0.85 ) in r i v e r s o r head
G r a v e l and P e a g r a v e l 1.83 ) r e a c h e s of c a n a l s
Boulders, e t c . 2.1 )

(b) D e t e r m i n e y tat) f r o m the formula

1
7

- ( x f d ) 3 t o d e t e r m i n e floor l e v e l
I(sch) - 0 . 9 ~ of the approach c h a m b e r

(c) Work out projection of the downstream wing wall by the

f o r m u l a given in 3 . 3 . 2, i. e .

B(,p) . 0.9~1
(d) Work out B
(a.1
= C , where
Y(ac)
 (e) Work out the c r e s t H(crt) f r o m the formula

2
Q = 1.71 B where B ( q = B(ac)
(t) H(crt)
2

(f) Dimensions of wings, c r e s t , gauge placing and protection a r e

determined according to the formulae given under 3.3.2
S t r u c t u r a l Design.

3.3.4 Numerical Example

See F i g u r e 3-5.

Design a s i l t selective head intake i n accordance with the

following data :

P a r e n t canal Offtake canal

Ql = 8.5m3/s Q2 = 0.8m3/s
B1 = 1.30 m B2 = 0.60 m
Y1 = 9.5m y2 = 3.00
(ss) = 0.5 : 1 ( s s ) = 0.5 : 1
F u l l supply l e v e l = 10 1.30 F u l l supply level = 100.50

Adopt a value of C in the Kennedy formula equal to' 0.55.

3. 3.4. 1 Velocities and velocity r a t i o s

(cvr) = 0.644 = 0.99

0. 65
 - depth .in parent canal -- -1 . 3- - 2.166
r(sch)3 depth in offtake canal 0.6

3.3.4.2 Silt selective ability of intake, assuming

3.3.4.3 Depth i n approach chamber for 85% selection of silt in the parent canal

Y(ac)
- 0.85~ . 1.17 = 0.719 m
say 0.72

Radius of u p s t r e a m wing = 3y(,;) = 3 . 0.72 = 2.16 m

say 2 . 2
fl

3.3.4.4 Projection of downstream winp B(sp)

-- 0.955 m say O . 9 6 m
 lm5yl t 6
3.3.4.5 Radius of downstream wing R -
( dsw) 291 r 2 f + B(t)

where = angle of offtake = 60

-- B 0 . 9 ~
3.3.4.6 Width of approach B(ac) K t

Y(ac)
where K = 1.5

3.3.4.7 Width of flume, B(t)

- 1.17m; say 1 . 2 0 m
3
3.3.4.8 Discharge in offtaking canal, ' 2 = 1.71B(t) Hz
(crt)
3

= 0.534m, say 0.53 m

3.3.4.9 Length of c r e s t L(crt) = 2.5 . H(crt) .= 2.5 . 0.53

= 1.33 m

3.3.4.10 Distance of gauge hole from the beginning of c r e s t

= 3 . 5 H(crt) = 3.5 . 0.53- '

= 1.86 m ;
straight portion upstream =) 2 . 5 H(.crt) = 1.33 m

3.3.4.11 Masonry and concrete

Use 20 c m of masonry over 20 cm of concrete for flooring.

3.4 CONSTANT-HEAD ORIFICE (CHO) INTAKE 1/

3.4.1. General

The Constant-Head Orifice i s a combination of a regulating and m e a s u r i n g

s t r u c t u r e that u s e s an adjustable submerged orifice for the m e a s u r e m e n t of the
discharge. It h a s been developed and widely adopted a s a delivery device to
/
s m a l l canals o
/ a s a f a r m turnout, by the United States Bureau of Reclamation.
It i s a l s o in
P
s e in some other countries.

The calibration t e s t s for the turnout have been conducted in the l a b o r a t o r i e s

of the Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, and t e s t s have been made a t the
Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station t o investigate effects of changes in up-
s t r e a m and downstream water levels, sediment deposits, plugging of the orifice
gate with weeds and debris, and approach flow conditions.

3.4.2 Structural C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Design

The Constant-Head Orifice Intake o r Turnout ( F i g u r e s 3-6, 3-7 and 3-8)

c o n s i s t s of a s h o r t entrance channel leading to a head wall containing one o r m o r e
gate-controlled openings, a stilling basin, and a downstream head wall with one
o r m o r e gate-controlled openings that r e l e a s e the flow into a delivery conduit.
The conduit i s a p r e - c a s t concrete p r e s s u r e pipe (horizontal o r inclined a s
required), the length of which depends on the width of the canal bank and whether
t h e r e i s a road crossing o r not.

Originally, the head differential a c r o s s the orifice, o r u p s t r e a m gate, was

determined by reading staff gauges just u p s t r e a m and downstream f r o m the head
wall. Fluctuations of the water levels a t these gauges, particularly during l a r g e
flows, caused significant reading e r r o r s . The staff gauges a r e now placed
in external stilling wells (Figure 3- 9 (b) ) u p s t r e a m and downstream f r o m

Essentially based on the information given in the USBR Water Measurement

Manual, second edition.
 FIGURE 3-6. - Diagram of a constant-head orifice
intake o r turnout.

the orifice gate to i n c r e a s e the accuracy of head readings, and hence of the
discharge measurement. F o r existing structures, small wooden o r metal
baffle-type stilling devices a c r o s s the entrance passage and a c r o s s the stilling
d

basin passage n e a r the staff gauges help to reduce reading e r r o r s .

The whole structure i s of reinforced concrete and thus strong, but

initial cost i s relatively high because two gates a r e necessary. Some savings
have been effected by using a cheaper downstream gate. This gate need not be
wateltight since i t i s used for regulation only, the shut-off being accomplished
by the upstream gate. The structure containing the gates i s designed so that
i t i s essentially self-cleaning except when operating a t very low flows. If
backwater is excessive, flow through the structure will be low.

3.4.2.1 Dimensions

F o r accurate measurement, t h e r e must be a level floor in front of the

orifice gate, of a length equal to o r g r e a t e r than the height of the orifice gate
opening a t full capacity. The minimum inside length of the measuring box
FIGURE 3 - 7 . - Constant-head o r i f i c e f a r m turnouts with
check-gate i n foreground -
E a s t Ghor Canal P r o j e c t , Jordan.

FIGURE 3-8. - A s i n g l e - b a r r e l constant-head o r i f i c e

turnout.
 should be: a t l e a s t 2.25 t i m e s the orifice gate opening a t maximum capacity o r
1.75 t i m e s the wall opening, whichever i s the larger,for turnouts with maximum
capacities up to approximately 300 l / s (10 ft3/ s) ; and 2.75 t i m e s the height of
the orifice gate opening a t maximum capacity for s t r u c t u r e s with maximum
capacities above approximately 300 11s (10 f t 3 / s ) ( s e e Figure 3-11). The inlet
walls should be parallel unless e x t r a width i s needed a t the inlet cut-off to
prevent i t acting a s a control, in which c a s e extra width may be obtained by
flaring the walls, usually a t 8 : 1.

The distance between the inlet cut-off and orifice gate should be a minimum
of 1.5 times the difference in elevation between the invert a t the cut-off and a t
the orifice gate. In an earth canal., the top of the sloping inlet walls should
i n t e r s e c t the canal side slope a t o r a few inches above normal water level. The
inlet walls a r e usually,sloped steeper than the canal side slope and set back into
the bank so that they will not be out in the canal i f i t i s widened at the bottom
during cleaning o r reshaping. The following tabulation shows recommended
inlet wall slopes corresponding to various canal side slopes.

Canal side slope Inlet wall slope

1.5: 1
s e t into the bank
12 to 24 inches
depending on size
of canal and local
conditions .
The dimensions of other p a r t s a r e given in Table 3- 2.

3.4.2.2 ~ i d velocities
e

Full pipe velocity i s limited to about 1.07 m / s ( 3 . 5 f t / s ) i f the structure

h a s no concrete outlet transition, but, i f i t has, the full pipe velocity should be
about 1 . 5 m / s (5 f t / s ) .

The top of the pipe a t the outlet should have a minimum submergence of

hv(~)
 Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s

The rate of flow i s m e a s u r e d by using the principle that a submerged

orifice of a given size operating under a specific differential head will always
p a s s a known quantity of water. The upstream gate o r gates constitute the
orifice, the size of which can be increased o r decreased by opening o r closing
the gates. The head a c r o s s the orifice i s usually about 6 c m ( 0 . 2 ft) but may
be m o r e than 6 cm i f additional head is available. This differential head i s
maintained by adjusting the downstream gate o r gates, and i s measured by staff
gauges mounted inside the stilling walls, upstream and downstream from the
orjfice gate head wall (Figure 3-9 (b)). To set a given flow, a typical orifice
would be operated a s follows.

The opening of the orifice for the desired discharge i s obtained from
discharge Tables 3-3, 3-4, o r 3-5. With the upstream gate o r gates set at
the opening, the downstream gate o r gates a r e adjusted until the differential
head a c r o s s the orifice, a s measured by the staff gauges in the stilling wells,
i s a t 6 cm ( 0 . 2 ft). The discharge will then be a t the d e s i r e d value.

3.4. 3,. 1 Effects of upstream water depths

s e e section 3.4.4.

3.4.3.2 Flow through the structure

Flow through the structure i s controlled by the size of the orifice and the
head a c r o s s the orifice. The l o s s through the structure i s computed and this -
f o s s will determine the maximum elevation to which delivery can be made. If
the canal below a turnout i s dry and the turnout gate i s opened some manipulation
of the gate may be required until the canal fills. (This would be t r u e of any
gated structure. ) f i t s i d e of this fining operation, tall-wtKtCr docs nat cmtrol
the flow through a turnout.

3.4.3.3 Effects of sediment and weeds

Sediment particles of the sizes normally found in field installations a r e

swept through the orifice gate and the downstream gate during the normal course
 A - 3 . 7 3 2 0 (E1.A-El B-H(p-b)p-LOL-

Note: Lip)* etc.... volues given in Table I .

Minimum losses bosed on 30 feet length

Form turnout lype 4

( L 2 = Ll+1.5qp-612+4.55),(L3=L1 5 ) +

FAO- ICID

STANDARD CONSTANT H E A D ORIFICE

INTAKE OR T U R N O U T DESIGN GUIDE
3
Q = 2 to 2 4 f t / s , yl = 4.0 f t to 6.5 f t
ss = 2 : l
Form turno:~ 'rlP'e5
Project. Region , Country
+ 5)) , / L + = L l+ L ( p ) z - k 4 5 8 - 2
fL2 ' L I + I S ~ - b ] r + 4 5 5 ) , / L 3 = L , *;142H(b-nls; - II S A

Figure N o . 3 - 9 ( a )
 offle for vortex
, prevention ot upstreom ownstreom staff

Stilling basin and onti -vortex- boffles extend ocrosr

chonnel t o f i t tightly against side walls..

FIGURE 3 - 10. - -
Stilling baffles to reduce water surface
fluctuations at staff gauges .

H(90) :Gate opening for max. Q, E

!L mon.
yfg,) = FUII gote ieot trove^ ye+)
otttice. gote loot :.. .:..
*:
= Submergence
.;:
?'..D:
....
.i

W. S.
W.S.

4) *
Hoa q+01
I 1

*
h(
b
must be equol to or greoter than for mox. O . (ln'
'hib; is equol to or greoter thon 'qgo;for good occurocy.
3 I 3
For 0 up t o 10 ft/s, LI must be ot leost 2~ qg0) or IT^^^,),
whichever ir grcotcr . (i- minimum 1.
3
For 0 above 10 f t / s , LI :2 $ minimum.

FIGURE 3 - 11. - Dimensions for' a constant head orifice.

. of operation. The small amount of sediment which accumulates in the stilling
basin between the gates h a s little o r no effect upon constant-head orifice
turnouts.

On the other hand chokingby weeds that become lodged within the
m e a s u r i n g orifice can be serious. Moreover, choking can be difficult to detect
when sediment-laden water is flowing because the orifice cannot be seen. The
principal cause of choking i s the p r e s e n c e
\
of waterlogged weeds that get caught
in the opening. These weeds may t r a p other p a r t i c l e s and eventually plug the
turnout. The m e a s u r i n g accuracy of constant-head orifice turnouts i s sensitive
t o the condition of the orifice and i s greatly reduced by the p r e s e n c e of even a
few weeds. Therefore, during regular operation, c a r e m u s t be taken to e n s u r e
that the orifice and the a r e a u p s t r e a m of i t a r e kept completely c l e a r of weeds
and other d e b r i s .

Effects of approach flow conditions

0
Usually the turnouts a r e placed a t 90 to the canal centreline. A s a result,
when the water in the canal flows past the turnout, an eddy and r e l a t e d flow
disturbances occur a t the turnout entrance. This eddy and other flow
disturbances affect the flow into the turnout. The intensity of the disturbances
depends largely upon the velocity of the canal flow. F o r small gate openings,
the discharge coefficient, CQ, for the turnout i n c r e a s e s f r o m a value of 0.64
a t a canal velocity of about 0 . 3 m / s ( 1 foot p e r second) to a value of 0. 69 for a
canal velocity of about 0 . 9 m / s ( 3 feet p e r second). On the other hand, with
l a r g e gate openings, increasing the canal velocity n e a r the turnout d e c r e a s e s
the coefficient f r o m high values of about 0 . 7 4 a t 1.0 ft/ s to low values of about
0.63 a t 3 . 0 ft/s. This appreciable, but inconsistent, effect upon the m e a s u r i n g
accuracy of constant-head orifice turnouts m u s t be recognized. The detbri-
mental effect i s g r e a t e s t a t the l a r g e r orifice openings. Therefore, whenever
possible, installations should be designed so that relatively low flow velocities
prevail a t the turnout, especially i f l a r g e r openings a r e to be used.
Fortunately, the n o r m a l velocity distribution in canals provides relatively low
velocities n e a r the banks.
3.4.4 Design

The t e s t s c a r r i e d out show that for bhe general case, the r a t e of flow can
be computed f r o m the formula

where Q = discharge of the turnout in ft3/ s

A h = differential head on orifice gate = 0. 20 ft
a r e a of orifice gate opening in ft 2
A(go) =

=Q = coefficient of discharge

g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 f t / s / s

The discharge coefficient, CQ, i s approximately 0. 65 for the n o r m a l

operating condition where the head u p s t r e a m f r o m the turnout i s 2 . 5 o r m o r e
*
t i m e s the maximum gate opening and no reinforcing s t r i p i s used a t the bottom
of the gate. If an angle-iron reinforcement i s used, the coefficient will be
i n c r e a s e d to approximately 0.72. F o r convenience in u s e , discharge Tables
3-3 and 3-4 have been p r e p a r e d f r o m experimental data for the n o r m a l operation
of single and double-barrel installations using 24 by 18 inch and 30 by 2 4 inch
constant head orifice turnouts. Tables 3 - 2 and 3 - 3 show the orifice gate
openings n e c e s s a r y to p a s s the d e s i r e d discharges.

Studies show that when the depth of water u p s t r e a m of the orifice gate i s
four o r m o r e t i m e s the height of the opening of the orifice, the coefficient of
discharge, CQ, r e m a i n s essentially constant a t 0.65. However, when the depth
of water u p s t r e a m i s l e s s than four t i m e s the orifice opening, the coefficient
increases. The r a t e of i n c r e a s e i s moderate a t submergence r a t i o s between
4 and 2.5, but i s rapid a t submergence r a t i o s below 2.5. It i s i m p r a c t i c a l and
inaccurate to attempt to predict the coefficients for different installations having
low submergence r a t i o s , and the p r a c t i c e of doing so i s not recommended.
Instead, and i f possible, the s t r u c t u r e s should be installed so the water depth in
front of the orifice gate be 2.5 t i m e s , and preferably four o r m o r e times, the
maximum expected gate opening. In some c a s e s , to place the s t r u c t u r e low
enough, i t may be n e c e s s a r y to slope the inlet channel downward ( F i g u r e 3 - 9 (b) ).
An alternative design in which the inlet floor i s stepped abruptly downward i s
a l s o used.
 TABLE 3-3

Discharge of Constant-Head Orifice Turnout in ft3/ s . ,

Capacity 20 ft3/s, Gate Size 30 by 24 Inches
h = 0.20 ft

Discharge Gate opening in ft Discharge Gate opening in ft

ft31 s e c 2 gates 1 gate ft3/ s e c 2 gates 1 gate

0.02 0.04 10.25

0.04 0.08 10.50
0.06 0.12 10.75
0.08 0.16 11.00
0.10 0..20 11.25
0.12 0.24 11.50
0. 1 4 0. 28 11.75
0. 16 0. 32 12.00
0. 18 0.36 12.25
0.20 0.40 12.50
0.22 0.44 12.75
0.24 0.48 13.00
0.26 0.52 13.25
0. 28 0.56 13.50
0.30 0.60 13.75
0. 32 0. 64 14.00
 TABLE 3-4

3
D i s c h a r g e of ,Constant-Head O r i f i c e Turnout in ft / s,
Capacity 10 ft3, Gate Size 24 by 18 Inches

Discharge Gate opening in ft Discharge Gate opening in ft

ft3/ s e c 2 gates 1 gate ft3/ s e c 2 gates 1 gate

C u r r e n t USBR d e s i g n s provide s t a n d a r d CHO turnouts f o r 2, 4, 6, 9, 12,

15, 18, 24 and 30 ft3/ s d e l i v e r i e s . On the 2 'ft3/ s s i z e , with m i n i m u m canal
w a t e r s u r f a c e elevation and m a x i m u m recommended g a t e opening, the sub-
m e r g e n c e r a t i o i s about 4 . 0 . A s the turnout s i z e i n c r e a s e s , the m i n i m u m
s u b m e r g e n c e r a t i o d e c r e a s e s t o become about 2 . 0 for the 15 ft 3 / s and l a r g e r
sizes. Approximate d i s c h a r g e s b a s e d upon a coefficient of 0.70 a r e provided
in Table 3-5, on the understanding that if a c c u r a c i e s b e t t e r than about + 7% a r e
 required, careful field ratings of the turnout m u s t be made. F o r discharges
l a r g e r than about 30 f t 3 / s special s t r u c t u r e s involving multiple gates and b a r r e l s
m u s t be designed for the particular site and flow requirements.

TABLE 3-5

Discharges for Standard 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 24 and 30 ft3/s

Constant-Head Orifice Turnouts (CQ =Ua70)

~
2 f t 3 / s Turnout (width of orifice 9 ft 3/ s Turnout (width of orifice
1. 5 ft) 2. 5 ft)
Discharge Orifice gate Discharge Orifice gate
ft3/ s opening, ft ft3/ s opening, ft

4 ft3/ s Turnout (width of orifice

1 . 5 ft)
Discharge Orifice gate
ft3/ s opening, ft

12 ft3/ s Turnout (width of orifice

2. 5 ft)
Discharge Orifice gate
ft3/ s opening, ft

6 ft 3 / s Turnout (width of orifice

2.0 f t )
Discharge Orifice gate
ft3/ s opening, ft
 TABLE 3-5 (Cont'd.)

15 f t 3 / s urnb but (width. of orifice 24 ft3/ s Turnout (width of o r i f i c e

-
3 ft) 4 ft)
Discharge ,Orifice gate Discharge Orifice gate
ft3/ e opening, f t ft3/ s opening, ft
1 0.13 . 2 0.20
2 0.27 4 - 0.40 -

3 0.40 6 0.60
i,

4 0.53 8 0.80

18 f t 3 / s Turnout (width of orifice 30 ft3/ s Turnout (width of o r i f i c e

-
3. 5 ft) -
4 ft)
Discharge Orifice gate Discharge O r i f i c e gate
ft3/ s opening, f t ft3/-B opening, f t
1 0.10
2 0.20
3 0.30
4 0.40
 r S m ~ l l voriotion of levels

1
Porent conol
-----I*
------------ -------------------

-
1 I

Intake --/r 1 I Diagonal weir

(el '
Offtoke channel tk- lntoke
r L ~ r ~.variation
e of levels

------ Parent conol

--- --------------------------------__-- Transversal weir , (f ) I
Constant
level main-
tained
Guord gote
Stilling basin
tk lntoke

Constant
0d)ustoble
dischorqe --"' 1
(b)
--Offtoke conol .

rConstont level maintained Duckbill weir

I v (g)

0- Module
Porent chonnel
-

dischorqe Offtoke ronol /

lntoke 1

Constont level m o i n t ~ i n e d ~ Longitudinal weir

(h)
Parent conol------- .
FA0 - ICID
J
VARIOUS ARRANGEMENTS OF
Or Avio i f the -
NEYRPlC ORIFICE MODULE,
adjustable chute is important
WITH AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
AND STRUCTURES
dischorqe
Off toke conol Project, Region ,Country
France and North Africa

Figure No. 3 12 -
3.4.5 Numerical Example

Designs can be worked out on the basis of the data and tables in the
preceding paragraphs.

3.5 NEY RPIC ORIFICE MODULE INTAKE

3.5.1 General

The Neyrpic orifice module, invented by the Neyrpic Laboratories,

-
Grenoble (France), is used a s an intake for distribution canals a s well a s a
f a r m outlet o r f a r m turnout. It i s a metering device and i s suitable when water
i s supplied on a volumetric basis.

In order that the module may draw the amount of water for which i t h a s been
designed the water level in the parent canal should be m o r e o r l e s s constant. If
there is only a small variation in the water level in the parent canal the intake is
installed directly on the bank of the parent canal (Figure 3- 12 (a) ). If the water '

level in the parent canal fluctuates beyond tolerable limits for constant flow in
the offtaking channel, a constant downstream level gate must be installed a t the
head of the offtaking channel upstream of the module, ( s e e also section 6.15).

Figure 3- 12 (b) shows a combination used when the discharge of the intake
i s small compared to the discharge of the parent canal. The intake structure has
a protection gate and a constant downstream water level gate before the orifice
module.

Figure 3-12(c) h a s a constant upstream water level gate in the parent canal
below the intake structure. This arrangement i s systematically used in upstream
controlled networks. Figure 3- 12 (d) shows an arrangement where the module
intake i s set immediately below the constant downstream water level gate
installed in the parent canal. This arrangement i s systematically used in
downstream-controlled systems.

Figures 3- 13 (a) to (c) shoy perspective views of the arrangements of

Figures 3- 12 (b), (c) and (d).
 FA0 - ICID
PERSPECTIVE VIEWS OF THE
ARRANGEMENTS OF
FIGURES I (a1 to I4c)
I

Project , Region, Countrb

France and North Africa
Figure No. 3 - 13 .
 F i g u r e s 3- 12 (e) to 3- 12 (h) show arrangements wherein the orifice module
intake is located just above a diagonal weir, t r a n s v e r s a l weir, duckbill weir, and
longitudinal weir, respectively. The purpose of these regulating s t r u c t u r e s i s to
keep the water level in the parent canal on their upstream side nearly constant.

The best arrangement to .choose depends on economic and practical con-

siderations such a s canal grade, height of canals above the lands to be irrigated,
and topographical features.

F o r this type of intake, only structural and design details of the orifice
module intake a r e given h e r e . 'Information about the constant upstream and
downstream water levels gates and the w e i r s a r e given ih Chapter 6.

3.5.2 Structural and Desipn Characteristics

0
The module consists of a sill, which h a s an upstream slope of 60 and a
0
downstream glacis slope of 12 , upon which is placed a fixed metallic plate o r
baffle. The sill and the fixed plate o r baffle a r e enclosed between two vertical,
parallel walls, and this arrangement c r e a t e s an orifice which can be closed by a -
sliding plate o r shutter. When the width of the orifice exceeds 1 m , a foot-
path, 50 c m wide, i s necessary in o r d e r to operate the sliding plate. The
module functions only when the sliding plate i s r a i s e d completely.

A distributor usually includes a number of modules. connected together, each

one of different width and allowing the passage of a pre-determined discharge,
the volume of which i s indicated on the corresponding sliding plate ( s e e Table 3-7
for various combinations). By combining the raising of different sliding plates,
the required discharge can be obtained. Thus a set of t h r e e sliding plates
(Module type XX/60, Table 3-7), which allows respectively the passage of 10, 20
and 30 l / s , enables one of the following d i s c h a ~ g e sto be. diverted:

10, 20, 30, 40, 50 o r 60 11s. '

Thus, discharge regulation i s very simple. There i s no gate opening to be

regulated, no regime to establish, no water levels to b e checked, no head
discharge curve to be plotted.
 F ~ G U R E 3-14.- Neyrpic orifice module before and
after installation of the fixed plate.

Figure 3-14 shows the module before and after'installation of the fixed
plate, the sliding plate and the sill. Dimensions for different types of the module
a r e shown in Table 3-6.

TABLE 3-6
(Dimensions in cm)

Module H(b-bk) H(bs-bk) Ll L Z B(rec) L3 H(b-c) H(crt) H(c-ft)

No min . min . min
FIGURE 3- 15. - Neyrpic distributor with conxpartments
for 5, 10, 15 and 30 11s.

FIGURE 3-16. - Upstream view of Neyrpic distributor

type XXl300.
 Table 3-7 gives normal dimensions and capacities of module types X and XX
Module type L i s used for discharges over 500 l / s and has compartments with
capacities 50, 100, 200 and 400 11s. Module type C i s used for discharges
g r e a t e r than 1,000 11s and has compartments with capacities of 100, 200, 400,
600 and 1,000 11s.

TABLE 3-7

--

Clear opening Total width

Type of Discharge of compartment of compartment of compart-
module l/s cm ment, cm

Figure 3- 15 shows a module with four compartments : 5 11s, 10 11s, 15 11s

and 30 11s and Figure 3- 16 a view of module type XX/300.

Advantage s .

The head l o s s through the module i s low, because of the hydraulic jump
being formed oh the downstream slope of the sill. The device h a s a wide range
of operation. Wear and tear i s almost nil. Any discharge (in multiples of 5)
can be obtained by employing the minimum number of compartments. It i s not
easy to tamper with the outlet. Operation i s simple ; all that is required i s to
 -
Module X
-~O/o-sO/o Q +S0/o +loO/o
9 9.5 10 10.5 I I r h e c

Section of the module

20 21 221hec
-10/o-50/o 0 +SO/O+lOO/~

FIGURE 3-17. - P e r cent variations in discharges of modules

Types X and XX for variation of H within pre- determined limits.
(4

open o r shut the gates a s required; once set, the combination can be locked once
and for all. The amount of water withdrawn from the supply canal o r supplied to
u s e r s can be determined merely by noting the opening times of the gates.

Disadvantages

The main disadvantage of the module i s that it i s relatively expensive. It

requires manual labour to open and close the outlet.
 TABLE 3-8

Some Data for Variations in Discharge for Different Types of Module

(Dimensions in cm except a s otherwise indicated)

Type Discharge
d~ (4 h(1) H
.
of - per 10 cm
H ( ~ r t ) m i n H(crt)
nor
H(crt)
max ('"Imin
mod- width of Q- Q-
ul e sill 10% 5%

3.5.3 Design Formula

The discharge of the outlet follows the formula for a weir with shooting
flow conditions (and i s thus always independent of the downstream water level) -

When the upstream water level r i s e s and i s above the lower tip of the fixed
plate o r the baffle, the weir flow changes to orifice flow conditions. The
discharge falls off slightly a t f i r s t - due to the vena contracta effect downstream
of the baffle and because the reduced section i s not quite compensated by the
increased flow velocity - before beginning to increase again, thus obeying the
characteristics of flow through orifices under pressure, (coefficient C tending to
decrease a s the height of water increases). Due to i t s momentary increase in
the initial stages of orifice flow, the discharge varies between very narrow limits
(5% to 10%) over a comparatively wide range of upstream water levels. Under
designed water level upstream, the module gives exactly the discharge indicated
on the shutter (Figure 3- 17).
r C o n t r o l of locks
Open locked 9ote

Closed locked 9ote

FIGURE 3- 18. - Double orifice module

intake.
3.5.4 Numerical Example
D e s i g n s c a n b e w o r k e d out, with given d a t a , f r o m T a b l e s 3-6, 3 - 7 a n d 3-8.

3.6 NEYRPIC DOUBLE ORIFICE MUDULE INTAKE

3. 6. 1 General

T h e double o r i f i c e m o d u l e i s a n i m p r o v e m e n t o v e r t h e N e y r p i c o r i f i c e
module and c a t e r s f o r g r e a t e r v a r i a t i o n s of d i s c h a r g e i n t h e supply c a n a l . Its
v a r i o u s a r r a n g e m e n t s with c o n s t a n t u p s t r e a m a n d d o w n s t r e a m w a t e r l e v e l g a t e s
a n d r e g u l a t i n g c h e c k s t r u c t u r e s a r e t h e s a m e a s given u n d e r s e c t i o n 3.5.

3. 6 . 2 Structural Characteristics

The double o r i f i c e module (Figure 3-18) c o n s i s t s of an i n c l i n e d s i l l

s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e Neyrpic s i n g l e o r i f i c e module and i s provided with two

v e r t i c a l m e t a l l i c covers forming a siphon. The c a l i b r a t e d openings of d i f f e r e n t

widths discharge, say, 10 l / s , 20 l / s , 30 l / s o r more, f o r a given head.

The o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s and dimensions of t h i s module a r e s i m i l a r

t o those of t h e Neyrpic s i n g l e o r i f i c e module except H C ~ - ~which

), i s given i n
Table 3-9, where H(b-c) i s t h e height of t h e c r e s t above t h e upstream bed l e v e l .
This double o r i f i c e module has t h e same disadvantage a s t h e s i n g l e o r i f i c e device,
moreover t h e siphon may become obstructed by weeds.

TABLE 3-9

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Double O r i f i c e Module
for Q = 2 5 p e r cent

Type Unit H H H dH J . H
No. discharge ( c r t )m i n (crt) (max) (crt) mln (b- c )
l/ s/dm Dimensions i n centimetres
 Hydraulic Characteristics

A s i n t h e c a s e of t h e N e y r p i c o r i f i c e m o d u l e , t h e r e i s a shooting flow down-

s t r e a m of t h e s i l l a n d t h e d i s c h a r g e t h r o u g h t h e m o d u l e i s independent of t h e
water l e v e l s i n the delivery canal.

The o u t l e t works a s a semi-module a s long a s t h e upstream water l e v e l does

not reach t h e bottom edge of t h e two inner m e t a l l i c covers. T h e r e a f t e r , with
f u r t h e r r i s e i n upstream water l e v e l , i t works a s a semi-module o r i f i c e t i l l t h e
siphon primes and flows through, impinging on t h e j e t , f u r t h e r reducing t h e
discharge.

T h u s t h i s i m p r o v e m e n t a l l o w s a l a r g e r r a n g e of v a r i a t i o n i n t h e u p s t r e a m
l e v e l s t o give n e a r l y c o n s t a n t d i s c h a r g e . F o r e x a m p l e , f o r m o d u l e Type 2
able +
3-9) t h e p e r m i s s i b l e r a n g e f o r Q = - 570 i s 11 c m w h e r e a s i t i s 8 c m f o r
t h e N e y r p i c m o d u l e Type XX. T h i s p e r m i t s t h e p a s s i n g of 50/0 m o r e d i s c h a r g e
f o r t h e s a m e width, a g r e a t a d v a n t a g e o v e r t h e N e y r p i c s i n g l e o r i f i c e module.

Design

T h e h y d r a u l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e m o d u l e a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 3 - 9 .

Numerical Example

D e s i g n s c a n b e w o r k e d o u t , i n a c c o r d a n c e with given d a t a , f r o m T a b l e 3-9

a n d t h e T a b l e s given u n d e r s e c t i o n 3 . 5 .

3.7 O P E N INTAKE STRUCTURE MADE O F P R E - C A S T REINFORCED C O N C R E T E

( u . S. S. R. )
General

E a r l y type of i n t a k e s in s o u t h e r n U. S. S. R. w e r e built with a n i n l e t s i l l

(which c o n s i s t e d of a n i n c l i n e d w a l l ) , a c o r e wall, a n d a r e c t a n g u l a r f l u m e on t h e
downstream side. T r a n s i t i o n to t h e t r a p e z o i d a l c r o s s s e c t i o n of t h e c a n a l on t h e
d o w n s t r e a m s i d e c o n s i s t e d of i n c l i n e d w a l l s . T h e s e s t r u c t u r e s w e r e difficult

LJB a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n
supplied by A. T . Koshkina, E . P . ' M a r t i n , A. V. Shatalova,
D . D. A l e v a n d B . V . K a z a r i n o v (u. S. S. R . )
Cross section A A Cross section B B

Cement mortar

Cross section C C

FA 0 - ICID
OPEN INTAKE STRUCTURE MADE OF

PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE

Project, Region, Country

P Ion USSR
( A l l dimensions ore in cm )
Figure No. 3 - 19
to i n s t a l l and r e q u i r e d l a r g e quantities of reinforced c o n c r e t e .

The s t r u c t u r e u s e d now i s m a d e of p r e - c a s t r e i n f o r c e d concrete and i s

simple to manufacture. The p a r t s a r e standardized f o r a s s e m b l y and the
s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e s low hydraulic d r o p s . The s t r u c t u r e does not s i l t during
operation. Sediments deposited a t low d i s c h a r g e a r e removed during high
discharges.

S t r u c t u r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Design

The intake ( F i g u r e 3-19) c o n s i s t s of a ribbed bulkhead wall (diaphragm)

and ribbed stiffening plates m a d e of reinforced concrete. The bulkhead wall i s
installed in the canal p a r a l l e l to i t s a x i s of flow. A m e t a l l i c f r a m e with a plate
gate i s volted to the bulkhead wall. The wall and f r a m e of the gate a r e suitably
sealed. The side slope i s 1 . 2 5 : 1. The joints between the reinforced concrete
p l a t e s a r e filled with c e m e n t m o r t a r . At the end of the downstream i m p e r m e a b l e
apron t h e r e i s a rock-filled knife-edged support.

Hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s need to be f i r m and durable and these r e q u i r e m e n t s

have been m e t by the design, m a t e r i a l s used and careful supervision of the con-
struction of t h i s device. F u r t h e r m o r e the construction of this s t r u c t u r e allows
for modifications i f n e c e s s a r y ; stiffening plates can be replaced, the basin length
i n c r e a s e d o r other p a r t s may be replaced.

This s t r u c t u r e needs only periodical checks of i t s operation and condition.

The jacks need lubrication and the m e t a l l i c p a r t s need protecting with an anti-
c o r r o s i v e coating.

The s t r u c t u r e can be improved by introducing automatic operation and by

designing s e p a r a t e p a r t s and stiffening plates with fewer joints in t h e m s o that
a s s e m b l y can be speeded up.

The s t r u c t u r e is designed for discharges f r o m 0. 20 to 0.85 m3/ s . The mini-

m u m acceptable canal depth i s 40 c m and the maximum depth, 80 c m . Hydraulic
drops a r e adopted a t 5 to 20 cm. Embankment height above the s u r f a c e water level
on the u p s t r e a m side of the s t r u c t u r e should be 25- 30 c m and on the downstream
side 35-50 c m . The d i s c h a r g e capacities of different types of the s t r u c t u r e
 TABLE 3-10

3
Discharge, m / s

h(k), c m
Type of 5 10 15 20
H'
structure (crt) qgo), cm

RO-60 . 40 40 60 0. 205 0.244 0.244 -

50 0 . 257 0.316 0.329 -

RO-60 . 60 '
60
60 0 . 307 0.379 0.415 0.415

50 0.359 0.442 0.461 -

RO-80 . 60 80
60 0.434 0.53s 0.538 0.588

70 0.503 0.625 0.704 0.718

RO-80 . 80 80
80 0.571 0.712 0.810 0.852

L i s t of P a r t s

Type of Weight of Total

T y p e of p a r t one p a r t Quantity quantity
structure
kg (No> (No)

AO- 60 1, 170 1
RO-60 . 40 14
P-60 . 120 110 13

AO- 60 1 , 170 1
RO-60 . 60 P-60 . 120 110 7 12
P-60 . 180 325 4

AO-80 2,435 1
RO-80 . 60 12
P-120 . 180 325 11

AO-80 2,435 1
RO-80 . 80 14
P-120 . 180 325 13
TABLE 3- 10 (Cont'd. )

Design Dimensions

Type of con- B~~ H~~ B~~

H(c-~) L~~ L~~ L~~
struction
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm

RO- 60 . 40 15 60 120 150 390 60 290

PO-60 . 60 20 60 120 150 390 60 310

RO-80. 60 25 120 180 210 540 120 430

RO-80 . 8 0 30 120 180 210 540 120 460

Volume of m a i n works

Type of s t r u c t u r e
Name Material Unit
RO-60 . 40 RO-60 . 60 R O - 8 0 . 60 RO-80 . 80
Rein- Concrete m3 1.04 1. 30 2.40 2.66
forced
concrete Reinfor-
kg 52.5 57.2 107.9 113.6
parts cement
TZRM
Cement m 0.31 0.43 0.77 0.91
100

Sand-
m3 1.0 1.4 2.5 2.9
filling

Rock-
m 0.5 0.9 1.1 2.1
filling

Metal con-
kg 73.1 72.5 38.4 93.1
struction s
a r e given i n Table 3- 10. The intake o p e r a t e s n o r m a l l y a t a l l h e a d s given i n that

Table.

Design

Calculating f o r m u l a
7
3

where
Q = proposed d i s c h a r g e of the r e g u l a t o r ( m3 / s ) ;

= d i s p e r s i o n coefficient;
C(ds~)

+(lat) = coefficient of l a t e r a l contraction;

= d i s c h a r g e coefficient equal to 0.40, obtained

CQ
f r o m l a b o r a t o r y data;
= width of gate opening of the r e g u l a t o r ;
B(so)
H = head over c r e s t with approach velocity
(crt) 3

where
= velocity of approach
"(~PP)

The d i s p e r s i o n coefficient i s i function of the r a t i o w h e r e H( s ) = depth

H(crt)
of s u b m e r g e n c e ( s e e F i g u r e 3-10). Values of d i s p e r s i o n coefficient a r e given in
Table 3- 11.

TABLE 3-11

Values of D i s p e r s i o n Coefficient, C(dsp)

 Coefficient of l a t e r a l contraction i s d e t e r m i n e d by using the following

formula :

where

C = coefficient of shape of spillway v e r t i c a l r i b s ;

( shp)

C = 1 for the given s t r u c t u r e .

( shh)

Toe basin depth in t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s i s chosen in a c c o r d a n c e with the

r e q u i r e m e n t of hydraulic jump s u b m e r g e n c e with a s u b m e r g e n c e coefficient,
C (js) = 1.2.

Total b a s i n length i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the f o r m u l a

where

= 4H = the length of hydraulic jump;

( r e ~ i ) ~

= height of the s i l l f r o m the d o w n s t r e a m f l o o r

H(c-s~)

H = the second r e c i p r o c a l depth.

( r e ~ i ) ~

The second r e c i p r o c a l depth H(reci)2 i s d e t e r m i n e d i n the following

sequence.

C r i t i c a l depth i s d e t e r m i n e d by the f o r m u l a H =
C g
q
where q = = d i s c h a r g e p e r unit w i d t h ;
B(go)
Incident energy = total height of u p s t r e a m energy line over downstream
floor on apron

rH( go) =l
-- i s defined by using Table 3-12 in t e r m s of
EI E
, SB1 SB 1
SB 1

TABLE 3-12

r~
q (no) A rH(go) 3 2 )
E' E E' E' 2- E'
SB 1 SB 1 SB 1 SB 1 SB 1 SB 1

Magnitude of the gate opening i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the formula

r
- H(go)
H -
(go) E ~ ~1 l
E

SB 1

Depth in the contracted c r o s s section i s determined f r o m the following

formula

where C = coefficient of jet v e r t i c a l c o n t r a c t i o n magnitudes of

+(vert)
which a r e given in Table 3- 1 3 in t e r m s of magnitudes
 TABLE 3-13

The second r e c i p r o c a l depth i s d e t e r m i n e d by using the following

formula:

1 1
where C = '
0. 17 f 0 . 8 3 C"

3.7.4 Numerical Examples

3.7.4.1 -
Data

The t o t a l head over sill is (crt) = 0.70 m, gate opening,

B(go) = 0 . 8 m , hydraulic drop, h(wk) = 0. 13 m . It i s r e q u i r e d to check
d i s c h a r g e of the s t r u c t u r e and conditions of t h e h y d r a u l i c jump s u b m e r g e n c e on
the d o w n s t r e a m side.

h(wk) = 0.13 m , s u b m e r g e n c e depth, H ( s ) = 0.7 - 0. 13

= 0.57 m

0.57
F o r value % = - - - 0.814
H 0.70
(crt)

C
(dsp) = 0.91, f r o m Table 3-11
f r o m f o r m u l a (1)
3
q = 0.91 . 0.825 . 0.40 . 0.80 Jm.
0.7
Z

= 0.62 m 3 / s

The basin length i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m f o r m u l a (3).

F o r s t r u c t u r e type RO - 80 . 80 (chosen in a c c o r d a n c e with Table 3-

l o ) , H(c-SB) = 0. 3 m . , F o r t h i s value LSB
1
= 1.25 / 0. 7 (0. 3 t 0.45 . 0. 7)

To d e t e r m i n e the hydraulic jump length, L ( j ) , v a r i o u s d i s c h a r g e

magnitudes a r e taken, namely, Q,
Q
, , Q $
, and r e c i p r o c a l depths a r e
calculated f o r t h e s e d i s c h a r g e s a s well a s the length of the d o w n s t r e a m apron.
F r o m the data obtained the m a x i m a l value i s accepted a s the length of s t r u c t u r a l
apron downstream.

An example for computing hydraulic jump length for '2

(0. 31 m 3 / a )
i s given below.

Unit d i s c h a r g e , q = -O m-3 ' - 0.388m3/ s

0. 8

c r i t i c a l depth, Hc ;/
-- 3 q = *j

The magnitude of the gate opening i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m f o r m u l a (4)

together with Table 3- 12, i. e . = 0.157

ESB 1

H(go)
= 1.0 . 0.157 = 0.157 m.

The depth i n contracted c r o s s section i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m f o r m u l a (5)

together with Table 3- 13.
 C' i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the following formula:

The second r e c i p r o c a l depth i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m f o r m u l a (6), i. e .

The hydraulic jump length i s t h e n :

L(j) = 4 . 0.51 = 2.04 m

The total d o w n s t r e a m apron length i s d e t e r m i n e d by using

f o r m u l a (3) :

L ( ~ ~ =) L ( ~ ~ +l )L(j) = 0. 82 + 2.04 = 2.86 m

The difference i n the d o w n s t r e a m depth and the second r e c i p r o c a l

depth i s then calculated:

Y2 - H(j)Z
= ( 0 . 7 0 - 0 . 13) - 0 . 5 1 - O . OE m

The s u b m e r g e n c e coefficient of the hydraulic jump,

H(s) -
-
(0.7 - 0.13) = 1.12. Hence, t h e j u m p i s
(js) =
H ( 12
j
0.52

s u b m e r g e d with an adequate safety f a c t o r .

3.7.4.2 Choosing an open intake s t r u c t u r e

A s s u m e that the canal d i s c h a r g e i s 0. 35 m 3 / s , the w a t e r depth in the

canal i s 65 c m , and the canal width i s 60 c m .

F r o m Table 3-10 i t i s seen that a s t r u c t u r e of RO -60 . 60 type with

H(crt) = 60 c m and B (go) = 60 c m will convey a d i s c h a r g e o f 0 . 3 1 m 3 / s f o r

h(wk) = 5 c m and a d i s c h a r g e of 0.38 m 3 / s for h (wk) = 10 cm. F o r con-

3
veyance of a d i s c h a r g e of 0 . 3 5 m / s i t i s n e c e s s a r y to d e t e r m i n e h(wk) by

interpolation, r e s u l t i n g in h(wk) = 8 cm. With a canal depth of 65 c m ,

H(crt) = 60 c m . Hence the s t r u c t u r e should be 5 c m higher than the canal

bottom (65 - 60 = 5 cm).

Gouging device DRS-60

Cross section A-A

FAO- lClD
Flume -

INTAK STRUCTURE DISCHARGING

INTO A FLUME CHANNEL

Cross section 13-13

Project, Region , Country
Cross section 0-8 USSR
Cross section C-C
Figure No. 3 - 20
3.8 INTAKE STRUCTURE DISCHARGING INTO A FLUME CHANNEL (u. S. S. R. )

3.8. 1 General

The types of intake s t r u c t u r e s d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n a r e f o r delivering water

f r o m unlined and lined canals into a flume i r r i g a t i o n canal. The d i s c h a r g e
through the intake into a flume 60 c m in depth i s 400 1/ s , and into a flume 80 crn in
depth, 900 l f s .

S t r u c t u r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Design

The intake s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e 3-20) c o n s i s t s of an entrance s t r u c t u r e and a

pipeline. The entrance ' s t r u c t u r e i s a well with an adjacent u p s t r e a m p a r t com-
p r i s i n g a reinforced concrete pipe. T h e r e i s an opening in the pipe for embedding
the lower end of the water gauge device. The top p a r t of the water gauge device
with a DRS - 60 water gauge i s s e c u r e d to a well. A m e t a l slide gate with a
s c r e w jack i s mounted in the well

The pipeline c o n s i s t s of a number of reinforced c o n c r e t e bell-and- spigot

pipes. A c r o s s i n g , 7 m wide, i s provided above the pipeline. The pipe and the
flume a r e connected by m e a n s of a diaphragm which h a s cut-outs corresponding to
the pipe and the flume outer p e r i p h e r y .

The intake s t r u c t u r a l p a r t s a r e p r e f a b r i c a t e d and mounted and adjusted

according t o special i n s t r u c t i o n s .

The design, the m a t e r i a l s used and careful construction provide f o r the

r e q u i r e d strength and life of the device.

The s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e s periodical inspection to s e e that i t i s operating

c o r r e c t l y and to check on the state of the construction and to c a r r y out running
r e p a i r s if any defects be found. It i s n e c e s s a r y to l u b r i c a t e the jacks
periodically and to p r o t e c t the p a r t s by a suitable' a n t i - c o r r o s i o n compound.

3.8. 3 D e sign

Calculating f o r m u l a
 where Ax(p) = sectional a r e a of a pipe, rnZ

h(,k) = hydraulic d r o p o r working head, m

3
Q = designed d i s c h a r g e , m / s

= d i s c h a r g e coefficient
c~

c(f-OL) = 1 = outlet r e s i s t a n c e coefficient ;

C ( f - ~ ~ ) = 0.4 = e n t r a n c e r e s i s t a n c e coefficient, accepted

according to l a b o r a t o r y t e s t data;

C(f- shaft) = 0.26 = well r e s i s t a n c e coefficient, accepted

according to l a b o r a t o r y t e s t data;

9f-p)
-
- .?bd- = pipe length r e s i s t a n c e coefficient with
cz ~ ( ~ ) coefficient of roughness N = 0.012;

= pipe length;
L(~)
C = 72 = Chezy f r i c t i o n coefficient;

= hydraulic r a d i u s ;
R ( ~ ) = 4

g = 9.81 = gravity a c c e l e r a t i o n

The r e q u i r e d head a t the pipe e n t r a n c e i s calculated i n a c c o r d a n c e with

n o r m a l water gauge operation, when the pipe upper edge i s 20-25 c m l o w e r than
the rated water level.

T a b l e s of d i s c h a r g e capacity, dimensions, and l i s t s of construction

m a t e r i a l s and p a r t s a r e given in Table 3-14.

3.8.4 N u m e r i c a l Example

Data

Design d i s c h a r g e = 700 l / s = 0.7m3/s

F l u m e depth - = 80 c m
Y2
Pipeline diameter D(p) = 80 c m
Length of pipe -
-, 12 m
 TABLE 3-14

D i s c h a r g e Capacity

Type of .
Structure h(wk), cm 5
--

VKLV - 60 Q, m 3 / s 0.2 0. 28 0.34 0.40 - -

VKLV - 80 3
Q, m / S 0. 36 0.51 0.63 0 . 72 0. 8 1 0.89

Design Dimensions
Type of D Y2 HTS HWL BWL d(toe)
Structure ( P) cm cm cm cm cm L
cm(~)

VKLV - 60 60 60 105 165 120 56 1000

VKLV - 80 80 80 130 185 140 44 1000

Volume of Main Works

-
Reinforced c o n c r e t e d e t a i l s Gravel Metal
Type of
Concrete Reinforcement Cement Filling Construction
Structure m3 kg m3 m3 kg
Type - 60 3.05 207 0.11 1.33 145
Type - 80 4. 38 2 62 0. 1 4 1.38 167

L i s t of P a r t s

Type of Weight of p a r t Total

Type of p a r t No. of p a r t s
Structure kg number

TR - 8 660 6
SH - 60 2,200 1
VKLV- 60 P - 1 220 1
D - 1 7 25 1
S 125 4
TR - 10 1,140 6
SH - 8 0 2,500 1
VKLV- 8 0 P - 1 220 1
D - 2 875 1
S 125 4
 It i s n e c e s s a r y t o calculate the working head h(,k).

Solution

According to the f o r m u l a given under 3 . 8 . 3

= 0 . 1 8 7 m o r 19 c m .

3.9 P I P E REGULATOR WITH CROSSING MADE O F PRE-CAST REINFORCED

CONCRETE ( U . S . S . R . )

3.9.1 General

P i p e r e g u l a t o r s a r e u s e d f o r the d i v e r s i o n of water to s m a l l c a n a l s . As
c o m p a r e d with e a r l y types in u s e , the l a t e s t s t r u c t u r e p r o v i d e s b e t t e r dissipation
of energy on the d o w n s t r e a m side and a l s o h a s only one joint in the pipeline.

S t r u c t u r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Design

The pipe regulator ( F i g u r e 3-21) c o n s i s t s of t h r e e m a i n units: i n l e t sill,

pipeline and downstream a p r o n .

The inlet s i l l c o n s i s t s of an inclined wall which i s supported by bottom and

portal decks. ,

i ' ~ a s e d on a note by A. T. K o s h k k a , E. P. M a r t i n , A. V. Shatalova, D. D. Aliev

and B. V . Kazarinov (U. S. S. R. ).
 Stilling bosh a damper

Cross section A - A

FAO-ICID
Plon

In the drawing (Plan) alternative applications of pipe regulator

are shown at the top - AS on impound structure, at the botton- MADE O f PRECAST R.C.C.
As on outlet.

Note: All dimensions are in centirnetres. Project, ~ e ~ i o Country

n,
USSR
Figure -No. 3 - 21
1
 The pipeline consists of two pipe lengths with t h e i r bells laid on a levelled
e a r t h foundation. The joint i s sealed with tow o r m i n e r a l wool, impregnated
with bitumen, and then covered with cement. The outlet pipe on the downstream
side extends f r o m the sloping wall a s shown. This pipe i s followed by a damper
of semi-cylindrical shape with a ring diaphragm a t the end.

Slope stabilization a t the inlet sill and the downstream apron i s secured by
p r e - c a s t reinforced plates; the side slope i s 1 : 25: 1. In front of the inlet sill
t h e r e i s a well and a t the end of the downstream apron t h e r e i s a rock-filled
knife-edged support. The height of the embankment above water level on the
u p s t r e a m side of the s t r u c t u r e i s 25-30 cm and on the downstream side
30-35 c m .

The design, m a t e r i a l s used and careful supervision of construction e n s u r e

that this type of s t r u c t u r e h a s the n e c e s s a r y strength and durability.

The s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e s periodical checking for i t s c o r r e c t operation and

condition and for carrying our running r e p a i r s if required. Lubrication of
the jacks and protection of the metallic p a r t s with an anti-corrosive coating i s
n e c e s s a r y periodically.

This type of s t r u c t u r e conveys discharges f r o m 0.30 to 0.90 m 3/ s . The

working heads permissible range f r o m 10 to 30 cm, and the water depth in
front of the gate i s taken at 125 and 150 cm. See Table 3-15 for discharge
capacities, dimensions, construction m a t e r i a l s and l i s t of p a r t s .

Design

Calculating formula

Discharge capacity (in m 3 / s ) i s determined f r o m the formula

 TABLE 3-15
Discharge Capacity m3/s

T y p e of h(wk)* c m L i s t of P a r t s
Structure 10 15 20 25 30
D(P), cm
T y p e of T y p e of Weight of Number Total
T R - 60- 125 60 0 . 29 0.36 0.42 0.47 0.51 structure part one p a r t of number
kg parts
T R - 8 0 - 150 80 0.53 0.66 0.76 0.85 0.93
T R - 60 1,350 2
ON- 60 450 1

Design Dimensions N - 60 352 2

D - 60 418 1
Type. of D(p) H ( c r t ) L~~ L ( p r o t ) 'IN B ~
E ; Bi
~
Structure cm cm cm cm cm cm cm T R - 60- 125 G T - 60 433 1 20
P-60 . 120 110 1
TR-60-125 60 125 210 320 60 115
TR-80-150 80 150
90
P-120 . 180 325 4
240 580 110 120 150
SH - 180 310 4
S 100 4
V o l u m e of m a i n w o r k s
TR-80 2,575 2
N - 80 598 1
Reinforced N - 80 455 2
Concrete m
TR-60-150 D - 80 580 1 39
GT-80 928 1
P- 1 2 0 . 180 325 12
SH- 1 2 0 138 16
S 100 4
 - 1
where
c~
J C(t-IN) + C(f-OL) + C(t-p)

= discharge coefficient
C~
- 0.5 = i n l e t .friction coefficient, accepted
C(f-IN) -
according to laboratory data;

- = outlet friction coefficient accepted

C(f-OL) - 1
according to laboratory data;

-- 'gL(p) = friction coefficient along the pipe

9f-p) C2 for roughness coefficient N = 0.01 2;
R ( ~ >

h = hydraulic d r o p o r working head, m ;

( wk)

L = pipe length, m ;
(P)

C -
- Chezy coefficient;

-
- hydraulic m e a n radius, m ;
4

g = 9.81 = gravity acceleration, m / s 2 ;

-
- pipe c r o s s - sectional a r e a .
*X(P)

Protection length on the downstream side i s determined f r o m the following

formula :

where
= velocity in the pipe, m / s;
"(P)

= velocity allowed f a r wash-out, accepted for

"(flu)
medium loam, a s equal to 0.8 m / s . In the c a s e
fine and sandy loam soils in the foundation of
structures v i s a s s u m e d to be equal to
(flu)
0.45 m / s .
3.9.4 Numerical Example

Data

- 0.17 m; pipe diameter = 0 . 8 m, L(p) = 12.5 m

h(wk)
( s t r u c t u r e : pipe regulator, TR- 80- 150 type).
Bed soil : medium loam. C = 72

What i s the discharge of the structure, and basin length on the downstream
side ?

Solution

Determine discharge f r o m the formula

where:

hence :
Q = 0.758 . 0.503J 2 . 9.81 . 0.17 = 0.696 m3/s

Assume average velocity, allowed for wash-out, in the canal v(flu) = 0.8
m / s (for medium loam), then determine the basin length :

-
L ( ~ m t )- 2.2 . V(p> D(~> = 2.2 .-
0.8 '
0.8 = 3,l m
"( flu)
 Section D-D

Compacted fill of
selected material
Note: All dimensions are in metres.

F A 0- ICID

INTAKE STRUCTURE ON SECONDARY CANALS

-
PLAN SECTIONS-DIMENSIONS
3.10 INTAKE STRUCTURE ON SECONDARY CANALS (COLOMBIA)

General

The s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n m e e t s the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r w a t e r l e v e l
control f o r the d i v e r s i o n of w a t e r into t e r t i a r y c a n a l s , providing a t the s a m e
t i m e the n e c e s s a r y d r o p i n the secondary canal.

T h e s e s t r u c t u r e s have been designed a t the Instituto Colombiano de l a

R e f o r m a A g r a r i a , INCORA, to m e e t the r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e Bolivar No. 1
I r r i g a t i o n and D r a i n a g e P r o j e c t , located a t the Bolivar D e p a r t m e n t , in t h e n o r t h
of Colombia. The P r o j e c t ' s plan f o r e s e e s the construction of 120 s t r u c t u r e s of
t h i s type. Up t o now 40 have been built, of which 90% a r e i n operation.

T h i s intake s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e 3-22) i s not yet c o n s i d e r e d sufficiently. t e s t e d

b e c a u s e development of i r r i g a t i o n in Colombia i s r e c e n t . The s t r u c t u r e i s e a s y
to c o n s t r u c t f r o m i t s p r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e p a r t s .

10.2 Structural Characteristics

The s t r u c t u r e i s designed f o r flexibility and u s e under different topograph-

i c a l conditions and a t different p l a c e s , both on the p r o j e c t a r e a and within the
canal s y s t e m . F o r example, some dimensions m a y be v a r i e d s o that the canal
design engineer can f i t the s t r u c t u r e according to r e q u i r e m e n t s a t different s i t e s .
The fixed dimensions of the s t r u c t u r e depend upon the m a x i m u m design flow, and
upon the longitudinal fall of the secondary canal.

B a s e d on t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s , s t r u c t u r e s have been designed and c o n s t r u c t e d

which allow the d i v e r s i o n of flows between 100 l / s and 750 l / s on e a r t h secondary
c a n a l s whose c a p a c i t i e s a r e between 500 11s and 3,000 11s. O b s e r v a t i o n s on the
prototype under different operating conditions, p a r t i c u l a r l y a s to flow and heading
u p of w a t e r , have not indicated i m p o r t a n t deficiencies i n the hydraulic operation
of t h e s t r u c t u r e .

The depth of the intake s t r u c t u r e on secondary c a n a l s i s s m a l l , between

0.80 m and 1.40 m , and the side w a l l s have been designed t o r e s i s t both the e a r t h
 Note: The broken lines show,
the wall perimeter.
vCentre line
E

Section 1-1

Section F-F
Element Iembedded\ / I I 0'05' Qrnbedment of the
in concrete slab- L element
H
Gote I Gote 2

d
4
-- SectionI D-D
F Reinforcement detail
Plon of bottom slob Section G-G Cotwolk- Longitudinol section Note:
A and B type structures For structures A and D -
2cm mortar finish for rmll crest LfcotW) = 2'20 rn E
For structures B and E
2 cm mortar joint
4cotwj = 1.80 m

Spillway reinforcement detoil

* Wall detoil

Groded g sand layer FA0 - ICID

rnoxirrmm

6 5+0 4 . + - d b
Plon of bottom slob
Weep holes detoil
Note :
Section J-J
I INTAKE STRUCTURE ON SECONDARY I
$steel bars anchored to the
CANALS
bottom slob by Ineons of 3 0 cm CONSTRUCTION D E T A I L S
souore hooks.

Project, Region , Country

Note: All dimensions ore in metres unless Colombia
otherwise specified.

I Figure No. 3 - 23
I
load and the m a x i m u m w a t e r p r e s s u r e . To e n s u r e adequate strength of the p r e -
c a s t concrete side w a l l s and head walls, s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l b a r s a r e embedded in
the joints of the blocks, anchoring t h e m to the slab foundation ( F i g u r e 3- 23).
This reinforced c o n c r e t e slab h a s cut-off walls and weep holes t o reduce the
uplift p r e s s u r e . At the inlet and outlet of the s t r u c t u r e , t h e r e a r e r e v e t m e n t s
consisting of 50 c m x 50 c m x 6 c m p r e - c a s t s l a b s which a r e placed o v e r a thin
l a y e r of concrete. This lining i s provided with a cut-off apron a s indicated on
F i g u r e 3-22.

F o r economic r e a s o n s the idea of constructing a transition a t the inlet of

the s t r u c t u r e h a s been discarded, especially a s the hydraulic head l o s s e s a r e
compensated by the operation of the weir g a t e s . Wooden g a t e s f o r the regulation
of the diverted d i s c h a r g e include pins on the f r a m e , allowing total o r p a r t i a l
opening of the intake ( F i g u r e 3-24).

FIGURE 3- 24. - Intake s t r u c t u r e on secondary canals,

spillway and wooden gate.

To c a l i b r a t e the s t r u c t u r e and t o m e a s u r e the d i v e r t e d flow, a r o d and

m e a s u r i n g weir a r e located a t the outlet of the intake ( F i g u r e 3-25).
 FIGURE 3-25. - Intake s t r u c t u r e on secondary c a n a l s ,
outlet to t e r t i a r y canal.

3.10.3 Design F o r m u l a e

3.10.3.1 Design of control w e i r on secondary canal

The w e i r length i s chosen i n a c c o r d a n c e with the canal width, and i t s

depth i s chosen according to the heading up needed f o r m i n i m u m flow.

3.10.3.2 Wall height

Taking the design m a x i m u m flow, H(crt) i s calculated by m e a n s

of the f o r m u l a :

where:
-
- flow in r n 3 / s ;

-
- discharge c o e f f i c i e n t

-
- width of w e i r n o r m a l to flow;

= depth of u p s t r e a m w a t e r s u r f a c e l e v e l o v e r
the w e i r .
 The wall height of the s t r u c t u r e i s obtained by adding to H ( c r t ) the weir
height over the floor s l a b and an adequate f r e e - b o a r d .

3.10.3.3 Length of the stilling basin

To d e t e r m i n e the length of the stilling pool the following f o r m u l a i s

used:

where:
= length of the stilling basin
L~~
H(j)Z = t h e o r e t i c a l water depth downstream of the hydraulic
jump
= t h e o r e t i c a l water depth u p s t r e a m of the hydraulic
H(j) 1
jump.

The coefficient '5' i s a s s u m e d a s the stilling basin i s of a trapezoidal

section; however, t h e r e i s not yet sufficient experimental evidence to prove t h i s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , dimensions chosen according to t h i s f o r m u l a have s o f a r proved t o
be s a t i s f a c t o r y on the s t r u c t u r e s a l r e a d y built.

Water depths, H ( j ) l and H ( j ) 2 a r e calculated by the conventional

methods, applying B e r n o u l l i ' s equation.

3.10.3.4 Dimensions of t e r t i a r y intake

The d i a m e t e r of the c o n c r e t e pipe i s d e t e r m i n e d a s s u m i n g that the

m a x i m u m velocity of the w a t e r through the pipe i s 1 m / s, f o r the m a x i m u m
design flow of the t e r t i a r y canal.

Intake l o s s e s a r e determined according to the following formula:

where:
h ( e . ent) = l o s s of head a t e n t r a n c e

.
h ( l f) = l o s s of head through the pipe

h((. OL) = l o s s of head a t outlet

(HR) = intake headloss

 = inlet coefficient '= 1. 5
C ( ~ ~ )
= f r i c t i o n coefficient = 0. 023
C(f)
= velocity through pipe
"(PI
3. 1 0 . 4 Numerical Example

A design example f o r a secondary canal having a m a x i m u m capacity of

1, 000 l / s with a n offtake,of 250 l/ s i s shown below. The bed width of the
secondary canal i s 1 m . Drop = 1.4 m .

3. 1 0 . 4 . 1 Control weir design for the secondary canal

A C r e a g e r section i s designed f o r a w e i r width of 1 m and a height

of 0 . 4 0 m above the u p s t r e a m bed l e v e l o r floor slab.

3. 1 0 . 4 . 2 Height of the w a l l s

Data: Q = 1 m3/s
CQ = 2.00

B(t) = 1.00 m

we obtain H = 0.63 m
(4
Applying an approximate f r e e - b o a r d of 3070 of the depth of the w a t e r , we obtain:

T h i s height of the s t r u c t u r e ' s walls i s a l s o applied to the canal design u p s t r e a m

s o that heading up does not cause overflow.

3. 10.4. 3 Length of the stilling b a s i n

F o r a d r o p of 1 . 4 0 m in the s t r u c t u r e and w a t e r depth in the canal

u p s t r e a m of 1. 03 m , the approximate velocity u p s t r e a m of the weir will be:
 and t h e t o t a l energy w i l l be:

= 1.40 + 1 . 0 3 + 0.05 = 2.48 m

H ' ~ ~
Applying B e r n o u l l i ' s e q u a t i o n :

where v(j) and H ( j ) a r e c o n d i t i o n s b e f o r e t h e h y d r a u l i c jump, i n t r o d u c i n g

a c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e f r i c t i o n l o s s e s over t h e h y d r a u l i c jump, e q u a t i o n (4)

becomes : ' - 1

On t h e o t h e r hand

Q = v(jJl H(jIl B~ = 1 m3/s

From (5) and (6) t h e v a l u e of H ( j ) = 0.186 i s found.

Therefore:
v = 5.38m,/s
(jIl

The d e p t h of water over t h e h y d r a u l i c jump i s d e f i n e d by:

where :
v(j)l
F(j)l = (gH(j),) i / 2 = 3.98

being F( j) t h e Fraude' s number.

from where
H(j)2 = 0.96
and t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s t i l l i n g b a s i n

= s(0.96-0.19) = 3.85m.
L~~

3.10.4.4 Tertiary canal intake design

Tertiary canal discharge = 0 . 2 5 m3/ s

Velocity i n the pipe, v ( ~ ) = l.OOm/s
L e n g t h of t h e p i p e , L(p) = 10.00 m
 Hydraulic a r e a

D i a m e t e r of the s e l e c t e d pipe = 0.62 m ; (Area = 0.30 m2)

Intake head l o s s e s a r e equal to:

J = h + h + h
(HR) (l. ent) ce. f) (l.
OL)

= 1 . 5 &) ( e n t r a n c e l o s s e s )
h([. ent)
2g

= 0.023 (friction l o s s e s )
D ( ~ ) 2g

h = 1.0 (outlet l o s s e s )
(C. out) 2g

10 0
J
(HR)
= (1.5 + 0.023 t.1 ) 2g = :146 ,
.

T h i s shows t h a t the w a t e r l e v e l u p s t r e a m in the secondary canal

should b e 0.146 m above the l e v e l on the t e r t i a r y canal i n o r d e r t o d i v e r t
0.25 m 3 1 s .

The design i s shownon F i g u r e s 3-22 and 3-23.

3.11.1 General

The gate valve i n t a k e s d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s section s e r v e to feed w a t e r f r o m

higher o r d e r to l o w e r o r d e r c a n a l s . Water l e v e l i s controlled by a canal s e a l -
gate mounted on a pipe p a s s i n g through the canal embankment.

3.11.2 Structural Characteristics

3.11.2.1 P a r t s of the s t r u c t u r e

The s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s of fixed and v a r i a b l e p a r t s a s d e s c r i b e d

below.
 Fixed p a r t s - ( a ) an inlet p a r t including s i l l , side wings, c o n c r e t e paving
of inlet bottom with pitching, inlet walls;

(b) canal seal-gate with lifting m e c h a n i s m ;

( c ) outlet wall;

(d) s t r e a m bed protection downstream of the outlet including

pitching and sill.

Variable p a r t s - ( a ) earthwork;

(b) length of piping in relation to type and height of s t r u c t u r e

varying f r o m 125 c m - 2m; 175 c m - 3 m and 250 c m -
5 m.

3.11.2.2 Types of s t r u c t u r e

T h e r e a r e five types, according to the inside d i a m e t e r of the pipe,

height of the inlet wall and kind of lift a s shown in Table 3-16. F o r example,
Type RSZ 501250 denotes that the inside d i a m e t e r of the pipe i s 50 c m and the
height of the inlet wall i s 250 c m .

TABLE 3-16

Inside d i a m e t e r Lifting
Type and height of inlet wall, c m
of pipe, c m mechanism

RS 1 301 125
30 unshielded
RS 1 301 175

shielded RS2 301 175

50 unshielded RS 1 501175

shielded RS 2' 501 250

3.11.2.3 Instructions f o r u s e

Unshielded lifting mechanism-s should not be used in places exposed

t o the danger of i n t e r f e r e n c e o r damage by unauthorized p e r s o n s . In such c a s e s
FIGURE 3- 26. - Gate valve intake, relationship between
head, discharge and pipe diameter.
 shielded lifting m e c h a n i s m s should be u s e d . The u s e of shielded m e c h a n i s m s i s
l i m i t e d by the m i n i m u m height of the inlet wall a s r e q u i r e d by the design.

The height of the s t r u c t u r e should be chosen so that the top of the

bank of the canal i s n e i t h e r higher than the inlet wall by m o r e than 25 c m nor f a l l s
s h o r t of i t by m o r e than 50 cm; otherwise i t will be n e c e s s a r y to a r r a n g e a c c e s s
to the lifting m e c h a n i s m .

3.11.2.4 Building m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r e d

Table 3- 17 gives the type of s t r u c t u r e , volume of concrete, paving

c o n c r e t e , and type of seal-gate.

TABLE 3-17

' V o l u m e of Main S t r u c t u r e s

Form Paving Canal Seal- a t e

Type of Concrete Weight
work concrete JS 300 J S 500
structure pieces pieces
m3 m2 m2 tons

3. 1 1 . 3 Design

F i g u r e 3- 2 6 gives, for a 4 m pipe length, the relationship between head,

d i s c h a r g e and the pipe d i a m e t e r .

3.11.4 N u m e r i c a l Example
Design a gate valve s t r u c t u r e f o r a d i s c h a r g e of 500 11s and a head of
60 c m . The height of the inlet wall i s 175 c m .
 ~ectionol'view 1-1 Sectionol view 2-2 1 Sectional view 3-3

Czechoslovakia
Note: All dimensions ore in centirnetres.
Figure No. 3 - 27
 F r o m F i g u r e 3-26, the r e q u i r e d d i a m e t e r of the pipe f o r 500 11s d i s c h a r g e
and f o r the head of 60 c m i s 50 cm.

See Table 3-16, u s e type RS1 501175.

The dimensions of the v a r i o u s p a r t s a r e given in F i g u r e 3-27 and o t h e r

d e t a i l s n e c e s s a r y m a y .be found f r o m t h i s figure f o r design p u r p o s e s .

3.12 VENTURI HEAD INTAKE

General

The design of t h i s venturi head intake was evolved in the 1920's during the
construction of the S a r d a Canal in Uttar P r a d e s h , India, to effect economy by
providing a flumed t h r o a t with suitable wing wall connections to r e s t o r e the full
bed width of the offtake canal.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of this s t r u c t u r e a r e a s follows.

H(crtl
(a) The h e a d l o s s i s o r l e s s and the d i s c h a r g e i s a little over the
9
t h e o r e t i c a l value due t o the s t r e a m l i n e d approach.
0
(b) The venturi head may be designed for any angle of offtake f r o m 60 to 90
and f o r any bed width of the offtake canal up to 7 ? 5 m .

(c) The design i s such that the e x c e s s energy of the w a t e r i s dissipated by the
formation of a hydraulic jump.

(d) The s t r u c t u r e does not m e a s u r e d i s c h a r g e c o r r e c t l y and i s not successful

in controlling the entry of s i l t into.the offtake canal.

A bridge i s generally provided over the s t r u c t u r e .

3.12.2 S t r u c t u r a l Design

The s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e 3-28) c o n s i s t s of u p s t r e a m wings and side pitching,

t h r o a t , downstream wings, and downstream bed and side protection.

The u p s t r e a m face wing i s curved and i s uarpedas shown on F i g u r e 3-28.

The sill i s rounded off a t the top. The r a d i u s of the wing wall i s generally kept
 at 5H(crt). T h e r e a f t e r i t i s extended f u r t h e r to m e e t the 0. 5 : 1 slope.

The length of the curved s i l l i s and i t s radius i s kept a t

H
2 2
L ( a ~ ~ )H(b-c) where i s the length of the curved s i l l o r approach,
2H(b- c) (~PP)
and H i s the difference between the s i l l level and the bed of the p a r e n t canal.
(b-c)
The downstream wing wall in the p a r e n t canal i s rounded off and turned a t right
angles, and i t i s extended 0. 5 to 1 . 0 m to m e e t the side pitching.

The width of the t h r o a t should not be l e s s than one t h i r d the bed width of the
offtake canal nor l e s s than the width determined f r o m the f o r m u l a
- -3 where B(t) = t h r o a t width, and H
B(t) - - (crt)
i s the head over the
1 . 2 ~ ~
(crt)
sill.

Where t h e r e i s a c r o s s regulator o r a l a r g e d r o p in the p a r e n t canal down-

s t r e a m of the venturi hkad, the t h r o a t width m a y be d e c r e a s e d to 0. 25 of the bed

width o r to -: Q .

1 . 4 ~ '
- whichever i s g r e a t e r , subject to a minimum of 0. 60 m .

(crt)
The d r o p in the water s u r f a c e should be a s s u m e d a t a t l e a s t to be on the
8
safe side.

The t h r o a t should be s e t back by ( 1 . 4 B(t) t 0. 6 ) m f r o m the full supply

line in the p a r e n t canal. The side slope of the p a r e n t canal should be 0 . 5 : 1.

The length of the t h r o a t should be 2.5 H ( c r t ) .

The grooves f o r the stop-logs o r gate should be s e t a s f a r down the t h r o a t

a s possible to avoid swirling. In n a r r o w flumes the grooves should preferably
be fixed below the flume.

The floor should extend up to the s t a r t of the downstream wing walls.

If the bed of the offtake canal i s below the th.roat sill, the drop, i f l e s s than
, 0 . 1 5 m, should be negotiated by a g l a c i s a t a slope of 1 : 10 and a minimum floor
length of 1. 5 m should be provided below the glacis. If the d r o p exceeds 0.15 m ,

a v e r t i c a l d r o p immediately below the t h r o a t should be provided.

 The side w a l l s of the flume should be splayed out f r o m the end of the t h r o a t
a t 1 : 10 f o r a length of 4 . 5 m o r until the width of the flume b e c o m e s two-thirds
of t h e bed width of the offtake channel. A f t e r w a r d s the splay should be i n c r e a s e d
to 1 : 3 until the full bed width i s attained and should be stepped down a t 1 : 1.
The side w a l l s should be v e r t i c a l . The floor end should r e s t on a toe wall.

Bed and side pitchings should be provided in the offtake canal a f t e r the wing
w a l l s u p to a d i s t a n c e o f ' 3 m , and t h i s should be followed by side pitching only of
equal length.

3.12.3 Hydraulic Design

The t h e o r e t i c a l m a x i m u m d i s c h a r g e of a n open v e n t u r i flume i n which

hydraulic jump i s obtained, and the velocity of a p p r o a c h i s ignored, i s given by

where B(t) = t h r o a t width a s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the d a t a given above

and H(crt) = the depth of w a t e r u p s t r e a m of the t h r o a t m e a s u r e d f r o m

the sill.

3.12.4 Numerical Example

Design a venturi head intake f o r the following d a t a :

P a r e n t canal Offtake canal

y1 = 1.2 m

B e d elkvation = 200

T h e r e i s no c r o s s r e g u l a t o r o r d r o p i n the p a r e n t canal d o w n s t r e a m of the

v e n t u r i head.

Design

F u l l supply l e v e l i n the p a r e n t c a n a l i s 201.20. Allow f o r a d r o p i n head

of 0. 15 m and k e e p the full supply i n the offtake canal a t 201.20 - 0. 15 = 20 1 . 0 5 .
 The bed of offtake canal = 201.05 - 0.65 = 200.4

The width of the t h r o a t B(t) should b e not l e s s than the lower of the
following values -

(a) -31 bed width of offtake canal, i. e .

3.5
-3
= 1.1 67 m

The following v a l u e s of H(crt) corresponding to B(t) a r e obtained:

Sill l e v e l

(201.20 - H(,,t)) 200. 32 200.42 200.49 200.55

The bed l e v e l of the offtake canal i s a t 200.4; t h e r e f o r e the f i r s t value i s

r u l e d out. Adopt the t h i r d combination of B(t) and H(crt), i.e. B(t) = 1 . 4 ;
H(crt) = 0.71. The sill l e v e l will be (200.49 - 200.40) = 0 . 0 9 m higher than

t h a t of the offtake canal. The d r o p ( 0 . 09 m ) i s l e s s than 0. 15 m; a g l a c i s a t

1 : 10 slope will be provided to negotiate the d o w n s t r e a m bed level.

Setback of t h r o a t = (1.4B(q + 0.60) = 1.4. 1.4 + 0.60

= 2.56 m
f r o m the supply level of the p a r e n t channel.

Length of t h r o a t = 2 . 5 H(,,t.) = 2.5 . 0.71 = 1.77m

Lengthofcurvedsill (
= f i ~ l . ~ 0 . 7 1 ) =~ 1.041-11
(4
2 2
Radius of s i l l -
-
(app) + (b-c) -- +
1 . 0 4 ~ (0.49)'

H(b-c) 2 . 0.49
 F l o o r t h i c k n e s s and length

F o r the w o r s t condition the head will be 201.20 - 200.40 = 0 . 8 m . The

m a x i m u m floor t h i c k n e s s will be
0.80 . 4
= 0.64 m , say 0. 65 m . The
5

t h i c k n e s s i s r e d u c e d according to the hydraulic g r a d i e n t l i n e . A hydraulic

gradient of 1:9 m a y be adopted. The length of floor will be 9 . 0.8 = 7.2 m .

D o w n s t r e a m wing w a l l s

After the t h r o a t length (i.e . 1. 77 m ) , the wing w a l l s m u s t be splayed a t

1 : 10 to attain t w o - t h i r d s width of the offtake. The length will be

(3.5 3 - 1.4) 0 5 . 10 = 4.65 m . A f t e r w a r d s the wings m u s t be

splayed a t 1 : 3. The length of the splayed wings will be ( 3 . 5 - 2. 33) 0 . 5 .3
= 1.755 m . The 1 : 3 splayed wings m u s t be stepped down f r o m the section
inter-sected by a 45O angle f r o m the end of the toe wall of the d o w n s t r e a m floor.

P r o v i d e a 20 c m thick and 3 m long d r y pitching i n the bed and the s i d e s and

then provide side d r y pitching 3 m long.

F i g u r e 3- 2 8 gives the d e t a i l s of the s t r u c t u r e . The thickness of the walls

of the t h r o a t , the u p s t r e a m approach, and the d o w n s t r e a m wings should be a s
given in F i g u r e 3-3 of section 3. 2.

3.13 SQUARE-HEAD INTAKE

General

The s q u a r e - h e a d r e g u l a t o r i s a simple intake s t r u c t u r e provided a t the

h e a d s of secondary and t e r t i a r y c a n a l s t o d r a w w a t e r supplies f r o m a m a i n o r
b r a n c h o r secondary canal, t h e l a t t e r being called the p a r e n t canal and the f o r m e r
the offtaking canal. The s t r u c t u r e i s usually sited a t r i g h t angles to the p a r e n t
canal. The s t r u c t u r e i s not a m e t e r and i t i s not s i l t - selective. It i s p r i m a r i l y
m e a n t t o regulate w a t e r supplies into the offtaking canal. Regulation i s effected
by m e a n s of the i n s e r t i o n of stop-logs o r a sliding gate in the grooves provided on
the u p s t r e a m side i n ~ t h eabutments.

A bridge i s provided over the s t r u c t u r e when the width of the controlling

section i s m o r e than 0.60 m o r when the canal bank i s m e a n t to c a r r y vehicular
traffic.

S t r u c t u r a l Design

The s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s of u p s t r e a m wing walls, u p s t r e a m bed protection,

s i l l , abutments, downstream wing walls, side and floor protection.

The thickness of abutments for n o r m a l loading conditions should be a s

given in F i g u r e 3 - 3 of section 3 . 2 .

The wing walls on the u p s t r e a m and downstream s i d e s a r e l a i d out s t r a i g h t

to connect the banks. The c u r v e s of the wing walls a r e s h a r p with little con-
sideration to streamlining.

The floor of the controlling section i s designed on Bligh's theory f o r the

w o r s t condition when the p a r e n t canal i s running a t full supply level and the
offtake canal i s d r y .

The length of floor = C H ( F s - ~ ) where C i s Bligh's coefficient, and

H ( ~ ~ - ibs )the difference between the full supply level i n the p a r e n t canal and the
bed l e v e l of the offtaking canal. The recommended values of C a r e a s given
hereunder.

F o r fine m i c a c e o u s sand in North Indian r i v e r s , C = 15

F o r c o a r s e grained sand in North Indian r i v e r s , C = 12
F o r sand mixed with boulders and gravel and
l o a m soil C = 5to9

The floor thickness i s designed according to the hydraulic gradient l i n e .

The head m e a s u r e d a t a point f r o m the hydraulic gradient line i s the n e t head
working a t that point and a suitable floor thickness i s then provided. F o r con-
c r e t e floor s the thickness i s d e t e r m i n e d by dividing the design head by a factor of
1. 25. This factor i s the submerged r e l a t i v e density of c o n c r e t e . At the end of
the floor a toe wall i s provided.

The downstream bed pitching i s l a i d a t a slope of 1 : 10 and 3 m beyond the

end of the floor, and side pitching i s provided to p r o t e c t the e a r t h s i d e s f r o m
 embayment. A toe wall i s provided a t the end of the bed pitching. The side
pitching a l s o r e s t s on the toe wall.

Hydraulic Design

A depth equal to the full supply depth of the offtake canal i s maintained
d o w n s t r e a m of the grooves.

The i n s e r t i o n of stop-logs c r e a t e s o v e r - s h o t flow conditions. The

d i s c h a r g e f o r m u l a , (neglecting velocity of approach), f o r o v e r - shot flow i s
1

w h e r e B(t) = width of the sill, H

i s the hydraulic drop, H( i s the
(dr)
difference between the offtake canal w a t e r l e v e l and the stop-log c r e s t .

When a gate i s o p e r a t e d i n the groove, the flow i s u n d e r - s h o t , and the

d i s c h a r g e i s e s t i m a t e d by t h e f o r m u l a

w h e r e A i s the a r e a of the opening

The velocity in the controlling section should be about 1 m / s .

3. 13.4 N u m e r i c a l Example '

Design a s q u a r e - h e a d intake f o r an offtake canal, the difference between

the full supply l e v e l s of the p a r e n t and the offtake canals being 0. 2 m . The
regulation of the w a t e r supply i n the offtake i s effected by a gate. The o t h e r
data a r e a s follows:

P a r e n t canal Offtake canal

Discharge Q = 17 m3/ s Discharge Q = 0.90 m 3 / s

y1 = 1.8m = 0.54 m
Y2
B1 = 120 m B2 = 3.0 m

Design

The width' of the opening i s d e t e r m i n e d by the f o r m u l a

 IOcm r l 0 c m grooves for qote and stop logs3 2-I, cm brick pitching
-15 crn R.C.C. slob
Side brick pitching-

-20 cm brick
pitching
I
0.30,

I Longitudinal section
-
Porent
channel

Half foundation plan

Note : Sections of mosonry wolis ore odopted os given in Figure No.2 SQUARE HEAD INTAKE
of Intakes of Smoll Conols (Punjob Type).

All dimensions ore i n metres unless otherwise specified. India

Figure No. 3 2 9 -
 Velocity i n the contr'olling section will be Oe9 = 1.2m/swhichis
acceptable.
0.54 . 1.4

F i g u r e 3-29 shows the s t r u c t u r e and hydraulic d e t a i l s of the above

example.

When the regulation i s done by stop-logs, the flow f o r m u l a given in 3. 13. 3

i s u s e d to d e t e r m i n e the s i l l l e v e l .

A s s u m e the R. L . of the bed of the p a r e n t canal to be 100. The full supply

l e v e l of the p a r e n t canal will be 100 + 1. 8 = 101.8. The full supply l e v e l of the
offtaking canal will be 1 0 1 . 8 - 0.2 = 101.6.

The bed l e v e l of the offtaking canal will be 101.6 - 0 . 5 4 = 101.06.

The sill l e v e l will a l s o be 101.06.

The length of the f l o o r , a s s u m i n g a hydraulic gradient of 1 : 6, will b e

(101.8 - 101.06) 6 = 0.74 . 6 = 4.44 m , say 4 . 5 m .

The thickness of the floor just d o w n s t r e a m of the gate grooves, which i s

H ( ~ ~ - b )= 0.74
subject to m a x i m u m head, will be 25 = 0.60m.

The thickness of the floor beyond half i t s length should be reduced to 0 . 3 0 m .

3.14 D U P U I S CANAL INTAKE

3. 14. 1 General

The design of the Dupuis canal intake w a s evolved by C. E. Dupuis in 1903

in Egypt to satisfy the condition that the d i s c h a r g e of a n intake on a secondary
 T

Longitudinal section

Plan FAO- ICID

Note: All dimensions ore in metres. DUPUIS CANAL INTAKE

Project, Region, Country

ARE

i
Figure No. 3 - 30
 canal ( d i s t r i b u t a r y ) should be proportional to the a r e a i t s e r v e s . The installation
of this s t r u c t u r e i s now a common p r a c t i c e in Egypt. These intakes a r e
generally spaced a t 200 to 300 m a p a r t .

3. 14.2 S t r u c t u r a l Design

The Dupuis canal intake ( F i g u r e 3-30) consists of a m e t a l o r earthenware

pipe of a given diameter, with m a s o n r y heads a t entry and exit.

F r o m the two top c o r n e r s of the canal bank through which the pipe p a s s e s ,
l i n e s of 1 . 5 : 1 slope a r e drawn t o m e e t the points on the b a s e on which the pipe
rests. F r o m those b a s e points lines of 1 : 1 a r e projected 0. 25 m above the full
supply line on the u p s t r e a m side and about a m e t r e o r so above the bed of the
offtake canal on the downstream side. The two points s o obtained become
respectively the top levels of the u p s t r e a m and downstream head walls. The
u p s t r e a m face of the u p s t r e a m headwall i s obtained by drawing a line a t a slope
of 0 . 5 : 1. The downstream face of the downstream headwall i s generally kept
vertical ( F i g u r e 3-30).

The top widths of the headwalls a r e s e t a t 25 cm.

The side slopes at the u p s t r e a m face a r e rounded for smooth entry of

water.

Hydraulic Design

The diameter of the pipe, discharge, and the a r e a i r r i g a t e d i s determined

f r o m Table 3-18 a s given by Dupuis on the b a s i s of L(p) = 10 m a and
H(dr) = 0.25 m, where L length of pipe; H
(P) = ( d r ) = hydraulic drop.

Table 3-19 gives the values of correction a s a percentage when the H

(dr)
i s s m a l l e r o r l a r g e r than 0.25 m .

Table 3-20 gives values of a r e a i r r i g a t e d f r o m pipe d i a m e t e r s ranging

f r o m 10 cm t o 120 cm f o r a pipe length of 5 t o 100 and a head of0.25 m. The
original values of Dupuis a r e reproduced in the f i r s t column of the table.
 TABLE 3-18

Diameter A r e a of Velocity Discharge Area irrigated

of pipe, pipe (appro4 of pipe in 7 days a t
3
cm cm2 m/ s rn3/ s 350 m p e r ,

i!one feddan = 4200.83 m 2 = 1.038 a c r e s

TABLE 3-19
P e r c e n t a g e Differences
f o r Headings-up Below o r Above 25 C e n t i m e t r e s

Cm. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 TABLE

Giving the D i a m e t e r and Lengths of

- 10
Diam. Lengths of pipes i n m e t r e s and a r e a s e r v e d i n F e d d a n s a s s u m i n g :
-4 k
in
s .Y' cm 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
r3 !&
Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed.
10 10.0 16 13 11 9 9 8 7 7 7
20 12.5 25 22 19 17 15 14 13 12 12
30 15.0 41 34 30 27 24 23 21 20 19
45 17. 5 58 49 43 39 36 33 31 30 28
65 20.0 78 67 59 54 50 46 44 41 39
85 22.5 101 88 78 72 66 62 58 55 53
110 25.0 126 111 100 92 85 80 75 71 68
135 27.5 157 138 125 115 107 101 95 90 86
165 30.0 188 167 152 140 131 123 117 111 106
235 35.0 262 236 217 201 188 177 168 167 154

315 40.0 348 316 292 272 256 242 231 221 212

405 45.0 447 406 380 356 337 320 305 293 28 1
510 50.0 555 513 479 451 427 407 389 374 360

625 55.0 680 630 590 558 530 506 488 465 45 0

760 60.0 817 760 715 678 647 618 593 578 551

900 65.0 960 900 847 840 772 740 710 687 663
1,060 70.0 1,120 1,051 998 952 909 873 840 813 785

1,220 75.0 1,290 1,220 1,158 1,105 1,060 1,018 983 950 920
1,400 80.0 1,478 1,398 1,330 1,273 1,222 1,177 1,137 1,100 1,066

1,590 85.0 1 , 675 1,590 1 , 515 1,452 1 , 397 1 , 347 1 , 303 1, 262 1, 223

1 , 790 90.0 1,880 1,790 1 , 7 1 2 1 , 644 1,585 1,530 1,480 1,435 1, 395
2,000 95.0 2, 100 2,000 1,922 1,846 1,785 1,723 1 , 670 1, 618 1,575

2,230 100.0 2, 330 2, 230 2, 140 2,060 1,990 1,925 1,865 1,813 1,760

105.0 2,575 2,465 2, 370 2, 285 2, 205 2,140 2,080 2, 020 1,970
110.0 2,840 2,720 2,620 2,530 2,455 2,370 2,305 2,240 2,180

115.0 3, 100 2,980 2,870 2,770 2, 690 2, 610 2,540 2,470 2,410

120.0 3 , 390 3,260 3,150 3,050 2,960 2,870 2,790 2, 720 2, 650
I r r i g a t i o n Pipes and Areas Served

Water Duty .50 m 3 / F e d . and Heading-up 25 cm.

Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed. Fed.
 , 0 I "
Covers 4 - 3 x 1 - 7 i x 2
Rein.-Arc Ref.- No. 610

Note: Details of sliding gate and

operoting spindle lifting frame not shown.

Exposed section
to be scabbled

Plon

Section A-A
Port section of gote
connection

F A 0 - ICID
Notes : I . Concrete to hove a minimum compressive strength
of 3 5 0 0 psi ot 28 days. Concrete works shall conform
with specification C- S- 5 9
2 . All fillets 2 inches. PRECAST CONCRETE INLET BOX
FOR INTAKE WITH STONE MESH WEIR

Project, Region ,Country

Australia
e 3 31
~ i ~ u rNo. -
3. 1 4 . 4 Numerical Example

Design a Dupuis intake f o r a d i s c h a r g e of 0 . 4 4 m 3 / s and a h e a d of 0.25 m .

The length of pipe i s 10 m . The data for the p a r e n t canal and the offtake canal
are:
P a r e n t canal Offtake canal

= 10m3/s 3
Q Q = 0.44m / s

y2 =
1.0 m

B2 = 2.0 m

F r o m Table 3- 18, the r e q u i r e d pipe d i a m e t e r corresponding t o the

d i s c h a r g e of 0 . 4 4 m 3 / s i s 60 c m The a r e a which will be i r r i g a t e d by t h i s
d i s c h a r g e with a w a t e r duty of 50 rn3 p e r day p e r feddan will be 760 feddans

(320 ha)

The design layout i s shown i n F i g u r e 3-30

3.15 INTAKE WITH STONE-MESH DIVERSION WEIR (AUSTRALIA)

3.15.1 General

The s t o n e - m e s h diversion weir d i v e r t s flows i n s m a l l , rapidly flowing

streams. It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y suitable where the s u b - s t r a t u m of the s i t e i s of
g r a v e l and p r e c l u d e s the u s e of sheet pile w e i r s and w h e r e a conventional type
of w e i r would be i m p r a c t i c a l o r too expensive due to the p o r o u s n a t u r e of the
ground.

3.15.2 S t r u c t u r a l Design

F i g u r e 3-32 shows a g e n e r a l view of the w e i r and the intake when a l m o s t

a l l the flow i s being diverted.

The intake of the s t o n e - m e s h d i v e r s i o n w e i r c o n s i s t s of a p r e - c a s t

c o n c r e t e inlet box with a s c r e e n f r a m e ( m e s h s i z e 1$" x 1$") and a c o n c r e t e
pipe 2 f t long with a sliding gate u p s t r e a m in the inlet box ( F i g u r e s 3-31 to
FIGURE 3-32. - General view of the stone m e s h weir and inlet
box. (Almost a l l the flow - 12 f t 3 / s - i s being d i v e r t e d . )

FIGURE 3-33. - Another view showing stone m e s h basket

construction and inlet box.
3-33). An outlet pipe 4 ft long joins the 2 ft pipe and opens into the weir structure.
The weir s t r u c t u r e contains a r e c o r d e r well of reinforced concrete 30 inches in
d i a m e t e r , with i t s c e n t r e 3 ft f r o m the c r e s t . T h e r e i s a stilling basin 8 ft long
on the downstream side and bed protection of stone, and a transition section con-
verging to the designed bed width of the offtake canal. F o r details s e e F i g u r e
3- 37. F i g u r e 3-35 shows the m e a s u r i n g weir and the dissipation s t r u c t u r e a t
the end of the pipeline. The weir apron i s of stone encased in w i r e b a s k e t s
( F i g u r e s 3-33 and 3-34).

The s t r u c t u r e i s of low cost, u t i l i z e s l o c a l m a t e r i a l s and does not r e q u i r e

skilled labour f o r i t s construction. The w i r e s of the b a s k e t s a r e welded a t e v e r y
point of contact and hence i f one section b r e a k s the whole s t r u c t u r e i s not
threatened. The weir of the inlet s t r u c t u r e cannot be easily damaged and the
control gate on the inlet box i s padlocked.

The weir can be e a s i l y r a i s e d o r widened by adding m o r e b a s k e t s .

The total cost of the s t r u c t u r e i s about A$ 3, 000. The s u p e r v i s o r should

i n s p e c t the w e i r s once a week. Maintenance involves removing l e a v e s and s m a l l
b r a n c h e s f r o m the entrance to the inlet box.

Design

F i g u r e 3-36 i s a g r a p h of a rating c u r v e for the m e a s u r i n g weir of the

intake s t r u c t u r e used for design p u r p o s e s . It h a s been developed f r o m model
t e s t s f o r a 6 ft c r e s t su$pressed w e i r .

Numerical Example

Design an intake s t r u c t u r e with a s t o n e - m e s h weir in the p a r e n t canal ( o r

s t r e a m ) f o r a d i s c h a r g e of 30 f t 3 / s . The u p s t r e a m w a t e r l e v e l above the
m e a s u r i n g weir i s 1380.25.

Design

Refer to the rating curve, F i g u r e 3-36. F o r a d i s c h a r g e of 30 ft3/s the head

o v e r the c r e s t of the w e i r will be 1 . 0 5 ft. T h e r e f o r e , the level of the c r e s t i s
1380.25 - 1 . 0 5 = 1379.20. Other details and dimensions a r e shown in F i g u r e
FIGURE 3-34. - Stone m e s h basket construction, stone m e s h
a p r o n , and location and g e n e r a l construction of inlet box with
s c r e e n and screw-type gate. (About 3 ft3/ s passing over the
weir. )

FIGURE 3 - 35. - Dissipation s t r u c t u r e and m e a s u r i n g weir a t

the pipe outlet. (~ischar~ 10e ft3/ s . )
FIGURE 3- 36. - Model t e s t rating for measuring weir
capacity 30 ft3/ s 6 ft c r e s t suppressed weir.
3.16 GROYNE INTAKE AND ANCILLARY WORKS (CYPRUS)

3. 16. 1 General
The groyne type of intake i s in u s e i n Cyprus on r i v e r s with g r a v e l beds and
widths up to about 183 m (600 ft). In such c a s e s i t i s uneconomical to build a
w e i r a c r o s s the full width of the r i v e r . These intake s t r u c t u r e s have been
developed to o v e r c o m e t h i s difficulty. They have only a m a s o n r y groyne
extending out into the r i v e r bed.

Such intakes a r e not, of c o u r s e , intended to d r a w off the flood d i s c h a r g e of

the r i v e r , which may amount to a s much a s 10,000 ft 3 / s o r m o r e , and t h e intake
d i s c h a r g e i s not m o r e than 10 to 12 ft 3 / s .

3. 16. 2 S t r u c t u r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Design

The s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e 3-38) c o n s i s t s of a groyne o r weir about 38 ft long

n e a r the head of the intake, and an intake with side-walls of m a s o n r y and a 6"
bed of reinforced c o n c r e t e , a diaphragm and a screw-wheel gate a t the intake
head.

The groyne a c r o s s the r i v e r bed i s a weir type with a c r e s t width of 2 ft,

a downstream g l a c i s with a slope of 1 : 3 and a downstream apron. Near the
intake head t h e r e i s a shutter gate in the groyne f o r washing out any gravel, soil
o r sediment that m a y accumulate on the u p s t r e a m side of the weir. The channel
below the intake gate i s of rectangular c r o s s section with side walls in m a s o n r y
and coping of concrete on the top. The side wall facing the r i v e r i s 2 ft higher
than the other side wall. This i s to prevent the d i s c h a r g e passing over the
channel when the r i v e r i s in flood.

An overflow spillway i s usually placed in the channel a s n e a r to the intake

a s possible but f a r enough downstream to be above high flood level. This i s
e s s e n t i a l under Cyprus conditions where heavy floods would frequently s u b m e r g e
the intake works and overflow the upper p a r t of the channel. The spillway itself
i s simply a weir with i t s c r e s t a t the full supply level of the i r r i g a t i o n canal. The
spill channel h a s to be protected against erosion f r o m both the overflow w a t e r and
 0
Rubble mosonry woll: Stones os supplied
Concrete lip; dio. steel from quorry, bedded in lime mortor 1 : 2 .
ties ot 5 feet centres Slope foced with stones roughly squored Notes:
with joints in cement mortor I : 3 Sections between exponsion joints to be completed
olternotely.
Foundotion in lime concrete to be cost in l i f t s 16
deep ; lime concrete usuolly prop. 1:4, bottom lifts
of weir foundotions ond cutoffs moy in some
cases be cost in cement concrete 1:3:6.
Focing of wolls with block- in- c o u r s i mosonry.
oll interior work in k b b l e ; mosonry courses I$
.deep. eoch seporote section to be worked up in
complete courses.
Section C-D Allow one week for settlement of lime concrete
foundotions ; one week before cement plostering ond
rendering.

Alternative positi
of extension woll

r t h or lined offtoke channel

continue beyond the spillwoy
Upper foce of cutoff
erflow spillwoy to be constructed
uitoble site above flood woter level

Verticol joint down

to bed rock

Lower foce of cutoff

Cutoff round this s i d e 1 )/

Screw gote, r Expansion joint

Level
River

L ~ e c o n dcloss concrete (1:6)

I F A O - ICID

Downstreom toe of

Section A-B Project, Region , Country

Cyprus

No. 3 - 38
I Figure
I
f r o m high floods in the r i v e r . The i r r i g a t i o n canal between the intake and the
overflow spillway i s built to withstand s u b m e r s i o n during heavy floods. (The
d e t a i l s a r e shown in F i g u r e 3- 38. )

Two points d e s e r v e special attention in the construction of intakes of t h i s

type. The f i r s t i s to found the abutment of the groyne on solid r o c k o r a t l e a s t on

v e r y f i r m ground s o that t h e r e be no possibility of e r o s i o n in, o r about, the head
of the channel and that the s t r u c t u r e be s e c u r e l y anchored. The other point i s
the depth of the foundation and the width of the b a s e . The depth should be well
below the region of n o r m a l scour in a shifting channel, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t the o u t e r
end. The width.of the b a s e should be sufficient to prevent tilting of the
structure. It i s c u s t o m a r y in Cyprus to take the foundation down to about 6 ft
below the level of the lowest p a r t of the r i v e r channel.

FIGURE 3-39. - Photograph of groyne intake s t r c c t u r e

(Cyprus).

F i g u r e 3-39 .shows a slightly modified design with a s m a l l e r d i s c h a r g e

capacity. The intake gate i s replaced by an o r i f i c e and a double shut-off gate a t
a distance of about 3 m downstream. This s e r v e s the dual purpose of sediment
flushing and d i s c h a r g e control.
 B. SILT CONTROL DEVICES

3.17 KING'S SILT VANES

3. 17. 1 General

In 1933, H. W. King designed a device with c u r v e d vanes on the channel bed

which would prevent h e a v i e r s i l t entering an offtake. This w o r k s on the principle
that the w a t e r n e a r the bed of the p a r e n t canal o r channel contains a r e l a t i v e l y
high s i l t c h a r g e which should, t h e r e f o r e , be deflected away without d i s t u r b a n c e ,
0
a t a n angle of about 30 f r o m the direction of the flow.

3. 17. 2 S t r u c t u r a l Design

The layout plan of the vanes i s shown in F i g u r e 3-40.

The dimensions of the s i l t vanes a r e given in Table 3- 21. See F i g u r e 3-40

f o r X I , X 2 and R . The length and position of the longest vane and the vane spacing
a r e thus d e t e r m i n e d .

TABLE 3-21

Width of offtake channel = B2 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.8
in m e t r e s
F o r strong Value of X i 1.2 1.5 1.8 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.4
effect Value of X2 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1 . 8 2.4 2.7
Value of R 9.0 10.5 12.0 12.0 13.5 13.5 15.0

Cheaper Value of X i 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.8 1.8

design Value of X2 0.6 0.6 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.8
( l e s s effect) Value of R 7.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 10.5

Minimum Value of X i 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.8

dimen sions Value of X2 0.6 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.8
recommended Value of R 7. 5 7.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 10.5
 From upstream edge of offtake A , draw a line AV at right
angles t o centre line of parent channel of length x (Table II.
Through V draw a line at 2 to1 with centre line of parent channel.
Draw a line ST, 0 - 3 m away from toe of the side pitching which
cuts the line U V M ( 2 t o I) at G.
(iv) Draw an arc of radius R (~able3-zbangentialto lines STand UVM.
(v) From centre 0, with radius R = OQ, draw an arc QP of such length
thatathe inclination of OP to OQ is 2 to I. All curres must end at
the'lines OQ and OP.
(vi) From downstream edge of offtake, draw a line NKW at 2 to1 with
centre line of the parent channel.
(vii) From P toy o f f PZ along the line UVM setting off K Z equal to
1-5 m . QPZ is the posirion of the longest vane.

Parent channel =/ L

QG = GP

Of ftake channel

FIGURE 3 - 4 0 . - King's silt vanes, layout plan of the vanes

 The height of the vanes i s one-third to one q u a r t e r of the depth of the parent
canal.

The thickness of the masonry vanes i s 12 c m for a height up to 0.36 m and

for g r e a t e r heights the thickness i s 24 cm. However for efficiency the thinner
the better.

The width of channels between the vanes i s normally 1$ t i m e s the height of

the vanes.

The u p s t r e a m ends of the vanes beyond the line OQ (Figure 3-40) m u s t be

finished off to a slope of 1 vertical to 3 horizontal in a V-shape to act a s cut-
w a t e r s (Figure 3-41).

The downstream ends of the vanes should be vertical.

The channels between the vanes and the vanes themselves should be
plastered.

The bed of the parent canal covered by the vanes, and for a distance of 15 m
to 30 m u p s t r e a m of the vanes, m u s t be smoothly pitched and i t should be 15 c m
higher than the n o r m a l silted bed level. The upstream 4.5 m of the pitching
should be built a t a slope of, 1 in 10.

The side slope of the parent canal on the side of the offtake m u s t be pitched
up to the length of the pitched floor.

It should be noted that King's silt vanes a r e not suitable in the following
situations: where the offtake canal discharge i s m o r e than one-third of that of
the parent canal; where the offtake canal i s very small and takes off f r o m a deep
parent canal; where the parent canal does not have adequate width; and where
violent approach with a strong 'draw' towards the intake head exists.

3.17.3. Numerical Example

Design King's silt vanes for an intake head with the following data:
 P a r e n t canal Offtake canal

5 1
6 3
1.2 0. 6

Design

The values of X i , X2, and R f r o m Table 3-21 for the c a s e of recommended

minimumvalues are, XI = 1.5 m , X2 = 1 . 5 m , and R = 9.0m.

1 1
Heightofvanes = - t o - of yl = 0.4to 0.3m; adopt 0 . 3 m
3 4
Thickness of vanes in m a s o n r y = 12 cm

3
Width of channel between vanes = - 0. 3 = 0.45 m ; number of
2 -
vanes

F o r other layout details, s e e F i g u r e 3-41

3.18 GIBB'S GROYNE

3.18. 1 General F e a t u r e s

The Gibb's groyne wall i s u s e d in c a s e s where the offtaking canal, on

account of i t s gradient, h a s the s a m e s i l t c a r r y i n g capacity a s the p a r e n t canal.
The Gibb's groyne e n s u r e s m o r e o r l e s s proportional s i l t distribution to the off-
taking canal.

The device i s a curved v e r t i c a l wall ( F i g u r e 3-42) constructed in the

p a r e n t canal. I t s height f r o m the canal bed i s equal t o the full supply depth plus
f r e e board. It s t a r t s f r o m the downstream end of the offtake abutment and
continues u p s t r e a m to e i t h e r the opposite point of the offtake end o r t h r e e -
q u a r t e r s of the offtake width.

I t i s not n e c e s s a r y that i t s u p s t r e a m end be tangential to the c e n t r a l line of

flow of the p a r e n t canal n o r should the downstream end be tangential to the down-
s t r e a m abutment of the offtake channel.
 Parent channel

FIGURE 3-42. - Gibb's Groyne, general layout.

It i s not necessary to pitch the bed and side of the parent canal.

Normally the Gibbls groyne would project far enough to enclose enough of
the discharge of the parent canal to run the offtake canal full when the parent
canal i s running a t i t s lowest supply level. The amount of projection would also
depend upon the actual velocities existing near the offtake head.

Numerical Example

P a r e n t canal Offtake canal

3
QB m I s 5.0 1.0

BB 6.0 3.0
V, mls 1.O -
v, near the offtake 0.80

Consider 10% e x t r a discharge to fill the offtake approach.

 The width t o be enclosed in the p a r e n t canal f o r drawing 1 m 3 / s in the off-

.
t a k e will b e
1.1
(T) . 6 . 1
( -)
0.8
= 1.65 m. F i g u r e 3-42 shows the

details.

3.19 CURVED WING WITH SILT VANES

,
When the effect of a c u r v e d wing (Gibb's groyne) alone i s not satisfactory
t o control the e n t r y of s i l t into the offtake canal, King's vanes m a y be added to
enhance the p e r f o r m a n c e of the curved wing. The curved wing in t h i s c a s e i s
t e r m i n a t e d a t the 2 : 1 l i n e of the longest vane.

The design of King's vanes h a s been explained in section 3.17. F i g u r e 3-43,

however, shows the a r r a n g e m e n t using King's vanes and a curved wing.

Portnt chonnel

Groyne
-
channel

FIGURE 3-43. - Curved wing with s i l t vanes, g e n e r a l layout.

3.20 SILT PLATFORMS

3.20.1 General

A silt platform consists of a horizontal slab, usually of reinforced concrete

supported on p i e r s a t a suitable level to exclude bottom water heavily loaded with
silt o r debris. The device i s suitable only in deep parent canals.

There a r e two variations of this device:

(a) a simple platform;

(b) a platform with a curved extension of the downstream wing wall.

Design of a Simple P l a t f o r m

3. 20.2. 1 Level of platform

F o r practical considerations, the height of the tunnels should be

0. 6 m to 0 . 9 m so that the stray debris may p a s s through the tunnels without
choking them.

Other considerations to be borne in mind a r e that a s much a s

possible of the bottom water should be excluded and t h e r e should be enough top
water to fill the offtake.

3.20.2.2 Width of platform

The platform should be wide enough to take enough water over i t

to f i l l the offtake with 2570 to spare.

The downstream edge of the platform should preferably. be a t an

0
angle of 60 to the centreline of the parent canal and a s well to the u p s t r e a m edge.

The u p s t r e a m edge of the platform a t the edge of the parent canal may
be 1 . 5 m u p s t r e a m of the u p s t r e a m edge of the offtake.

A width equal to the depth of the parent canal will do, provided i t i s
not possible to a r r a n g e for a g r e a t e r width.

Mean side velocity (near the offtake) of the upper water flow in the
 0-3

15 m t o 30 rn
brick pitching 0-23 rn thick
guide wall

---------------------

Side pitching
Plon Of ftake channel

FA0 - lClD
SILT P L A T F O R M
CUM- GUIDE W A L L

Project, Region, Country

S e c t ~ o n A-A India
Note. All dimensions are in metres Figure No. 3-45
 p a r e n t canal should be equal to that i n the offtake canal.

The p i e r supporting the s l a b should be sloped a t 1 v e r t i c a l to 3

horizontal a t i t s u p s t r e a m end and i t should be of cut w a t e r shape. The sloping
p a r t should begin 0. 3 m away f r o m the edge of the p l a t f o r m . The floor under the
tunnels and the side should be pitched. The length of the pitched floor m a y r a n g e
f r o m 15 m to 30 m .

3.20.2.3 N u m e r i c a l example

Design a s i l t platform f o r a n offtaking canal f r o m the following

data.

(a) Mean o b s e r v e d velocity i n the p a r e n t canal when running with m i n i m u m

discharge 0.6 m / s

(b) F u l l supply d i s c h a r g e of the offtaking channel 1 m3/s

(c) F u l l supply depth of the offtaking canal 0. 6 m .

Solution
The s i l t p l a t f o r m should allow to p a s s o v e r i t a d i s c h a r g e of
1.0 m3/ s + 25 p e r cent = 1. 25 m 3 / s . Width of the p l a t f o r m placed a t 0. 6 m
below the w a t e r l e v e l with m i n i m u m d i s c h a r g e in the p a r e n t canal =

1. 25
= 3.47 m , say 3 . 5 m . The p l a t f o r m to be supported on p i e r s
0 . 6 . 0.6
of 23 c m t h i c k n e s s . P r o v i d e bed pitching and side pitching e a c h 15 m long.

F i g u r e 3-44 shows the design and d e t a i l s of the device.

3.20.3 Design of a Silt P l a t f o r m with a Guide Wall

3.20.3.1 General Ieatures

A guide wall i s sometimes added t o improve t h e flow p a t t e r n (see

Figure 3-45). The curved wing wall i s b u i l t over t h e s i l t platform. The

design p r i n c i p l e f o r a r r i v i n g a t t h e level of t h e platform i s t h e same as

explained above f o r t h e s i l t platform.

T h e r e should b e enough w a t e r passing o v e r t h e platform, a t the

l o w e s t supply in the p a r e n t canal to enable the offtake t o r u n full with 10% to
 spare.

The d o w n s t r e a m edge of the p l a t f o r m i s g e n e r a l l y . curved t o

the c e n t r e l i n e of the p a r e n t canal and the u p s t r e a m edge i s t e r m i n a t e d a t the
u p s t r e a m edge of the offtake.

The design of the p i e r s r e m a i n s the s a m e a s f o r the s i l t p l a t f o r m .

The u p s t r e a m edge of the curved wing wall i s sloped a t 1 : 1.

3. 20. 3 . 2 N u m e r i c a l example

.Design a s i l t p l a t f o r m with a c u r v e d wing f o r an offtake canal f r o m

t h e following data:

(a) Observed m e a n velocity with m i n i m u m d i s c h a r g e in the p a r e n t canal n e a r

the offtake = 0. 60 m / s
3
(b) F u l l supply d i s o h a r g e of the offtake canal = 1 m / s

(c) F u l l supply depth of the offtake channel = 0. 6 m .

Solution
The s i l t p l a t f o r m should p a s s 1 + 1070 = 1. 10 m 3 / s . The width of
the p l a t f o r m , placed a t 0 . 6 m below the full supply of the p a r e n t canal will be
1.10
= 3. 05 m , say 3. 0 m . P r o v i d e a p i e r t o support the p l a t f o r m .
0 . 6 . 0.6

P r o v i d e bed and side pitching o v e r a length of 15 m . See d e t a i l s in

F i g u r e 3-45.

3.2 1 R E V E R S E VANES

When a canal bifurcates i n t o two sub-canals or channels, one of which

s i l t s very badly, reverse vanes may be b u i l t t o pass more s i l t i n t o the canal

which does not s i l t up.

The principle of design of the vanes r e m a i n s the s a m e , a s previously

d e s c r i b e d , but they a r e r e v e r s e d i n direction. See F i g u r e 3-46 f o r the g e n e r a l
layout.
 FIGURE 3-46. - General layout of r e v e r s e vanes.

3.22 VORTEX TUBE SAND TRAP

3.22.1 General F e a t u r e s

F o r small canals (under 3 m bottom width) the vortex tube sand t r a p ,

developed by the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, i s essentially used
to remove bed load m a t e r i a l that i s moving a t o r near -the bed and i s c o a r s e , i. e.
the size i s g r e a t e r than 0.50 m m .

The device consists of a slotted nitch in the floor of a channel placed a t an

angle with the direction of flow. The vortex tube i s located between the'intake
head and a measuring structure in the offtake canal. The e x t r a amount of water
n e c e s s a r y for the operation of the tube i s returned to the parent canal through a
collection chamber.

The velocity of the water over the tube m u s t be great enough to supply the
energy n e c e s s a r y to cause rotation of the water in the tube. Usually a velocity
of 1 . 2 to 1.8 m / s i s required. In operation, sand drops into the tube, the
rotation k e e p s i t agitated and the longitudinal flow in the tube t r a n s p o r t s i t to the
outlet. The outlet end should be equipped with a slide gate for control of the
flow since i t does not need to be fully open to function.

Design C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The canal section where the tube i s installed should be the s a m e a s the
canal width but with the bottom r a i s e d . The F r o u d e n u m b e r of the flow a c r o s s
the canal section containing the tube should approximate to 0.8. Where the flow
v a r i e s widely, d e s i g n flow should be selected that will e x i s t for a g r e a t e r
portion of t i m e . The length of the r a i s e d platform i s 2.5 t i m e s the width of the
canal.

The flow removed usually r a n g e s f r o m 5% to 1570 of the total d i s c h a r g e .

The width of opening should usually be in the range of 0. 15 m to 0 . 3 m

The r a t i o of length of tube to width of opening L(tube) : B(tube) should

not exceed 20 with the maximum length of tube being approximately 4. 5 m .
S e v e r a l successful field installations have the values 11 to 15 f o r this r a t i o .

The tube angle oc should be 45O.

Straight tubes o p e r a t e a s well a s t a p e r e d ones.

The elevation of the l i p s of the tubes can be the s a m e r a t h e r than the

downstream l i p being lower.

The shape of the tube i s not p a r t i c u l a r l y important. A tube m a d e f r o m a

c o m m e r c i a l l y fabricated pipe i s suitable. Normally the tube i s shaped f r o m
about 16 gauge galvanized s t e e l .

The r e q u i r e d a r e a of the tube can be approximated by the formula

- 0.06
-
*(tube) - B(tube) L(tube)' where A(tube) = A r e a of tube,
fi
B(tube) = Tube opening; L(tube) = Length of the tube.

2
The depth ih the tube, d(tube) is -
3 of the tube opening in
practice.

When the bed load i s excessive, two p a r a l l e l vortex tubes may be

installed.
3.22.3 N u m e r i c a l Example

Design a v o r t e x tube f o r an unlined canal with the following data:

Offtake canal

1
f o r rect'angular section, velocity = = 0.56 m / s
3.0 . 0.6

Solution

Length of tube, L(tube) = 3 . G = 4.2411-1

% 20, and 0. 3 . 2 B(tube) > 0.15; adopt B(tube) = 0.25 m

B(tube)

L(tube) =
= 16.96 say 17
B(tube) 0. 25

O 6 B(tube) L(tube)
A r e a of tube A(tube) =
a-

Depth in the tube = -32 .

0.25 = 0.17 m

.The s i d e s of the tube t o be rounded t o i n c r e a s e the a r e a to 0 . 0 4 5 m 2 a s the

rectangular a r e a = 0 . 2 5 . 0.17 = 0 . 0 4 2 5 m2.

Length of platform = 2.5 .3 = 7.5 m

F o r broad c r e s t e d weir Q = 1.7 B

(crt)
 C r e s t will be 0 . 6 0 - 0.337 = 0.263 m above the bed

v - 0.989
F r o u d e .Number = = 0.544.
J( 9 . 8 1 . 0.337

The value of F r o u d e Number i s l e s s than 0.8.

Adopt H(crt) = 0. 26

v - 1. 28
F r o u d e Number = = 0.80
J g ~(crt) J 9.81 . 0.26

T h i s value i s s a t i s f a c t o r y .

The c r e s t will be 0 . 6 - 0 . 2 6 = 0 . 3 4 m above the bed of the canal. The

u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m a p p r o a c h e s will be rounded a s shown i n F i g u r e
3-47.

3.23 SLOPING-SILL SAND SCREEN

3. 23. 1 General F e a t u r e s

The sloping- s i l l sand s c r e e n was evolved in Egypt by engineer Abdel

Azim I s m a i l who o b s e r v e d the l o c a l a s y m m e t r y i n the flow p a t t e r n a t the
intake of d i s t r i b u t a r y c a n a l s . The device c o m p r i s e s a curved wall placed i n
the p a r e n t canal opposite the intake of a n offtake canal. The s c r e e n s l o p e s u p
f r o m the u p s t r e a m end t o the downstream end.

The length of the s c r e e n i s determined on the b a s i s that: (i) The

1 1
depth of w a t e r o v e r the s c r e e n s i l l will be - to - of the depth in the p a r e n t
3 4
canal; (ii) the velocity o v e r the s i l l will be about the s a m e a s in the offtake
canal. Once the length h a s been d e t e r m i n e d i t i s possible to a s c e r t a i n the
height.

The difference between the s i l l elevations (in m e t r e s ) a t e a c h end of the

s c r e e n i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m two f o r m u l a e , one of which i s t h e o r e t i c a l , and the
 o t h e r i s e m p i r i c a l ; t h e a v e r a g e of the two i s adopted f o r design.

The t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a i s a s follows :

2v 2
, = g
tan -
0<
2

w h e r e v i s the velocity in the offtake canal, a i s the angle of offtake m e a s u r e d

f r o m the c e n t r e l i n e of the p a r e n t canal and e x p r e s s e d in r a d i a n s .

The e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a t a k e s the following f o r m :

ac. '32
A$ = 35 fr
; where B 2 = bed width of the offtake

canal i n m e t r e s .

The sill i s m a d e of r e c t a n g u l a r section and i s 23 c m thick.

3 . 23. 2 N u m e r i c a l Example

-
Data
P a r e n t canal Offtake canal

Design
1 1
A s s u m e a depth between 3 and - of the p a r e n t canal over the sill, i. e .
4
between 0 . 5 and 0.375 m. Adopt 0 . 4 m .

Length of s c r e e n . depth o v e r screen . velocity = 1 or

length of s c r e e n . 0.4 . 0.5 = 1.
1
. . Length of s c r e e n -
0.2
= 5m

To find value of b /3
2 v2 a 2 0 5 2
F r o m theoretical formula,A2 = - tan - =
981
= 0.051 m
g 2
 Average value of A ' = 0.047 m = 4.7 cm, say 5 cm.

Average height of s c r e e n = 0.6 - 0.4 = 0.2 m = 20 c m .

The u p s t r e a m end will be 1 7 . 5 c m above the bottom of the offtake and

the downstream end will be 22. 5 c m above the bottom of the offtake. For
d e t a i l s s e e F i g u r e 3-48.
 4. FLOW DIVIDING STRUCTURES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Many s t r u c t u r e s f o r flow division have been developed t o suit a wide v a r i e t y

of conditions but all of them a r e u s e d i n i r r i g a t i o n networks to divide the flow of
a channel into two o r m o r e p a r t s . E a c h p a r t i s a defined proportion of the total
flow. Thus, flow dividing s t r u c t u r e s differ distinctly f r o m intakes and outlets in
that the l a t t e r a r e designed t o d r a w off a definite fraction of the flow in the p a r e n t
channel, but the exact proportion of t h i s fraction t o the total flow o r to the
r e m a i n d e r in the p a r e n t channel i s generally i m m a t e r i a l . A flow dividing
s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e s a control section in both the offtake channel and in the p a r e n t
channel. N e v e r t h e l e s s , not all flow dividing s t r u c t u r e s a r e built t o give exactly
proportional division. To distinguish t h e m f u r t h e r f r o m intake s t r u c t u r e s , a
s t r u c t u r e which d i v e r t s m o r e than 2570 of the flow of the p a r e n t channel through i t
i s a l s o r e g a r d e d a s a flow dividing s t r u c t u r e .

Another m a i n distinction can be m a d e between s t r u c t u r e s which a r e designed

to provide a permanently fixed proportional division of flow and those which a r e
equipped with a movable s p l i t t e r . The splitter allows the proportion of flow
between the resulting s t r e a m s t o be changed according to r e q u i r e m e n t s . Such
changes m a y be r e q u i r e d to m e e t seasonal o r t e m p o r a r y v a r i a t i o n s in demand in
the a r e a s supplied by the branch c a n a l s .

The s t r u c t u r e s which provide division of flow may be sub-divided i n t o :

t h o s e which a r e designed to give s t r i c t l y a c c u r a t e proportions, (using a control
section a c r o s s the supply channel - causing shooting flow o r f r e e fall); and those
which do not provide a s t r i c t l y proportional division, ( a t l e a s t not over the whole
r a n g e f r o m z e r o flow to full design d i s c h a r g e ) . A significant f e a t u r e of the
f o r m e r category i s that the flow i s divided by thin plated (splitting). walls. The

l a t t e r category includes mainly division o r diversion boxes which have the

additional function of alternating the flow between different offtake channels, using
slide g a t e s o r f l a s h b o a r d s .

It should be noted that m o s t flow dividing s t r u c t u r e s offer excellent con-

 ditions f o r adaptation t o w a t e r m e a s u r e m e n t because of t h e i r capacity to g e n e r a t e
shooting flow o r f r e e overfall.

Flow dividing s t r u c t u r e s can be t e s t e d f o r a c c u r a c y by m e a s u r i n g the flows

f r o m e a c h side. Such t e s t s should be m a d e frequently and o v e r a wide range of
conditions a s relationships frequently change with the amount of w a t e r being
diverted.

4.2 FIXED PROPORTIONAL DIVISORS

The m a i n f e a t u r e of fixed proportional d i v i s o r s i s that the permanent

splitting of the' flow into two o r m o r e p a r t s takes place in a control section where
a s t a t e of s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow, i . e . shooting flow, o r f r e e fall, i s generated. This
c a l l s f o r some head l o s s in the s t r u c t u r e by letting the flow p a s s a s i l l o r flumed
section o r by creating a drop, but i s not r e q u i r e d f o r the splitting of a flow into
two exactly equal proportions provided that: the dimensions a r e s y m m e t r i c a l ;
that the flow section in the s t r u c t u r e i s of uniform roughness; that t h e r e i s a
straight canal alignment of 5 to 10 m u p s t r e a m of the divisor; and, finally, that
no backwater effect i s c r e a t e d in either of the offtake channels. By installing a
subsequent 1 : 1 divisor, the flow will be split into the proportions of 2 : 1 : 1 o r ,
by rejoining two of the s t r e a m s , a proportion of 3 : 1 may be obtained.

FIGURE 4- 1. - Simple fixed proportional flow divisor on small

i r r i g a t i o n canal in Cyprus.
FIGURE 4- 2 . - Simple fixed proportional flow divisor
of low a c c u r a c y .

FIGURE 4-3. - F i x e d proportional divisor splitting a

given flow into four s t r e a m s of exact constant proportion. ( 2 7 )
r

Section A-A

F A O - ICID

Note: All dimensions given above ate D I M E N S l O N S O F FIXED DIVISOR

to be multiplied by Hc SPLITTING FLOW I N T O T W O
E Q U A L STREAMS k

Project, Region, Country

Morocco
Figure No. 4 - 4
 F i g u r e 4- 1 i l l u s t r a t e s a s m a l l fixed divisor c o r r e c t l y designed t o provide
proportional division, while F i g u r e 4- 2 i l l u s t r a t e s a solution of poor a c c u r a c y
because of insufficient velocity (no control section) and unsuitable splitting wall.
F i g u r e 41 3 shows a divisor of the f r e e fall type, dividing any given supply up to
m a x i m u m c a r r y i n g capacity into four s t r e a m s of exact constant proportion.

Divisor for Splitting Flow into Two Equal S t r e a m s

General f e a t u r e s

A fixed flow divisor, developed in F r a n c e and used in Morocco and

other countries in North A f r i c a , i s shown in F i g u r e 4-4. It i s eminently
suitable f o r dividing flow into two equal p a r t s a t the tail end of a distributing
canal.

This divisor c o n s i s t s of: an u p s t r e a m approach in an e a r t h e n channel

(to i n c r e a s e the width of the channel section gradually to the width of the control
section of the s t r u c t u r e ) ; u p s t r e a m head walls; side walls of the control section;
a r a i s e d sill; a thin s t e e l sheet to divide the flow; downstream side walls and
wing walls in the two channels; an u p s t r e a m and a downstream floor with a cut-
off a t both ends. The s t r u c t u r e may be built entirely in concrete o r in b r i c k
masonry.

This type of flow divisor h a s two useful f e a t u r e s . F i r s t l y , the

r a i s e d sill g e n e r a t e s a state of shooting flow on i t s downstream side, so that the
division of the water into two equal p a r t s i s quite independent of the l e v e l s in the
offtake channels, and thus the d i s c h a r g e passing into each of the offtakes i s not
affected by control operations in either of them. Secondly, the change back f r o m
shooting to tranquil flow in the offtake channels shows up a s a hydraulic jump,
thanks to which, p a r t of the kinetic energy of the water i s regained, and the head
l o s s e s a s s o c i a t e d with a flow divisor a r e t h e r e f o r e kept down to a minimum.

Thickness of walls and floor

The thickness of walls (i.e . the head walls, side walls, downstream
side walls and wing walls, except the dividing wall of the two offtakes) should be
a s given in Table 4- 1 .
 TABLE 4-1

Design of Fixed Flow Divisor - Thickness of Walls

Thickness in c m
Q in 11s
Concrete Masonry

10 t o 80 15 30

The minimum thickness of the dividing wall should be 10 c m for

c o n c r e t e and 20 c m f o r b r i c k m a s o n r y constructions. The steel plate should be
6 m m thick. The thickness of the floor should be a s given in Table 4-2.

TABLE 4-2

Design of Fixed Flow Divisor - Thickness of F l o o r

Thickness in c m
Q in l / s
Concrete Masonry

The depth of the cut-offs should be twice the thickness of f l o o r s for

the corresponding d i s c h a r g e s .

The relationship between d i s c h a r g e capacity and quantity of m a t e r i a l s

i s given in F i g u r e 4-5
 300

(D
\
200
0,
P
0
C
0
ul
a loo

0
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3
Volume of ordinary concrete or of masonry in ril

FIGURE 4-5. - Relationship between discharge capacity and

m a t e r i a l s requirement for fixed flow divisor.

Design

The formula generally used f o r calculating the discharge

where Q = discharge of the parent channel

C = coefficient
width of the controlling section ( a c r o s s axis of flow)
B(t) =
H(c,t) = head over the sill.

C v a r i e s f r o m 0. 38 to 0.41 (0.38 for a s h a r p upstream end of the sill

and 0.41 f o r a rounded u p s t r e a m end ( 5 to 10 cm radius).

The length of the sill, L(,,t), should be equal to 3 . 5 Hc.

B(t) should be taken a s equal to 10 Hc.
 F o r formation of hydraulic jump, the working head, h(wk), should
be 0 . 4 H(crt) or 0 . 6 Hc.

A working head equal to Hc i s advisable.

The dimensions of Hc, H(b-c), y2, y(b-bk) a r e given i n

Table 4-3.

TABLE 4-3

Discharge H H
C (b- c) Y1 qb-bk)
in l / s .............................. cm ...........................

F i g u r e 4-4 shows dimensions f o r the v a r i o u s p a r t s which should b e

multiplied by Hc a t t h e maximum discharge.

4.2.1.3 N u m e r i c a l example

Design a fixed flow divisor 1: 1 i n a c c o r d a n c e with the following

data :

d i s c h a r g e of supply channel, Q = 333 11s

depth of water i n supply channel, y = 0.49 m

F r o m Table 4-3, Hc for Q = 333 11s i s 0 . 1 6 m. Then,

H = 0.25m
(b-c)
 The thickness of the right and left walls = 25 c m for concrete o r
30 cm for m a s o n r y construction.

The thickness of the floor o r apron should be 15 cm for concrete and

20 cm for masonry construction.

The depth of the cut-offs should be 30 c m for concrete and 40 c m for

m a s o n r y construction.

Other dimensions should be a s given in F i g u r e 4-4 but multiplied

4.2.2 Divisor for Splittin? Flow into Two Unequal S t r e a m s

General f e a t u r e s

With a broad rectangular sill, a s in the s t r u c t u r e previously

described, the position of the control s e c t i 0 n . i ~not defined with the precision
required for the division of flow into unequal s t r e a m s of given proportions. In
this section a s t r u c t u r e i s described wherein the sill i s triangular, with gentle
slopes u p s t r e a m and downstream. In this divisor, the depth in the control
section i s just equal to the c r i t i c a l depth, i r r e s p e c t i v e of the discharge, and i s
m e a s u r e d exactly f r o m the top of the triangle. The absolute minimum value of
the apex of the c r e s t above the bed level of the offtake i s equal to that of the
hydraulic jump when i t f o r m s a t a distance of 2 Hc f r o m the apex of the c r e s t
or sill.

The m a s o n r y floor approach -up to the beginning of the 'upstream

glacis i s equal to 2 . 5 y l where y l i s the water depth in the parent channel.

The length of the u p s t r e a m wing walls

- Yl + { YI + (FBI) (ss)

where y = depth of water u p s t r e a m of the s t r u c t u r e ,

(FB) = f r e e board,
 (ss) = side slope of the canal section.

The depth of the u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m cut-off s i s equal to twi,ce

the t h i c k n e s s of the floor.

The u p s t r e a m g l a c i s h a s a slope of 1 : 4 to 1 : 5.

The top of the t r i a n g u l a r s i l l i s slightly c u r v e d i n o r d e r t o avoid con-

t r a c t i o n of flow. The r a d i u s of the c u r v e i s equal t o 3 H c (Hc i s the c r i t i c a l depth).

The length of t h e rounded c r e s t of the s i l l i s equal t o 1.176 Hc. The

length of the downstream g l a c i s (slope 1 : 5) from t h e centre of t h e t r i a n g u l a r
ort ti on of the s i l l i s equal t o 5 HcCmb)+ 0.59 Hc (where H(,-b) i s the height of
t h e centre of t h e t r i a n g u l a r portion of t h e s i l l above t h e downstream bed level of
t h e offtaking channel). The beds of t h e parent channels and offtake channels a r e a t
t h e same l e v e l s , and t h e water depth i n t h e parent channel may d i f f e r somewhat from
t h e designed depth, but t h i s may be gradually compensated f o r i n t h e reach immediately
above the s t r u c t u r e . Similarly, t h e bed level of the other offtake immediately below
t h e s t r u c t u r e i s t h e same a s t h e parent channel and any modification i n water l e v e l , i f
needed, may be effected lower down.
The f o r m and shape of the s t r u c t u r e below the downstream g l a c i s i s a s
shown in F i g u r e 4- 6.

The thickness of w a l i s ( u p s t r e a m wing walls, side walls of the control

section, d o w n s t r e a m side walls, wing walls and dividing wall), and the f l o o r ,
depends on the type of soil a t the s i t e and the depth a t which the floor i s situated.
A s a rough guide, the t h i c k n e s s e s of t h e s e p a r t s for different d i s c h a r g e s in the
p a r e n t channel m a y b e derived f r o m Table 4-4.

TABLE 4-4
Divisor with a T r i a n g u l a r Sill - Thickness of Walls

Thickness
Concrete Masonry

10
29
59
103
162
239
283
333 and above up to 1,000
-

Plan

Section A-A

FA0 - ICID

UNFLUMED DIVISOR WITH 'A

Note: All dimensions ore in metres TRIANGULAR SILL
unless otherwise specified.
Project, Region , Country
Fr once
Figure No. 4 6-
I '
 The t h i c k n e s s of the dividing wall i s 10 c m f o r c o n c r e t e and 20 c m f o r
b r i c k m a s o n r y construction.

The t h i c k n e s s of the floor should be a s given i n Table 4-5.

TABLE 4-5

D i v i s o r with a T r i a n g u l a r Sill - Thickness of F l o o r

Thickness
Concrete Masonry
cm cm

10
29
59
103
162
239
283
333 and above u p t o 1 , 0 0 0

The depth of the downstream cut-offs should be twice the t h i c k n e s s of

the floor f o r the corresponding d i s c h a r g e .

The t h i c k n e s s of the s t e e l plate dividing the flow i s 6 m m and i t extends

u p to a distance equal to 2 Hc d o w n s t r e a m of the apex of the t r i a n g u l a r s i l l .

4.2.2.2 Desi~n

Calculate q ( d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width of the control section) which i s

equal t o - whereQisthedis~hargeinm~/softheparentchannelandB(~)
B(t)
i s the width of the control section i n m e t r e s .

Calculate Hc f o r q

H m a y be calculated a s follows:
(c-b)

The value of m a y be r e a d f r o m F i g u r e 4 - 7 f o r a known value

Hc
 Hc being known, H(c-b) can then be calculated.

w h e r e ,H o v e r the c r e s t and C i s a coefficient d e t e r m i n e d f r o m :

(4i s height

and w h e r e H(c-b) i s t h e height of the c r e s t above the d o w n s t r e a m bed.

Water depth on the u p s t r e a m side will then be:

Head l o s s through the s t r u c t u r e = Y1 - Y2

4.2.2.3 N u m e r i c a l example

Design a divisor with a t r i a n g u l a r s i l l i n a c c o r d a n c e with t h e

following data:

D i s c h a r g e of the p a r e n t channel, Q1 = 600 11s = 0. 60 m 3 / s

D i s c h a r g e of offtake A, Q2 = 400 11s = 0 . 4 0 m 3 / s
D i s c h a r g e of offtake B, Q3 = 200 11s = 0 . 2 0 m 3 / s

B1 = 2.5 m

B2 = 1.85m
 If the discharge of the parent channel = 0.60 m 3 / s

1
0.24 . 0.24 -
then Hc (corresponding to q = 0 . 2 4 m 3 1 s ) = ( 9.8 1

.
FIGURE 4-7 - Divisor with triangular s i l l .
Relationship between Y2 a n d H ( ~ - ~ )
- .
From Figure 4-7, y2 =
for - 2 . 2 2 and X j = 2Hc
Hc
 W a t e r depth u p s t r e a m , Y1 = H t H
(c-b) ( cr t )

= 0.61t0.27 = 0.88m

Head l o s s = = 0.88 - 0.40 = 0.48

Y 1 - Y2

The design and o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s of the s t r u c t u r e a r e shown i n

F i g u r e 4-6.

4.3 STRUCTURES WITH ADJUSTABLE S P L I T T E R

4.3.1 General

S t r u c t u r e s with an a d j u s t a b l e s p l i t t e r usually c o n s i s t of a hinged g a t e m a d e

of s h e e t m e t a l which can be moved a c r o s s the flow section of the p a r e n t channel
and fixed i n any d e s i r e d position with the h e l p of an a r c h b a r o r s c r e w b a r . The
flow h a s t o be m a d e s u p e r c r i t i c a l f o r a c c u r a t e proportioning by the introduction of
a c o n t r o l c r e s t o r fall i n bed l e v e l , a s a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d i n section 4. 2. Figures
4- 8 , 4- 9 and 4- 10 show e x a m p l e s of d e s i g n s f r o m A r g e n t i n a , Spain and the
U . S. A.
FIGURE 4 - 8 . - Flow divisor with adjustable s p l i t t e r ,
Argentina.
FIGURE 4-9. - Flow divisor with adjustable splitter,
hksn'egros Canal, Spain (72).
 FIGURE. 4- 10. - Flow divisor with adjustable splitter (u. S. A. )

4.3.2 F r e n c h Divisor

The F r e n c h divisor shown in F i g u r e s 4- 11, 4- 12 and 4- 13 was developed by

the Neyrpic Laboratories, Grenoble, and i s used in Southern Europe and North
Africa. It i s suitable for canals with gentle slopes.

The structure consists of a concrete approach equal to the width of the

parent channel, a flumed section with upstream splayed wall, the c r e s t , the down-
s t r e a m sloping glacis, divide wall, channel sections of offtake channels in
concrete with concrete floor and a dividing blade o r gate. The steel dividing
blade i s adjustable and calibrations have been made so that the flow may be
varied proportionally between the two channels. The whole structure i s made of
prefabricated p a r t s .

The structure e n s u r e s a hypercritical regime and the formation of a

hydraulic jump immediately downstream of the c r e s t . TheMivision of flow i s
therefore independent of the water levels in the offtake channels and any control
operations in them. Minimum working heads a r e given in Table 4- 6.
 Water surface level in
off take channel

Section

P Ion

Adjustable blade

FA 0 - ICID

FLOW DIVISOR WITH ADJUSTABLE

SPLITTER - FRENCH TYPE

Project, Region , Country

Southern Europe ond North Africa
Perspective view
Figure No. 4 - ll
FIGURE 4- 12. - F l o w d i v i s o r ( N e y r p i c ) , Oned F o d d a n e t w o r k , A l g e r i a .
1 . F l a p hinge. 2. C o n t r o l g e a r . 3 . F l a p positioning. 4. Movable flap.
5. H y d r a u l i c jump. ( 6 9 )

FIGURE 4-13. - T h r e e - w a y distribution by m e a n s of two consecutive

flow d i v i s o r s . (69)
 The design f o r m u l a u s e d f o r the s t r u c t u r e i s a s follows:

where:

Q = d i s c h a r g e of the p a r e n t channel in m 3 / s

RGA = radiusofthebladeinmetres (seeFigure4-11)

= height of u p s t r e a m w a t e r l e v e l o v e r c r e s t in m
H(crt)

Minimum l o s s of head = 0 . 4 H(crt).

Table 4 - 6 gives d a t a f o r s i x different types of s t r u c t u r e .

. TABLE 4-6

Design of S t r u c t u r e s with Adjustable Splitter - Minimum Working Heads

- -

Adjustable Blade
Type Number Maximum Maximum Head L o s s f o r
Radius Height Discharge Head Maximum Q
of S t r u c t u r e
in c m in c m C r eOver
st
Q in l / s h(wk) in c m
Hicrt)
In cm

6 60 35 54 17.5 7.0
8 80 45 110 23.0 9.0
10 100 54 193 29.0 11.5
12 120 65 305 35.0 13.5
16 160 84 625 46.5 18. 0
20 200 104 1,093 58.0 23. 0

4.4 PROPORTIONAL DISTRIBUTORS

Under t h i s heading s t r u c t u r e s a r e d e s c r i b e d which can be c o n s i d e r e d a c r o s s

between flow d i v i s o r s , i n t a k e s and outlets. A typical f e a t u r e of proportional
d i s t r i b u t o r s i s that the flow i s not divided into f r a c t i o n s by thin plated d i v i s o r s
but i s diverted f r o m the p a r e n t channel into the offtakes by m e a n s of individual
r
V)
4 5
0 I-
3 *
L
C

*
-
03
*0 .Y2 *
v, C I
W E
3 c
"I-
o a 2 .
.:-
a0
=
0
2
0 =Fpo 0
3
a
0
-. 0
ii
LL C
U
z
"
.%
e-
a
a
/'\
/ /
 openings, which, however, a r e grouped to f o r m a single s t r u c t u r e . Each
opening o r offtake i s constructed a s a flume o r f r e e overfall weir and i s
dimensioned so a s to p a s s a given fraction of the total flow. In o t h e r words, the
controlling section (flume section, elevated floor, o r weir c r e s t ) i s not in the
supply channel, a s in the d i v i s o r s d i s c u s s e d in section 4. 2, but i s in the
individual offtakes. This a r r a n g e m e n t r e q u i r e s a c c u r a t e calibration by model
t e s t s o r field rating and g r e a t a c c u r a c y in construction.

Representative of t h i s category i s the proportional d i s t r i b u t o r developed in

the Punjab and Haryana (India) and d e s c r i b e d in 4.4.1 below. A s t r u c t u r e of
s i m i l a r type and function i s the "Nasba-Weir" which i s in u s e in Egypt. The
l a t t e r i s d e s c r i b e d in Chapter 5 a s i t i s considered basically an outlet s t r u c t u r e .

A s can be seen f r o m the d e s c r i p t i o n s , t h e s e types of s t r u c t u r e s have com-

paratively high m a t e r i a l and labour r e q u i r e m e n t s , which m a k e
them
uncompetitive with flow d i v i s o r s especially f o r capacities below 1 m 3 / s . It
should be noted f u r t h e r that they a r e a l s o l e s s efficient in drawing proportional
s i l t load than flow d i v i s o r s . Their distinct advantage i s g r e a t r o b u s t n e s s , which
m a k e s t h e m suitable f a r a r e a s where tampering i s a problem.

Punjab- Type P r o p o r t i o n a l Distributor

T h r e e examples of Punjab-Type proportional d i s t r i b u t o r s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d in

F i g u r e 4- 14. These s t r u c t u r e s can distribute water supplies proportionally
without regulation, including to a l a r g e extent sediment in the w a t e r . Example
( a ) ( F i g u r e 4-14) c o n s i s t s of a flume in the p a r e n t channel and a left-hand off-
take s e t a t 60'; example (b) h a s a flume in the p a r e n t channel and a right-hand
offtake s e t a t 45O; the t h i r d example ( c ) h a s a flume in the p a r e n t channel and
two offtakes, one on the right s e t a t 45O and the other on the left s e t a t 60.

F u l l details of construction, based on example ( c ) , a r e given in

F i g u r e 4- 15.

4.4.1.1 P a r e n t channel flume

A point to note regarding the p a r e n t channel flume i s that a single s e t

of stop-log grooves should be provided on the u p s t r e a m side for emergency
 closures. These grooves should have a c l e a r a n c e of 0 . 1 5 m f r o m the face of the
u p s t r e a m parapet of the bridge. Another point i s that the segment of the a r c
forming the v e r t i c a l walls in the included angles should be of radii varying f r o m :

where H ( c r t ) i s the head over the c r e s t , (and this will depend on the throat
widths).

When the fall in the supply channel i s combined with a bridge, the
minimum r a d i i should be 2.55 m and 2.1 m for 60 and 45O offtakes respectively.
This will e n s u r e a 6 m r a d i u s for the centreline of the r o a d leading f r o m bridge
to bridge. Both ends of the a r c s of the walls m u s t be tangential to the side walls
of both the p a r e n t channel and flume and the offtakes.

The length of the approach m u s t correspond to 3.15 H and the

(crt)'
t h r o a t should s t a r t f r o m the end of the c i r c u l a r walls.

4.4.1.2 Offtake flumes

0 0
All offtakes should be designed to take off a t 60 o r 45 .

The c r e s t of a l l the offtakes and the flume in the parent channel

should be a t the s a m e level, and a t l e a s t 0. 15 m above the downstream bed level
of the highest channel, This m e a n s the fluming of the p a r e n t channel may have
to v a r y f r o m 60% to 757'0; but such variations should not be m a d e if they can be
avoided. To e n s u r e modularity, the submergence ratio should not be g r e a t e r
than 0.8.

The length of throat (L( ) will be 2 H(crt).

t)

The u p s t r e a m side approach should be joined with the bed in a curve

and f l a r e d out to m e e t the side slopes a t 1 : 1 o r 0.5 : 1. The r a d i i of these
c u r v e s will depend on the angle of the offtake and the distance of the throat f r o m
the toe of the side slopes in the bed.

The depth of the c i s t e r n should be calculated f r o m :

where q(t) = d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e of t h r o a t width,

Q = total d i s c h a r g e ,

B(t) = width of throat.

The value of Hc i s given by the f o r m u l a

F o r a given working head, (difference between the full supply

h(,k)
l e v e l i n the p a r e n t channel and the offtaking channel) calculate the value

%&) .
Hc
E2
F r o m Table 3-1 i n Chapter 3, find out the value of - f o r the
Hc
calculated value of (wk) . Then E 2 can be worked out.
Hc

The depth of the c i s t e r n below the bed level of the offtake channel,
HSB , will be E2 - y 2 , and in no c a s e should be l e s s than 7 . 5 c m .

The length of the c i s t e r n should be y2 + h

(wk)'

y1
The depth of the c u r t a i n walls should be equal to (-
3
+ 0. 3 ) m and
y2
( 3 + 0.3) m a t the u p s t r e a m and downstream ends of the m a s o n r y work

respectively. The depth of the downstream c u r t a i n wall should be t e s t e d for

m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e safe value of the exit gradient a s given below :-,

Type of m a t e r i a l Safe value of exit gradient

Shingle
C o a r s e sand
F i n e sand 0. 17 to 0.14

F o r Punjab s o i l s the safe value of the exit gradient i s taken a s 0.30.

 To calculate the value of -
L* ,
where L* i s the length from
2
curtain wall to curtain wall and dwc2 i s the depth of the downstream curtain
wall, see diagram of Khoslals safe exit gradient curve below.

FIGURE 4-16. - Khosla's safe &it gradient curve.

1
F o r the calculated value of . a, read the value of
~0-
Then, the exit gradient, s ( ~ -~ ~ ~ ) -
H* 1
dwc2 V K
 The m i n i m u m thickness of the f l o o r s should b e 0. 12 m in b r i c k
m a s o n r y and 0 . 1 5 m in c o n c r e t e .

T h e r e should be a single s e t of stop-log grooves on the u p s t r e a m

side.

A regulating b r i d g e should be provided only when the flume i s not

combined with a r o a d bridge and the t h r o a t width i s g r e a t e r than 0. 6 m .

A r a d i u s c u r v e of 0 . 6 m should join the c r e s t with the downstream

glacis. The g l a c i s should have a slope of 2 . 5 : 1.

The length of the downstream expansion, L will be equal

(exp)'
to:

o r the length f r o m the downstream edge of the c r e s t to the end of the c i s t e r n ,

whichever i s the g r e a t e r .

The r a d i u s of the expansion walls, R(exp), will be equal

to:

where B2 = bed width of the offtake channel,

qt) = width of throat.

T h e r e i s no bed protection in the p a r e n t channel other than a curtain

wall on which the u p s t r e a m curved g l a c i s r e s t s .

The side protection below the downstream expansion should be equal

to 3LSB (where LSB = the length of the stilling basin o r c i s t e r n ) and should

consist of d r y b r i c k pitching, 20 c m thick, supported on a toe wall of depth equal

 t o 0 . 5 y 2 ( y 2 = w a t e r depth in the offtake channel) subject to a minimum 27 c m
d e e p m a s o n r y wall o v e r 15 c m thick c o n c r e t e . It i s p r e f e r a b l e to l a y roughened
pitching. The bed protection should c o n s i s t of b r i c k - b a t s with thickness a s
follows :
3
u p to 0 . 7 m / S 15 c m
0.7 to 1 . 4 m 3 / s 23 c m

Thick b r i c k - b a t protection in the bed should extend up to a length

equal to y
2
+
H( d r ) beyond the downstream end of the side expansion and
should be hand-packed and not simply dumped.

Standard sections of wing walls and abutments should be a s given in

F i g u r e 3- 3 i n Chapter 3.

4.4.1.3 Desivn f o r m u l a

T h e design f o r m u l a u s e d i s :

The value of C should be a s follows:

Value of C
Q
Angle of Angle of
m3/ s
offtake 60 offtake 45O

F o r full d e t a i l s of the design s e e F i g u r e 4- 15.

4.4.2 USBR-Type P r o p o r t i o n a l Division S t r u c t u r e -1/

The s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n i s a l s o kn0.m a s a division box. It has

been standardized and i s commonly u s e d by the USBR for the division of flows of

-11 B a s e d on information f r o m the U. S. A. National ICID Committee and on the

USBR design manual.
 Extend cutoff ond winqwolls vertically ond hori-
zontolly with, unreinforced concrete os directed.

Concrete plonks

Detoil of connection to concrete lining

edoes af Typical directions

Reinf. not shown

S e c t i o n A-A

Design delivery W.S.

DIVISION BOXES
6 min. pool depth

Section B-B
 up to say 350 l / s into two o r t h r e e take-off s t r e a m s . Supply and/or take-off
channels may be open o r piped. A typical design for open channel flow i s shown
i n F i g u r e 4-17. Reference (107) provides standard designs for 9 other types of
division boxes, including piped and open channels . The proportional division of
a given flow i s accomplished by weir s t r u c t u r e s a t each offtake. The w e i r s may
be of the fixed c r e s t type to ensure a permanent proportion between the outlets o r
they may be fitted with slide gates o r stop-logs for variation of flow proportions.
It i s often desirable to use the weir for water measurement, in which c a s e i t s
design m u s t follow the standard weir conditions described in the USBR Water
Measurement Manual, r e f e r e n c e (81). In any case, i t i s recommended that a
staff gauge be provided on the wall of the structure to m e a s u r e the head on the
weirs.

The water m u s t be delivered to the structure a t an elevation which will

provide enough head for the w e i r s to furnish the required flow at the design
delivery water surface. When the water i s delivered through a pipe, the
velocity in the pipe should not exceed 0 . 5 m / s to avoid excessive turbulence
ahead of the weirs. This division s t r u c t u r e i s not recommended for systems
with heavy silt loads.

4.5 DIVISION OR DIVERSION BOXES

Division s t r u c t u r e s o r boxes regulate the flow f r o m one canal to another,

o r to s e v e r a l others. They usually consist of a box with vertical walls in which
controllable openings a r e provided. Metal o r wooden slide gates o r stop-logs
a r e usually installed to regulate the division of flow a t all t i m e s and to shut off
flow in any branch when desired. The walls can be either of concrete ( p r e - c a s t
o r in situ), o r of masonry o r wood.

The width of each outlet i s generally proportional to the division of water to

be made. In lined canals, a full gate opening a t the intake to the box i s made
covering approximately the same a r e a a s the canal flow section since the canal
i s designed to c a r r y water a t relatively high velocities. In e a r t h canals, gate
openings can be dimensioned by assuming a velocity of about 1 . 5 m / s in the
opening section. Reinforced concrete transitions a r e provided below the gates
 0 I 2 3 metres
Scole I I I I

FA0 - ICID

I FOR E A R T H C A N A L S

Project, Region, Country

I I I I I t oly
Section A-B
 Isometric view

621k4P

Sectional elevation A-A

Sectional elevation C-C

Sectional elevation B-B

Flow_ A = Height of side wolls
Sheet rnetol
recpmmended
-
B =Width of flow pottern
C Depth of wall below slob
D = Depth of woll including slob
Note: Reinforcement to be $dio. reinforcinp
Detail of gate slot bors on 12"cc loced ~n centre of conc-
rete slob 6*1t?No.!O wire mesh rnoy be
used in ploce of dio. reinforcinp bors

FIGURE 4-19. - P l a n f o r a c o n c r e t e r e c t a n g u l a r division

box - U.S.A.
 on l a r g e r s t r u c t u r e s . Hydraulic l o s s e s through gate openings a r e seldom con-
trolling f a c t o r s in designing division boxes. When the gates a r e operated at full
openings, entrance l o s s e s a r e simply transition l o s s e s . When operated a t
partial openings, available heads a r e not fully utilized so that i n c r e a s e d l o s s e s
due to gate contractions a r e not important.
*

4.5.1 In Situ Concrete Division Boxes

In situ concrete i s the m o s t commonly used m a t e r i a l for permanent division

boxes for any capacity f r o m 10 11s upwards. A standard type of concrete
s t r u c t u r e used in Italy since 1970 i s shown in Figure 4- 18. The canals have a
capacity of 150 11s each and a r e unlined. The structure i s c a s t in place using
concrete with 200 kg of cement per m 3 of aggregate. The surfaces a r e finished
with cement p l a s t e r . The walls have a thickness of 25 c m while the bottom
plate i s 10 cm.

An example of another design, developed by the US Soil Conservation

Service, i s shown in Figure 4-19.

4.5.2 Prefabricated Concrete Division Boxes

The l a r g e number of division boxes of identical size required in medium-to-

l a r g e projects m a k e s t h e m suitable for prefabrication.

F i g u r e 4-20 (a) and (b) shows a standard division box constructed with p r e -
fabricated p a r t s . This type i s exclusively used in the E a s t Ghor Extension
P r o j e c t in Jordan, where a total of some 225 s t r u c t u r e s have been installed.

Outlet openings a r e standardized to a full capacity of 30 11s each, serving

an i r r i g a t e d a r e a of 30 donurns ( 3 ha). The structure p e r m i t s quite flexible
operation and safety against tampering.

Figure 4-21 shows a standard design adopted for a project in the San
F r a n c i s c o Valley ( ~ r a z i l ) . The s t r u c t u r e i s composed of t h r e e types of p r e -
fabricated p a r t s . These together with a variable gate opening can be used for
a wide range of design flows. The p a r t s a r e placed in an in situ concrete bed
and t h e i r vertical sides a r e held together by steel clamps. The joints can be
left unsealed if the backfill i s impermeable m a t e r i a l o r can be sealed by plastic
FIGURE 4 - 2 0 ( a ) and (b). - Distribution structure with proportional
weirs constructed f r o m prefabricated p a r t s - E a s t Ghor Extension
P r o j e c t , Jordan.
o r rubber s t r i p s . F o r a c c e s s to the gates, wooden planks a r e placed over the
structure. (The fixing of the gate will be de'scribed in Volume 111. )

The division box shown in F i g u r e s 4 - 2 2 and 4 - 2 3 s e r v e s to rotate the

irrigation flow between f a r m ditches in a rotational irrigation system for paddy
r i c e a s practised in Taiwan. A f a r m ditch usually i r r i g a t e s some 50 ha of paddy
land.

The division box i s constructed a t the junction point where an irrigation

sub-lateral branches into two o r t h r e e f a r m ditches. The division box i s not
used to divide water c a r r i e d in by the sub-lateral between f a r m ditches. It i s
used to turn the whole flow of water alternatively into one of the ditches according
to a p r e s e t irrigation schedule.

There a r e t h r e e types of design in use. The f i r s t i s a rigid concrete box;

the second i s a brick laid box; the third i s the design shown, a box made of p r e -
fabricated concrete p a r t s . In fact, the f i r s t type i s m o r e extensively used in
Taiwan. However, the third type i s m o r e economical, i s easy to construct and
i s durable. It i s therefore recommended for wider application.

Viewed on the plan, the division box i s a rectangle with four sides open for
inserting flashboards ( s e e Figure 4-23). In the two diagonal directions of the
rectangle, four baffle walls made of prefabricated concrete a r e placed with the
head enlarged to accommodate flashboard grooves and with the tail portion
projected into e a r t h ditch banks for stabilization. The lower portion of the walls,
fastened together by connecting plates, i s buried underneath the bottom of the
ditches a s cut-offs.

The e a r t h ditch banks into which the baffle walls of this structure a r e
projected for stabilization may deteriorate after some time. This will endanger
the stability of the s t r u c t u r e so the earthen banks should be examined f r o m time
to time and be repaired i f n e c e s s a r y .

Hydraulically, this division box i s a very simple structure, since t h e r e i s

no actual division of irrigation flow involved. The whole flow coming into the
box goes out of one of the openings into the f a r m ditch required during
rotational irrigation. The head l o s s for a flow through the box i s usually no
 m o r e than 3 cm. It i s not recommended that this type of division box be used i f
t h e r e i s a heavy silt load in the irrigation water.

4.5.3 Masonry Division Boxes

An example of a design of division box made of concrete blocks i s shown in

F i g u r e 4- 24.

The structure should be placed a t l e a s t 30 cm below the surface of the

ground on a 10 to 15 cm concrete foundation - the floor of the s t r u c t u r e . The
f i r s t course of 20 cm x 20 cm x 40 c m block can be laid in a bed of m o r t a r on top
of the foundation o r be placed in the f r e s h concrete of the foundation. In either
case, c a r e should be taken to level the blocks.
Partition woll

Plon of portition woll

Plon - section o f
cutoff plote

Perspective drawing of precost division box

Vertical section of Verticol section of

The thickness of wosher is
3mm ond the outside dio-
meter is 3 centirnetres
Set-in screw

retaining plote is determined by designer occording to the hydrou-

Every port con be costed In Iron model with re~nforced concrete ond then

F~xedby 1 3mm screw

15 9 mm screw hole

Quontities required for each cutoff wall

PREFABRICATED DIVISION B O X E S
Construction o f precast division box Lenplhlrn) 0.56 0.31 O.M 0.56 DIMENSIONS
A -A 0.40 0.013 0.3IePumliIii 2 I 2 I 0.715
Weight(*) 0.249 0004 0.258 0.124
Detoils of
groove connection
All dimensionr o n in mrtrrr

FIGURE 4-24. - Concrete block division box,

 The s i z e s of the openings gauge the amount o f , w a t e r flowing through the
structure. Although dimensions of the openings a r e sho-wn irl the drawings,
adjustments may be n e c e s s a r y , depending on the g r a d e of the canal o r ditch and
the amount of water to be handled. The water flow i s controlled by removable
gates m a d e of 2-inch thick t i m b e r .

When the blocks have been laid, a coping should be placed on the top c o u r s e
and on the c r e s t of the openings. This can be done with a coping block o r the
c o r e s of the block can be filled with concrete.

The ditch i n v e r t downstream of the box openings should be protected by

rubble o r concrete lining f o r a length of a t l e a s t 80 cm.

F i g u r e 4-25 shows another example of a design using concrete blocks and

wooden gates.

FIGURE 4-25. - Concrete block division box - People's

Democratic Republic of Yemen.

Timber Division Boxes

Wooden division boxes a r e used in f a r m ditch s y s t e m s in a r e a s where the

construction m a t e r i a l , which can be s c r a p timber, i s cheap. E a s y and cheap
construction and t r a n s p o r t h a s to be weighed against the s h o r t life expectancy of
the s t r u c t u r e . The maximum discharge for wooden s t r u c t u r e s does n o r m a l l y not
exceed 200 11s. F i g u r e s 4-26 to 4-28 show t h r e e examples of suitable designs
f o r t h e s e t i m b e r division boxes.
 FIGURE 4 - 2 6 . - Typical timber division box (13)

BILL OF MATERIAL
SIZE L-F 0-F -
l x4 15'-4" 5.0
1" x 4" 39'-4" 26.2
2"x 6" 34'-0" 34.0 .
2"xl2" 70'- 0" 140.0
Total 205 2
Nails 16-d 3.5 Ibs

FIGURE 4 - 2 7 . - Three way timber division box - standard design USDA

Soil Conservation S e r v i c e . (Note: 1 ' = 30.5 c m ; 1" = 2.5 c m )
 i x 4"
stop

FIGURE 4- 28. - Standard t i m b e r division box -

Alberta Department of Agriculture, Canada.

4.5.5 Irrigation D i v e r t e r

The i r r i g a t i o n d i v e r t e r i s an automatic hydraulic device developed by

F r e e m a n ( 3 7 ) to divert flows f r o m an i r r i g a t i o n canal to a branch canal o r field
( s e e F i g u r e 4-29).

FIGURE 4-29. - Layout of furrow i r r i g a t i o n using an

automatic i r r i g a t i o n d i v e r t e r .
 FIGURE 4- 30 ( a ) and f b ) . - General views of i r r i g a t i o n
diverters (37)

General views of d i v e r t e r s a r e shown in F i g u r e 4-30 ( a ) and (b). The unit

r e s e m b l e s a hollow "Y", with w a t e r entering into the s t e m of the Y and d i s c h a r g -
ing f r o m both of the two branches. One branch supplies the field to be i r r i g a t e d
o r field ditch and the other the downslope supply ditch to the next d i v e r t e r . The
floor of the device i s inclined upwards towards the downstream end. This h a s
been found n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r t o d i v e r t flow into one outlet without leakage into
the other outlet. Two control vents a r e located on top of the device. In
operation one vent i s open and the other i s closed. If the right vent i s open, the
water flows to the left branch and vice v e r s a .

The functioning of the vents depends on the suction of the s t r e a m in the

venturi-type inlet. The device can be manually-operated by plugging one vent a t
a t i m e with a simple rubber o r plastic plug. The device can a l s o be automated
a t v e r y little e x t r a cost. A "dip tube" level s e n s o r i s s e t into the distribution
canal so that the bottom of the sensor i s a t the d e s i r e d water level in the canal.
(See F i g u r e s 4 - 2 9 and 4-30. )

The dip tube c o n s i s t s of a v e r t i c a l length of light pipe connected by a light

hose to the supply canal control vent. The vent on the turnout side i s r e s t r i c t e d
by a s m a l l orifice. When the d i v e r t e r s t a r t s flowing much m o r e a i r e n t e r s
through the dip tube s e n s o r hose and into the control vent on the supply canal side
than through the s m a l l orifice. The water flow i s thus d i r e c t e d into the
distribution canal until the end of the dip tube sensor i s submerged. This stops
the a i r flow into the supply side control vent, and the a i r flow through the orifice
then switches the d i s c h a r g e into the downstream supply canal to the next d i v e r t e r
in the line, where the sequence i s repeated. In many applications i t may be
n e c e s s a r y to add a bowl under the dip tube s e n s o r (Figu;e 4-28 ( a ) ) in o r d e r to
prevent r e t r i g g e r i n g of flow into the s a m e turnout before all other turnouts have
been serviced.

The device i s still in an experimental stage. F i e l d t e s t s c a r r i e d out on

sugar cane plantations in Hawaii indicate that i t provides improvements over the
traditional methods of surface i r r i g a t i o n on sloping lands.
 5. OUTLETS OR FARM TURNOUTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

An outlet o r a f a r m turnout i s a structure at the head of a watercourse,

a f a r m irrigation canal, o r a f a r m o r field l a t e r a l , which connects i t with a supply
canal. The supply (or distribution) canal i s usually under the control of an
irrigation authority. The authority may be a Government department, a public,
o r semi-public organization such a s a d i s t r i c t o r an irrigation association. Thus
the f a r m outlet i s the connecting link between the canal operator representing the
authority and the f a r m e r o r u s e r . It follows that the design and operation of the
outlet m u s t satisfy the needs of both p a r t i e s a s f a r a s possible. F o r example, the
f a r m e r will want to be satisfied that he receives h i s due s h a r e o f t h e water a t the
right time and the operator will want to be satisfied that the outlet s t r u c t u r e s
e x e r c i s e effective control over the distribution of the supplies.

There a r e m o r e f a r m outlets than other s t r u c t u r e s in an irrigation system

and therefore they have a decisive influence on the functioning of a system. (In
the U. S.A. in 1960 t h e r e were some 160,000 f a r m outlets on irrigation systems.
The number of outlets on irrigation systems in a single Province in India (the
punjab) in 1947 was over 41,000. In the U . S. S. R. a t present m o r e than half of
the total number of s t r u c t u r e s on irrigation s y s t e m s a r e outlets. )

F a c t o r s Influencing the Design of F a r m Outlets

5.1.1.1 Quantity of water to be delivered

In the design of irrigation distribution systems, the basic factor to b e

considered i s the quantity of water to be delivered a t the f a r m outlet. (This
quantity i s based on the a r e a of land to be i r r i g a t e d and a number of other factors,
i n t e r alia, the type of soil, water requirements of the crops, effective rainfall,
depth to the water table, et c e t e r a . ) The design of the outlets will also depend on
the method of water delivery adopted ( s e e 5.1 .l. 3).
 Sources and nature of water

The main s o u r c e s of water for irrigation a r e : r i v e r s , dams, wells,

and natural springs. Water f r o m the t h r e e l a t t e r sources i s generally f r e e of
silt and in these c a s e s the f a r m outlets can be designed for proportional d i s t r i -
bution i f required ( e . g. when the supply in the distributing canal fluctuates).
Water f r o m r i v e r s i s usually charged with sediment, and this h a s to be taken into
account in the design of the outlets so that the passage of silt i s r e s t r i c t e d , but a t
the s a m e time silting up of the downstream r e a c h of the r i v e r i s avoided.

5. 1.1. 3 Methods of water delivery

There a r e t h r e e methods for delivering water to f a r m s , known a s

continuous, rotational and demand respectively.

In the continuous method each f a r m receives i t s rightful1 s h a r e of the

supply in relation to the a r e a of each holding in an uninterrupted flow. That i s ,
water i s always available, although i t may not always be n e c e s s a r y to use i t ; and
so i t s actual u s e may be, and often i s , intermittent. The method and canal
. system i s easy to operate but disadvantages a r e the tendency to waste time and
water, particularly in sandy soils due to percolation, and the possibility of
waterlogging. Where f a r m s o r f a r m units vary greatly in size, the size of the
outlets may have to vary f r o m very small to very l a r g e s t r u c t u r e s , thus making
i t difficult i f not impossible to standardize them.

With the rotational method water i s in effect moved f r o m one a r e a to

another en bloc, and each u s e r receives a fixed amount of water a t defined
intervals of time. This kind of rotation can be applied between just two o r m o r e
f a r m e r s , between two o r m o r e groups of f a r m e r s , o r between defined portions of
an entire irrigation scheme. By using l a r g e heads water can be moved rapidly
over the surface of the ground, thus minimizing l o s s e s through percolation and
promoting good irrigation efficiencies.

When water supplies a r e adequate t h e r e i s no particular problem, but

when the supply i s insufficient to m e e t the full demand, the water available h a s to
be distributed according to the principle of equitable sharing ( s e e Chapter 2 -
2.2. 1). A f a r m outlet may s e r v e just one f a r m e r o r a group. In some countries,
 e . g. India and Pakistan, the entire discharge f r o m one outlet i s taken by different
f a r m e r s in turn, the duration of the turn being fixed in proportion to the i r r i g a b l e
a r e a in each c a s e . Under these conditions a m o r e standardized f o r m of outlet
can be employed.

The demand delivery method i s particularly favoured by f a r m e r s

because the water i s delivered a t the f a r m outlets i n the quantity and a t the time
requested. It p e r m i t s a f a r m e r to draw any flow of water he may d e s i r e , limited
only by the capacity of the canal system. At the same time i t encourages
economical use when water charges a r e based on the volume delivered. On the
other hand i t i s not economically feasible to construct a canal system of sufficient
capacity to satisfy the full demands of all f a r m e r s at the same time, and the
method i s not practicable either in the c a s e of l a r g e canals drawing their supplies
f r o m uncontrolled r i v e r sources. The extent to which f a r m outlets can be
standardized for use in the demand method i s only limited.

In many c a s e s , practical considerations call for the u s e of a com-

bination of two o r all t h r e e of the delivery methods within the same irrigation
project a t various t i m e s o r in various locations. F o r example, during periods
of high seasonal runoff, the main canals can run a t full capacity and supply
f a r m e r s with water ( i f they require i t ) by the continuous flow method. At other
t i m e s , where r e s e r v e s of water in storage a r e being drawn, o r where the supply
in the r i v e r s i s insufficient for the demand, the project can be switched to
rotational delivery.

5.1.1.4 Methods of a s s e s s i n g water charges

In some countries ( e . g. A r a b Republic of Egypt, S r i Lanka, Thailand)

f a r m e r s a r e not charged for the irrigation water they receive, but in most other
countries they have to pay for it. However, where charges a r e made, the
s y s t e m s of a s s e s s i n g them vary in various p a r t s of the world.

There a r e four main methods of a s s e s s i n g water charges o r water

r a t e s for irrigation water based on:

(i) r a t e of flow, which entails metering the r a t e of flow and

maintaining the n e c e s s a r y r e c o r d s ;
(ii) volume of water delivered, entailing a volumetric measuring
 device o r a combined r a t e of flow and time measuring device;

(iii) a r e a , and type of, crops i r r i g a t e d ; control and record-keeping

i s necessary;

(iv) each irrigation over a given a r e a , e. g. where irrigation i s only

supplementary, o r where the s a m e c r o p i s grown over l a r g e a r e a s y e a r after y e a r ,
such a s r i c e for example; again control and adequate r e c o r d s a r e n e c e s s a r y .

In the c a s e of methods (i) and (ii) the f a r m outlets have to be

accurate measuring devices. In the case of methods (iii) and (iv) the m e a s u r e -
ment of discharge i s not essential, but the f a r m outlets should be designed to
ensure equitable distribution of water.

5.1.1.5 Operation of the canal system

When water supplies a r e plentiful throughout the c r o p season the

entire canal system runs a t full capacity; under these conditions the design of
f a r m outlets i s a simple m a t t e r . When the supplies a r e insufficient to m e e t the
demand their distribution h a s to be controlled and rationed out. This can be done
in the various ways described below.

The various distributing canals can be run continuously carrying their

s h a r e of the water supplies available. In this c a s e the f a r m outlets in the canals
will have to either ( a ) draw whatever water i s available o r (b) run in rotation. In
case (a) the outlets should be able to draw a proportion of the discharge. However
i f the supply i s laden with silt, the outlets will not draw their f a i r s h a r e of i t and
the problem of silting a t the head reaches of the distributing canal may a r i s e . In
c a s e (b) the outlet needs a check structure in the supply canal to feed it. F'urther-
m o r e each outlet m u s t be fitted with a manually operated shutting device. There
may a l s o be a silting problem in the distributing canal due to heading up of water.

Desiderata for the Design of a F a r m Outlet

As f a r back a s 1906, Kennedy s e t forth desiderata for the efficient design of

a f a r m outlet, in Punjab Irrigation P a p e r No. 12, quoted below.

"(a) To keep the discharge automatically constant a s adjusted, and indicated,

however much (within working l i m i t s ) the water levels may vary in the
distributary channel, o r in the watercourse, o r in both a t once.
(b) To allow of slight variations in the d i s c h a r g e s a s adjusted, so a s to avoid
the need of constantly removing and replacing the outlet, whenever the
d i s c h a r g e m u s t be somewhat a l t e r e d .

(c) To work with high 'heads' a s well a s low - down to t h r e e inches o r so.

(d) To be f r e e f r o m derangement by silt o r weeds.

(e) To be light, portable, easily removed and replaced elsewhere.

(f) To be cheap and durable, with no complicated mechanism.

(g) To be all closed in and immune f r o m outside i n t e r f e r e n c e o r derangement

in working.

(h) To be capable of being opened o r closed off entirely by the cultivators

f r o m outside.

(i) To indicate f r o m outside when the working head i s insufficient to give the
full discharge, and t h e r e f o r e a l s o the n e c e s s i t y for c l e a r a n c e of the
watercourse.

(j) If s o d e s i r e d and adjusted, to work a s a module, only within c e r t a i n

l i m i t s of level in the feeder, above and below these l i m i t s to give
proportionately i n c r e a s e d o r d e c r e a s e d d i s c h a r g e s . ( T h i s i s with special
r e f e r e n c e to f a r m e r s ' canals, where each m a n i s entitled to a proportion
of the whole available supply.)

(k) Floods-1/ in the distributary to be passed off by i n c r e a s e d d i s c h a r g e s

through the outlets, so a s to avoid damage.

(1) When the distributary supply i s v e r y low and inadequate, i t will be m o r e

o r l e s s proportionally distributed to all outlets, those with v e r y high
command not being allowed to d r a w off all the water t h e r e i s .

(m) D i s c h a r g e s to be provided for may be anything between half and four cusecs-2 /
with possible duplication above the l a t t e r figures.

Of c o u r s e i t i s not possible to satisfy a l l the conditions enumerated by

Kennedy in any one type of f a r m outlet, even in India, for which the d e s i d e r a t a

- i . e . excess water. cubic f e e t p e r second.

were propounded. However, i t i s highly desirable that every outlet be strong and
so designed that i t cannot easily be tampered with. The cost of construction
should be low, using local m a t e r i a l s whenever available, and the aim should be to
standardize a s much a s possible. In a r e a s of only little slope the f a r m outlet
should work efficiently with a small working head, (because the g r e a t e r the l o s s of
head the higher the water level required in the supply canal for command and,
consequently, the higher the cost of the entire distribution s y s t e m ) . Where
supplies a r e delivered on a volumetric b a s i s , the outlet should have metering
facilities and should preferably include a recording device. Finally, where
supplies a r e charged with sediment, the f a r m outlet should draw i t s f a i r s h a r e of
the silt, without being liable to blockage by silt o r weeds.

Throughout the i r r i g a t e d a r e a s of the world engineers, f a r m e r s and o t h e r s

have invented o r designed various kinds of f a r m outlets for particular conditions.
Some of the ideas never came to fruition but a l a r g e number of them have proved
satisfactory and have stood the t e s t of t i m e . F o r example the Adjustable Orifice
Semi-Module, developed in the Punjab befpre 1947 and the J a m r a o IIfrpe Orifice
Semi-Module, developed in Sind even though developed independently, a r e intkr-
changeable. Thus, abundant experience h a s been accumulated on which to base
the choice of the best type of outlet to suit local condition?. However, this does
not preclude the possibility of improving existing outlets o r evolving new types
which m a y be superior structurally, hydraulically and economically. In fact a
g r e a t deal of r e s e a r c h r e m a i n s to be done on this subject.

Classification and Selection of F a r m Outlets ,

18 types of f a r m outlets a r e covered in this chapter a s l i s t e d below.

In addition, examples of simple outlets f o r u s e a t the f a r m level a r e described
i n the l a s t Section. The reference number allocated to each s t r u c t u r e corresponds
to the Section number in the text. The f i r s t t h r e e s t r u c t u r e s listed (5. 2, 5. 3 and
5.4) a r e described in Chapter 3 - Intake Structures.

5.2 Constant-Head Orifice F a r m Turnout (U. S . A . )

5.3 Orifice Module (France)
5.4 Double Orifice Module o r Syphon Module Outlet ( F r a n c e )
5.5 Dethridge Meter (Australia)
5.6 P l a s t i c Syphon Outlet F i t t e d With anIntake Tube (Turkey)
5.7 Open F l u m e F a r m Outlet (India and Pakistan)
5.8 Adjustable Orifice Semi- Module (India and ~ a k i s t a n )
J a m r a o Type Orifice Semi-Module (Sind, Pakistan)
P i p e Semi-Module (India and P a k i s t a n )
Fayoum Standard Weir F a r m Outlet ( A r a b Republic of Egypt)
Scratchley Outlet (India and P a k i s t a n )
P i p e Outlet (India and Pakistan)
F a r m Outlet to a T e m p o r a r y F e e d Ditch (U. S. S. R. )
P r e - C a s t F a r m Turnout (Turkey)
Adjustable Weir F a r m Outlet (Malaysia)
PVC P i p e Turnout (Republic of Korea)
P i p e Outlet with Standard Inlet (Philippines)
Gated P i p e Outlet ( F e r r a r a Type)
Outlet S t r u c t u r e s on the F a r m

Outlets may be divided broadly into the following t h r e e c l a s s e s :

A (i) Modules o r modular f a r m outlets - 5. 2, 5. 3 and 5.4
(ii) Totalizer type m e t e r f a r m outlets - 5.5
B Semi-modules - 5.6, 5. 7, 5 . 8 , 5 . 9 , 5. 10, 5. 17 and a l s o
5. 11, 5. 12, 5. 13, 5. 14, 5. 16 and 5.18
when tliey have a f r e e fall.

C Non-modular f a r m outlets - 5. 12 and 5. 15, 5. 13, 5. 14, 5.16,

5.18 and 5.19 under submerged conditions.

The advantages, .disadvantages and limitations of each of the outlets listed

a r e d i s c u s s e d in detail under the relevant Section headings. General guidelines
on selection of c l a s s e s and types a r e given below.

Selection of c l a s s e s of f a r m outlets

A. Modules

In a module outlet the discharge i s , within reasonable working l i m i t s ,

independent of the water l e v e l in the supply canal and the w a t e r c o u r s e o r field
lateral. This c l a s s of outlet m a y be r e g a r d e d a s the b e s t type of f a r m outlet f r o m
the f a r m e r ' s viewpoint. However, modules cannot a b s o r b fluctuations of water
supplies in the parent canal and, therefore, the parent canal could either flood o r
become dry in the tail r e a c h . Thus, modules should be limited to: branch canals
o r d i s t r i b u t a r i e s and m i n o r s in which the supply v a r i e s only within predetermined
limits; outlets located above control points where water levels can be maintained;
canals in which additional water i s delivered to certain selected outlets for
leaching o r for other purposes.

When water i s supplied on a volumetric basis modules a r e ideal.

Under any of the c a s e s mentioned above constant-head orifice turnouts may be
found adequate, whether the water supply i s charged with sediment o r not. Other
suitable types may be P a r s h a l l flume outlets and m e t e r - g a t e s . When the water
supply i s silt f r e e the constant-head orifice turnout, the Neyrpic orifice module,
the double orifice module, and the Dethridge m e t e r may be employed.

In c a s e s where the water i s not being supplied on a volumetric basis,

but may be a t a l a t e r date, i t may be convenient to r e s o r t to p r e - c a s t f a r m
outlets ( 5 . 15) which can l a t e r be converted into constant-head orifice turnouts.

B. Semi-modules

The discharge of a semi-module outlet i s independent of the water

levels in the watercourse o r field l a t e r a l , but dependent on the water levels in the
supply canal, so long a s a minimum working head i s available for the device.
These types of modules a r e not useful for supplying water to f a r m e r s on a
volumetric b a s i s unless they be accompanied by an auxiliary device, such a s a
notch weir, a venturi flume, a P a r s h a l l flume o r an open flow-meter attachment
on the downstream side. The usual use of semi-modules i s to distribute, m o r e
o r l e s s equitably, upstream variations in the supply canal within their range of
operation. The plastic syphon outlet (5.6) fitted with an intake tube can be used
advantageously in small canals. The free-fall outlet to a t e m p o r a r y feed ditch
(5. 14), the adjustable weir f a r m outlet (5. 16), the PVC pipe turnout (5. 17) and
the pipe outlet with standard inlets (5. 18), may all be used where a shut-off gate
i s included in the outlet.

When the-water supply to the outlets i s f r e e of silt and a shut-off gate

i s not n e c e s s a r y , the following outlets a r e open to choice.

(i) Open flume outlets - a t tail c l u s t e r s , and in tail r e a c h e s with

-
setting of the c r e s t a t 0 . 9 y f o r proportional discharge.
1

(ii) Adjustable orifice semi-module - in head r e a c h e s with setting of

the c r e s t a t 0 . 6 y f o r proportional discharge.
1

(iii) J a m r a o type orifice semi-module - in head r e a c h e s with setting

of the c r e s t a t 0 . 9 6 y f o r proportional discharge.
1

(iv) Scratchley outlet - if i t i s not d e s i r a b l e (because of cost) to

i n s t a l l any other type of semi-module.

(v) P i p e semi-module - when the banks of the supply canal a r e very

wide; the setting of the module will be a s indicated in ( i ) , (ii), (iii), and (iv) above
f o r the respective conditions.

(vi) Fayoum standard weir outlet - i t s setting h a s been standardized,

and i t m a y be used successfully on all distributing canals.

(vii) P i p e outlet - in view of i t s low cost, a pipe outlet may be used

on all distributing channels with c e n t r e of the pipe s e t a t 0. 3 y
1'

When the water supply to the f a r m outlets i s charged with silt, i t i s

e s s e n t i a l to u s e semi-modules which can d r a w a proportional s h a r e of the silt.
In this c a s e proportional distribution of the water i s neither n e c e s s a r y n o r
feasible and the following types of outlets may be used.

(i) Open flume outlet - with setting of the c r e s t a t o r n e a r the bed

of the distributing canal provided the width of the c r e s t i s not l e s s that 6 c m and
the n e c e s s a r y working head i s available. If the working head available i s not
sufficient, a combined pipe-open flume outlet may be used which p e r m i t s a higher
setting of the open flume outlet beyond the pipe. This type i s eminently suitable
in lower r e a c h e s of distributing canals. It should be used a t tail c l u s t e r s and
above control points (within 300 m e t r e s u p s t r e a m ) .

(ii) Adjustable orifice semi-module and J a m r a o type o r i f i c e s e m i -

module - because of t h e i r low flexibility, t h e s e a r e eminently suitable for
installation in the head r e a c h e s of a distributing s y s t e m , with their settings a t o r
n e a r the bed level of the supply canal, provided the n e c e s s a r y head i s available.
If sufficient head i s not available, an open flume fitted with a roof block having a
s i m i l a r setting m a y be used.
 (iii) P i p e semi-module - In c a s e s where the c r e s t of the outlet
cannot be placed a t o r n e a r the bed level, a'pipe semi-module of the lowest
possible flexibility may be used.

(iv) As f a r a s possible, the s a m e type of f a r m outlets with the s a m e

head over .the c r e s t s should be used between two control points on a distributing
canal.

(v) Pipe outlets with their u p s t r e a m end a t o r n e a r the bed may be

used, but their coefficient of discharge i s not constant and f a r m e r s m a y be tempted
to i n c r e a s e t h e i r flow by heading up the water in the watercourse thus partially
submerging the outlets.

C. Non-modular f a r m outlets

The discharge of non-modular outlets depends on the difference of

water levels in the supply canal and the watercourse o r f a r m l a t e r a l . The water
level in the watercourse below the outlet v a r i e s considerably, depending on:
whether high o r low a r e a s a r e being i r r i g a t e d a t any given time; and where
silting o c c u r s , the extent of silt clearance in the f a r m l a t e r a l . Where silting i s
a dominant feature, the canals fitted with non-modular outlets a r e always liable
to flooding a t the tail of the canal when f a r m e r s in the head r e a c h do not clear
silt so that they draw their full s h a r e of water during periods of slack demand. On
the other hand, water i s always in short supply at the tail end during periods of
keen demand, when f a r m e r s in the upper r e a c h e s tend to do the opposite, to c l e a r
their watercourses too much.

Non-modular outlets should, therefore, be avoided a s f a r a s possible.

Their use i s justified only when the working head available i s s o small that a semi-
modular outlet cannot be used.

Selection of types of f a r m outlets

A s indicated above outlets have been divided into t h r e e main c l a s s e s -

namely, modules, semi-modules and non-modular outlets and the general
circumstances in which each c l a s s may be used i s described in 5.1.3.1. The
selection of the particular type of outlet depends on factors such as:
- cost
- available working head
 - e a s e of adjustment
- ability to withdraw s i l t

- immunity f r o m tampering.

It should a l s o be noted that modules with moving p a r t s c o m p r i s e m o r e

o r l e s s complicated m e c h a n i s m s with the resulting possibility of the moving p a r t s
becoming jammed.

In conclusion, the information and d a t a on f a r m outlets p r e s e n t e d i n

this chapter will, i t i s hoped, be of help to the designer in making the b e s t
possible selection of the type o r types of f a r m outlets he should adopt f o r
distributing canals to suit m o s t conditions and r e q u i r e m e n t s . No c l a i m i s m a d e
a s t o the completeness of t h i s chapter and i t i s hoped to m a k e up any deficiency in
the r e v i s e d edition of t h i s handbook.

5.2 CONSTANT-HEAD ORIFICE FARM TURNOUT (U. S. A. )

See Section 3 . 4 of Chapter 3.

5.3 O R L F I C E MODULE (FRANCE)

See Section 3.5 of Chapter 3 .

5.4 DOUBLE ORIFICE MODULE OR SIPHON MODULE

See Section 3. 6 of Chapter 3.

5.5.1 Background

The Dethridge Meter i s a self-integrating m e a s u r i n g s t r u c t u r e used to

deliver w a t e r to f a r m e r s and to check the volume of w a t e r supplied f o r application

"B a s e d on information supplied by the A u s t r a l i a n National Committee, ICID.

 Cyclometer f ~ x e dto the wheel
Welght of wheels:
Wheel Old Type Counter Lorge meter outlet not golvonised--187
Cylinder ond vones of Lorge meter outlet golvonised--..-I94
Smoll meter outlet not golvonised.10 1
14 gouge hot dip golvonised
Smoll meter outlet golvonised----.I07
mild steel.

" I,

'/e diameter hi. S. Spokes

, ,,
4,
,#

Diameter of cylinder 3 - (2-%)

Depth of vones rodlolly 10 (7%)
Outside dio,me/!er ,of,,wheel to tlps Anthony beorrng

of vones 5 - 0 (4;0),, ,
, ,
Width of wheel 2 - 6 (1-8)
Cleoronces between wheel ond
emplocernent : I/ I#

Cost Iron counter housing for

wire connection type counter

Concrete In emplocernent IS 4 thlck

(except where fl\!eted) ond relnfgrced
by o g r ~ dof v4 bors spoced 4 both woys,
for both lorge ond smoll meters

Note: D/mensions shown ore for both

FA0 - l C l D
*
Meters lLorge and Smolll Those
in brockets ore for Smoll Meter
Outlets.
DETHRIDGE METER OUTLET D E T A I L S

Project,Region, Country
Austrolio
Figure No. 5-1
of water c h a r g e s .

The device i s widely used in the State of Victoria and other States in
A u s t r a l i a and to some extent in the U . S. A. and in Asian countries. Approximately
15,500 l a r g e m e t e r s and 7, 000 s m a l l m e t e r s a r e in operation in Victoria.

The Dethridge Meter was invented in 1910 by the Commissioner a t that t i m e ,

the late J . S. Dethridge, of the State R i v e r s and Water Supply Commission,
Victoria, and adopted by the Commission after t e s t s for t h r e e y e a r s under field
conditions. The original Dethridge Meter was a simple m e a s u r i n g device giving
a positive m e a s u r e m e n t of volume discharged, and recording i t directly in a c r e -
feet, with an a c c u r a c y of 2 3. 5 p e r cent for f r e e outfall conditions over a range
3
of d i s c h a r g e s f r o m 42 11s t o 140 11s ( 1 . 5 f t / s to 5 f t 3 / s ) . A s m a l l m e t e r f o r
capacities f r o m 14 l / s to 70 11s ( 0 . 5 ft 3/ s to 2. 5 ft 3 / s ) was developed in the
1920's.

The construction of the Dethridge M e t e r h a s remained basically the s a m e

over the y e a r s , i. e. concrete emplacement with m i n o r variations to head wall and
transition shape. Laboratory and field t e s t s have r e s u l t e d in a standard setting
of the wheel in relation to channel flow level and mechanical improvements for the
wheel and fittings, e . g. wheel with a m i l d s t e e l plate d r u m , vanes and w a t e r pipe
axle, originally with t i m b e r spokes and rivetted, now all steel and welded; t i m b e r
bearing blocks now replaced by a m o r e robust sealed unit; s t e e l gate in a t i m b e r
f r a m e , now replaced by neoprene guides s e t in concrete.

S t r u c t u r a l Design

The g e n e r a l f o r m and main dimensions of the two standard s i z e s of m e t e r

a r e shown in F i g u r e 5- 1. The wheel i s m a d e up of a cylinder of 14 gauge
( 2 . 0 3 m m o r 0.08inch thickness) mild steel sheet, bearing eight e x t e r n a l vanes of
the s a m e m a t e r i a l , and internally braced by t h r e e c r o s s e d p a i r s of s t e e l spokes
placed a t the middle and both ends of the cylinder. The axle i s a 2.54 c m (one
inch) d i a m e t e r galvanized pipe welded t o the spokes. The cylinder, vane
attachments and spokes a r e fabricated by welding.

The vanes a r e "V" shaped a s shown ( F i g u r e 5- l ) , with the apex of the "V"
leading in the direction of rotation. At the b a s e of each vane, and a t the apex of
the "V", t h e r e i s an a i r vent to facilitate the filling and emptying of adjacent com-
p a r t m e n t s a s they e n t e r and leave the s t r e a m of water passing under the wheel.
The outer c o r n e r s of the vanes a r e chamfered to suit the fillets a t the junction of
the walls and floor of the concrete emplacement.

The co.mplete wheel unit i s galvanized for protection against corrosion. The
wheel unit i s supported accurately in the emplacement with the ends of the axle
r e s t i n g on ball bearings in a Delrin r a c e fixed on the walls of the flume. (~imbew
bearing blocks w e r e originally u s e d . )

A pendant actuated sealed cyclometer unit i s rivetted to the wheel cylinder

and r o t a t e s with it. The older m e t e r s have a c a s t i r o n housing attached to the
flume wall f o r the revolution counter, which i s connected to the end of the axle by
a flexible w i r e link.

The shape of the flume can b e s t be d e s c r i b e d by considering i t in t h r e e

parts. U p s t r e a m of the wheel it i s of simple rectangular section, with level
floor in the vicinity of the wheel. While the walls r e m a i n plane and p a r a l l e l , the
0
floor i s indented to accommodate an a r c of approximately 70 of the wheel's
circumference. And immediately downstream of the wheel the walls a r e splayed
outward and the floor i s sloped up to a l i p a t sufficient height to e n s u r e drowning
of the passage swept by the vanes under the wheel.

At the entry to the flume a cut-off wall extends to either side into the canal
bank, and downward below the n a t u r a l s u r f a c e of the ground to prevent seepage
around the s t r u c t u r e . The galvanized steel sluice gate to control discharge
through the m e t e r i s fitted in neoprene guide s t r i p s s e t in r e c e s s e s so that they
a r e flush with the walls and floor a t the entry f r o m the channel.

The flume and cut-off wall a r e constructed of reinforced concrete, although

other m a t e r i a l s may be employed. In e a r l y t i m e s of cement shortage, t i m b e r
was used, but proved unsatisfactory because of leakage between the t i m b e r s and
distortion.

All concrete i s of high quality and 10 c m ( 4 inch) thickness (except where

filleted), and reinforced with a grid of 6 m m (0. 25 inch) d i a m e t e r b a r s spaced
10 c m ( 4 inches) a p a r t both ways. The s t r u c t u r e may be either c a s t in-situ o r
assembled f r o m p r e - c a s t units. The p r e - c a s t units provide a m o r e accurate
emplacement with better concrete quality. (See Figure 5- 2)

FIGURE 5-2. - P r e - c a s t l a r g e m e t e r emplacement with wheels

installed; note reinforcement to tie into cut-offs and p r e - c a s t
head wall.

R i p - r a p protection i s placed on the bed and b a t t e r s of the f a r m ditch

immediately downstream of the m e t e r to prevent scouring.

F o r l a r g e canals, where continuous a c c e s s i s required along the canal bank,

a pipe outlet i s installed through the bank and the m e t e r i s e r e c t e d outside the
bank a t the end of the pipe.

F i g u r e s 5-3 ( a ) , 5-3 (b), 5-4 ( a ) and 5-4 (b) show details of both l a r g e and
small m e t e r s .

F i g u r e 5-5 shows a l a r g e Meter Outlet in operation with f r e e

outfall.
 250.

Groa* to be formed i n wall 1 - 0 above I10

10 bndi~otemoiimum ollowoble toilrmter leve

-----

y level 10 be painted block

Earth platform level wlth l o p

01 side wall en both s~dcs

C d i o . bolh G o n g . set 5 s bl
block-OUI 01 8 centres for
Anthony brorinqr. For lumber
9"blocks 3bmdto bolts o n

Anthony bearing

G01.s - Go1vonosed, mqether w t h 0 x 1 ~ L A R G E DETHRIDGE METER OUTLET

R81hg & hrge meter cutlet

The odopled rolinq is 2 9 . 0 4 l ? l r e v o ~ l l ~rquivolrnl
n l o 1,500 r e v ~ l u t i o n r= 1 ocre-foot based
on colibrotion Ierls with free ~ l f f o l lOM, the end st11
H i i r loilwolerr incrcosc the volume porred
The cyclometers clod d~rccltyin o c r l I t I r p m .I orrr-lootl doy opproxlmolely
Ckor0nc.s between the wheel ond cmplocement should be occurolrly mointo~nedand the wheel
Australia
.hod4 (DI be 0110wed to turn ol less thon 3 r p.m.
 161

&l:block out {long for Anthony beorlngs,

1l"long for tlmber blocks

.-Wlngwall shape when occers culverl

reaulred or road crosslnq

er 6 feet transition
, ,
,
7-10 - .- -- --

S e c t ~ o n C C ( s e e Flgure 3 (01
P

Upstreorn View o f D r u m

Sect~on D D

N be~ngcons~dered
Developmsnt o f Vane

Meter Wheel Dctoil

(See note 7 ond B on Ftqure 3(01

P o s ~ t ~ oonf Wheal In E m p i o c e r n e n t

T ~ m b e rAxle Block [See note 4 on F~gure3 ( 0 )

Block made In halves from seasoned R G or other durable
tlmber dressad to dlmens~onsshown Slot ond houslnp
bolt hdes rrqulred on one set only

FA0 -ICID
SECTION CC OF FIGURE 3(0) AND

DETAILS OF METER WHEEL

'/:dm ecentres ln centre of plonk ?g dto Q e c e n t r e r OF LARGE DETHRIDGE METER OUTLET
~i 1 / 2 1 - - ~ ~ + j
T Project , Reg~on,Country
Section EE Austrol~o
Precoct R C Foot Plonk
Timber plank may be used as olternot~ve
Flgure No 5-3 (b)
 Groove to be formed in w l l 9 obove f l w r I Top of gote nom~nollylevel with tap of heodwoll
l o indicote moximum ollowoblc toilwoter level Gotes ow~loble ore 1-07 2I6: $-9"or 3'-0"high.
Select gate r i l e neorest to required height.
See notes 2 ond 3.

C---------
I Groove to be pointed block
I with chlorlnoted rubber pain

Half Sect~on A-A / Half S e c t i o n 8 - 8

Notes Plan
If the derlgned rnlnlmum free board lo the lop of bonks 1% less than < / F B ~ ~
equal to or greater thDn 2 ' then /FB,,/ = 12"
4,
= / 11 11 0s

The helght of the heodwaliond gote lo ttxed from Ihe D 0 L of the channel
The moilmum h e q N ot gote su8toble for hond lhfttng IS 3'-0'where
type 'C' lhfttng gear should be used
larger gate s necessary, FA0 - ICID
Anthony bearongs ore adopted as stondord
Concrete tor emplacement should be of mcsmum compnssse strength 3,500 p n I ot 2 8
doys for durobll~ty
Backfoll should be well compacted around the heodwoll ond sfde walls
Protectton of metal work on currenl use
Goter - Galvobond plate Wheels- Golvon~rcd, together w~th oxle
All bolts galvonlsed
Feld tests are on hond for cold potnl ~ p p l t c o l l ~ non
r gates e g,Galvofrotd woth Mvconox SMALL DETHRIDGE METER OUTLET
re01 coat ond for olumlnlum wheels
Rofmg of smo// meter out/et
The odopled rotlng IS I 2 45 f?/revolutnon cquwalent to 3 500 revclvttont = I ocre-foot
bosed on collbrattan tests w ~ l hfree outfoll owr the end 91;
Hfgher to#lwatcrs lncreose the volume possed
The cyclometers read directly I n ocre-fecl/r p m = 3 ocrt-tcet/doy opproxlmately
Clearances between the wheel ond emplacement should be accutotely mo~nto8ned ond
Ihe wheel should not be ollowed to turn ot less than 3 r p m P r o j e c t , Region, Country
Austrolia

F i g u r e No 5 - 4 ( 0 )
 Section C-C
See Figure 3 ( 0 )
t

Dovies Shephord
pendant weight counter

fi- a+

On@ vona
rhown-
\6ntcrnol diameter stondord
rned~urnplpe (not golvonlsed.
not vornished, not oil painfed)
- dio. M.S.apokes welded l o drum

I
Sectlon D - D
Upstreom V ~ e w o f Drum

Side E l e v o t l o n
,vote use of o/um~n~um wheels of whfed or
nveled construmon IS &IW consd8nd

7-0
rodlur

Oevelopment of Vans

Meter Wheel D e t o ~ l
Sa@ note 7 ond 8 on F ~ g u r e4 (0) POSI~IO~of Wheel ln Emplocemenl

'/;; C S
x racers for cover plate
of C I housing (on counter $~de bolts ~n centre of blocks
only I
FA0 - ICID

Block mode In halves from

seasoned R G or other durable
ttmber dressed to dlmens~ons SECTION C-C OF FIGURE 5 4 (a) AND
shown Slot and hous~ngbolt
holes nqulred ~n one set only DETAILS OF METER WHEEL

OF SMALL DETHRlDGE METER OUTLET

woter plpe - Project, Region, Country

d x 2 % " x l i Tlmber Axle Block Australto
Sea note 4 on F ~ g u r e4 (0)
Scale ? ? ? 9 Inches
Flgure 5-4 (b)
 FIGURE 5-5. - L a r g e Dethridge m e t e r outlet in operation with
f r e e outfall.

The s t r u c t u r e i s robust in construction and reasonably r e s i s t a n t to illegal

tampering. If n e c e s s a r y , gates can be padlocked in position and lead s e a l s fixed
to counters. The counter h a s a ratchet arrangement to prevent winding back if
the wheel i s rotated in the opposite direction (important against tampering). One
vane i s painted so that the canal attendant can see f r o m a distance whether the
wheel i s turning correctly. The m e t e r will p a s s a f a i r amount of floating debris
in the water without damage to, o r stoppage of, the wheel.

Once installed correctly in an accurate emplacement the m e t e r does not

require adjustment. Regulation of discharge through the m e t e r i s c a r r i e d out by
simple adjustment of the gate opening.

Hydraulic Characteristics

It i s important that the m e t e r be installed a t the c o r r e c t level in relation to

the designed discharge level of the water in the canal, so a s to make the b e s t use
of the generally limited head available while at the same time ensuring sufficient
head and yet avoiding drowning of the wheel by water that may back up f r o m the
f a r m ditch. The standard setting for the l a r g e m e t e r , a s shown in F i g u r e 5-6,
 i s to have the floor of the flume, a t entry, 38 c m (15 inches) below supply level
in the canal. F o r the small m e t e r this depth i s 30.5 c m (12 inches).

The supply level of the canal i s fixed by the designed upstream level of each
canal regulator and i s taken a s a horizontal pool a t this level extending upstream
f r o m the regulator to the next regulator. This level i s fixed in relation to the
land to be supplied.

The commanded land i s defined a s the land 15 c m ( 6 inches) o r m o r e below

the supply level making allowances where n e c e s s a r y for f a r m canal grades and
structures. This allows about 7.5 c m ( 3 inches) drop through the m e t e r to the
maximum allowable level in the f a r m e r ' s ditch and 7.5 cm ( 3 inches) depth of
m e t e r over the highest ground. As the canal running level i s above the
horizontal supply level, m e t e r s , set some distance upstream of a regulator, have
a water depth over the floor of the flume in excess of the standard 37.5 cm (15
inches) o r 30.5 cm (12 inches) respectively and the gate and head wall levels m u s t
be raised accordingly to provide the required f r e e board. As f a r a s possible,
regulators a r e located so that m e t e r s a r e within a short distance upstream.

If t h e r e w e r e no necessity for clearances between the wheel and the flume,

the m e t e r would give an exact positive measurement of the water passing through
it, a s each revolution of the wheel would pass an invariable quantity of the water
between the vanes and the cylinder swept through the emplacement. With the
provision of the n e c e s s a r y clearance ( s e e section 5.5.4) however, leakage occurs
through the clearance space at a r a t e dependent not only on the r a t e of rotation of
the wheel but also on other factors, such a s the difference in water levels
immediately upstream and downstream of the wheel, and the depth of submergence.
The quantity of water passed p e r revolution of the wheel does, therefore, vary to
some extent under operating conditions. F o r this reason, the clearance i s kept
a s small a s practical.

5.5.3.1 Relationship between revolutions and discharge

F o r the conversion of revolutions to acre-feet, constant ratios a r e

assumed: 1,500 revolutions per acre-foot for the l a r g e wheel and 3,500
revolutions p e r acre-foot for the small wheel. The dimensions of the wheels
have in fact been designed to provide these simple ratios, and the e r r o r i s not
m o r e than 5% over the r a n g e of n o r m a l operating conditions f o r e i t h e r m e t e r .
This d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y i s considered quite reasonable f o r the m e a s u r e m e n t of
w a t e r d e l i v e r i e s for i r r i g a t i o n .

S i m i l a r l y revolution counters a r e g e a r e d i n the r a t i o of 15 : 1 f o r the l a r g e

m e t e r , and 35: 1 f o r the s m a l l m e t e r , and s o the dial r e a d s d i r e c t l y in a c r e - f e e t .
The counters a s manufactured r e a d to two d e c i m a l places, but i r r i g a t i o n r e c o r d s
a r e rounded off to one d e c i m a l place.

3
A d i s c h a r g e r a t e of one acre-foot p e r day (14 l / s o r 0 . 5 f t / s ) c o r r e s p o n d s
1
closely to one revolution p e r minute of the l a r g e r wheel o r 27 revolutions p e r
minute of the s m a l l wheel. These relationships provide a v e r y convenient guide
to the canal o p e r a t o r o r water-bailiff i n setting a m e t e r gate to give whatever f-
discharge r a t e i s required.

Design r a t i n g s

(a) Ratings and settings adopted i n relation to the supply canal l e v e l s for
the two m e t e r s a r e a s indicated below:

Ratings L a r g e M e t e r Outlet Small Meter Outlet

(i) F r e e overfall 820 l / revolution 349 l / revolution
o r 29.04 ft3 o r 12.45 f t 3
(ii) Tail w a t e r a s i n (iii) 860 l / revolution
o r 30.38 ft3
( i i i ) Tail Water
Above downstream 1
sill level 17.8 c m o r 7 inches 1 3 . 3 c m o r 5 3 inches
Above u p s t r e a m
sill l e v e l 3 0 . 5 c m o r 12 i n c h e s 22.9 c m o r 9 i n c h e s
(iv) Designed supply level
Above u p s t r e a m
sill l e v e l 38.1 c m o r 15 inches 30.5 c m o r 12 i n c h e s
(v) C l e a r a n c e between
the M e t e r wheel and
the Qutlet S t r u c t u r e
1 1
Bottom 0.64 c m o r q inch 0. 64 c m o r 2 inch
3 1
Side 0 . 9 5 c m o r 8 inch 0.64 crn o r 7 inch
5.5.4 Installation and Operation

Canal regulators a r e located to regulate supply levels for the m e t e r outlets

a s shown in F i g u r e s 5-6 and 5 - 7 .

FIGURE 5-6. - Typical setting of Dethridge m e t e r just u p s t r e a m

of a regulator. The supply level of the canal i s indicated by the
bottom of the slot in the wall on the right hand side of the regulator.

Generally one m e t e r i s provided for each f a r m , a small one for a r e a s up to

40 a c r e s and a l a r g e one for l a r g e r f a r m s . If the f a r m a r e a commanded by
gravity and suitable for irrigation exceeds 120 h a (300 a c r e s ) , a second l a r g e
m e t e r may be provided. These general r u l e s may be modified, i f n e c e s s a r y ,
because of particular f a r m layouts and topography.

The canal attendant regulates flow to the f a r m through the m e t e r a t required

intervals during the irrigation season to provide flows a s requested by the
irrigator. Regular readings of the counter a r e taken to keep check on the total
volume supplied.

The flow i s regulated by adjusting the gate to the appropriate opening a s

indicated in F i g u r e 5-8. In actual operation the flow i s readily checked by
 Earth free board

annel regulator

- I

L!7f
t
Min. drop 0 . 2 0
-- --
--
L L.M.0 Floor level ( 1 )
Bed
+
3 maximum stripping
of drop bars

T ypicol Longitudinal Sect ion

D.D L . Designed discharge level

Flow profile for maximum discharge with roughness and grade selected
S L. -Supply level for setting meter outlets and spur offtakes
/I

(I 1 For SMO setting of floor i s 12 below supply level

Capacity Earth bank Structures

in Minimum concrete
ft3/ s
Minjmum*
crest w ~ d t h~nfeet
Minimum
free board in feet free board
Prestressed slab
bridges **
1'- 6"

1
0 - 30 6
30-490 8 -'1 6" ] 9"
> 490 12 2'- 0" 12" il

* The required crest width may be larger than

the minimum t o meet percolation gradient
requirements or construction equipment
requirements.
If access is required along the bank a
t
.
minimum crest width of 12 is required. FA0 - ICID

CHANNEL DESIGN, FREE BOARD

* * ~ e a s u r e d from D. D. L. a t abutments t o
top o f prestressed slab. AND SETTING OF DETHRIDGE METER OUTLETS

P r o j e c t , Region, Country
Aus trolio

i
F i g u r e No. 5-7
 counting the revolutions p e r minute of the.whee1 and reference to the table i s not
necessary.

Accurate ratings have been obtained in the laboratory to give graphs for
volume passed per revolution of the wheel over a range of discharges and for
different canal levels and tailwater levels. Other s e r i e s of t e s t s have been
c a r r i e d out for non-standard clearances. These ratings a r e not required for
operations o r normal design purposes because average ratings have been adopted
for the counter gearing. Detailed ratings a r e , however, available for special
investigations.

5.5.4.1 Costs and quantities of m a t e r i a l s

Direct labour and m a t e r i a l costs of the installed p r e - c a s t outlet

(excluding fittings) a r e in Australia approximately:

small m e t e r outlet $ A 350

l a r g e m e t e r outlet $A 450

These costs vary depending on site conditions and a c c e s s . The costs

of fittings, (wheel, gate, guides, bearings, cyclometer) a r e $ A . 43 for a small
m e t e r and $ A . 63 for a l a r g e m e t e r and a r e included in the above cost.

Approximate concrete volumes for p r e - c a s t units a r e :

small m e t e r outlet
l a r g e meter outlet

Maintenance

The main item of regular maintenance for the old type of m e t e r was
recoating the wheel with t a r , for protection against corrosion. This was done
each year in the winter months, when t h e r e was no irrigation. This h a s now been
eliminated by using galvanized metal parts. When the canal operator takes a
reading of the counter o r adjusts the discharge, he should check that the wheel,
the bearings and counter a r e operating correctly. Any damage to the galvanizing
should be treated with a cold zinc-rich epoxy paint. The f a r m e r ' s ditch m u s t be
checked to ensure that i t i s clean of weeds which would increase the water level
and cause high tailwater levels on the m e t e r .
 --
(Large Meter Outlet) 12 Inches tallwater
Dfscharge In ft3/s
Approximate No of r p m of wheel given in brackets

Marks on precast from

upstream water depth

(Small Meter Outlet 9 Inches tallwater

angle"^" angle^"

FA0 - ICID

GATE CALIBRATION TABLES

FOR L M.O. AND S.M.O.
RIVETTED GALVABOND TYPE GATES

Project, R e g i o n , Country
Precast frame wlth gate locked In closed pos~t~onUpstream vtew A U S r0li0
~
angle"^" ~ n g l e ~ ~ *

F ~ g u r eNo. 5 - 8
 Numerical Example

Design a Dethridge Meter Outlet under f r e e overfall conditions for standard

ratings and setting to deliver during p a r t of t h e irrigation season 2.5 ft 3/ s and in
the other p a r t of the season 3 . 8 ft 3 / s .

Refer to the Tables on Figure 5-8, which show that for standard ratings and
settings ( s e e 5 . 5 . 3 . 2), the l a r g e m e t e r outlet will give a discharge of 2.5 f t3 / s
5 3
with a gate opening of 5g inch and a discharge of 3.8 ft / s with the gate fully open.

Other dimensions and details a r e a s given in 5.5.3 and 5.5.4.

F u r t h e r R e s e a r c h to Improve the Structure

Experiments have been c a r r i e d out for some time to t r y and find an a r r a n g e -

ment with better accuracy a t low discharge. T e s t s have included rubber flaps on
the wheel t o seal the clearances. A modified emplacement i s at present under
t e s t with the downstream section of the flume the same width a s the upstream
section, instead of flared, and the floor horizontal. A gate i s installed on the
downstream end to control the flow of water and to ensure filling of the volume
between the vanes and drum.

A somewhat similar modified arrangement i s used in New South Wales.

T r i a l aluminium wheels, rivetted and welded, *have been installed but a r e

much m o r e expensive than galvanized steel. Fibreglass wheels have been t r i e d
in New South Wales.

Summary

The Dethridge m e t e r outlet can operate with a small head l o s s , a s low a s

7.6 c m ( o r 3 inches) for discharges up to 112 11s ( o r 4 ft 31 s ) for a l a r g e m e t e r .
A head l o s s of a t l e a s t 17 cm ( o r 7 inches) i s required for best accuracy.

The device m e a s u r e s by positive action. The measurement i s self-

integrating. Accuracy of the measurement i s around 5% which i s well within
reasonable l i m i t s for irrigation deliveries.

The accuracy drops off sharply with high tailwater levels. The water level
in the f a r m e r ' s ditch must be controlled to keep i t a t l e a s t 7.5 c m ( 3 inches) below
 the m e t e r supply level. Even a t the 3 inch control level the e r r o r i n c r e a s e s to
6. 7% a t 42 11s ( 1 . 5 f t 3 / s ) .

The a c c u r a c y a l s o d r o p s off sharply f o r d i s c h a r g e s lower than the minimum

indicated above. F o r t h i s r e a s o n the s m a l l m e t e r i s not suitable f o r m e a s u r i n g
flows to a r e a s under 2 h a ( 5 a c r e s )

Considerable c a r e should be taken to provide a c c u r a t e setting of the wheel

and c l e a r a n c e between the wheel and emplacement. The bottom c l e a r a n c e i s the
most critical. A c l e a r a n c e of 2.54 c m (1 inch) instead of the standard 0. 64 c m
(0.25 inch) would i n c r e a s e the volume p a s s e d by m o r e than 10%.

F o r f r e e outfall conditions, a "Pelton Wheel" situation o c c u r s if the canal

level i s m o r e than 7 6 . 2 c m (30 inches) above the u p s t r e a m floor. A jet flow
develops under the wheel without completely filling the swept volume beneath the
vanes and d r u m such that the actual volume p a s s e d can be a s much a s 10% l e s s
than the r a t e d volume.

This outlet i s not suitable f o r canals c a r r y i n g s i l t charged water a s i t

cannot d r a w i t s s h a r e of the silt.

11
5.6 PLASTIC S I P H O N O U T L E T F I T T E D W I T H A N I N T A K E TUBE-

5.6.1 General

A P l a s t i c Siphon Outlet fitted with an intake tube h a s been evolved in Turkey

for delivering w a t e r to f a r m l a t e r a l s f r o m elevated flumed t e r t i a r y canals running
under shooting flow conditions. Elevated flume i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s a r e being
increasingly used in Turkey because of the reduced construction t i m e n e c e s s a r y
(through prefabrication) and other economic advantages.

Delivery of the water to individual f a r m s i s effected by m e a n s of plastic

siphons. P l a s t i c siphons enable water to be delivered f r o m any point along

/'Based on a note p r e p a r e d by Onden Bilen, Turkey, and supplied by the Turkish

National Committee, ICID.
b

7c'J; lntoke tube

--!yoter

---'-is;
level
I

20

19

18

17 .

16

15 -

\" 14
Y

6 13
12 .
7 8 9 95
II
FAO-ICID
10
PLASTIC SIPHON FITTED wrrH AN INTAKE TUBE
9 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISCHARGE
AND DEPTH OF SUBMERGENCE
8.
4 5 6
Project ,Region, Country
yb, , Depth of submergence , cm Turkey
Figure No. 5-10
canals and thus they a r e adaptable to a wide range of f a r m layouts.

Economically, relatively s t e e p slopes and high water velocities in elevated

flume type t e r t i a r i e s a r e d e s i r a b l e ; on the o t h e r hand, this c r e a t e s difficulty in
withdrawing water under shooting flow conditions. To overcome t h i s problem,
v2
the dynamic head (Z) developed by the velocity of flow in an elevated flume, h a s
g
been utilized by connecting intake tubes to the siphons.

Structure

The outlet c o n s i s t s of a plastic siphon with an intake tube 1 2 c m long and

9. 3 c m inside d i a m e t e r ( F i g u r e 5-9).

The siphon i s fixed to the s i d e s of the elevated flume by m e a n s of a s t e e l

ring ( 2 m m thick) and m i l d s t e e l plates (5 m m thick) a s shown in F i g u r e 5-9.
The m e a n s f o r fixing the siphon i s easily adjusted f o r different depths of sub-
mergence. The siphon h a s a f r e e flow and d i s c h a r g e s either directly into the
f a r m l a t e r a l o r into a s m a l l m a s o n r y o r concrete receptacle f r o m where the
water flows on to the f a r m l a t e r a l . With this device i t i s possible t o withdraw
about 18 11s of water under shooting flow conditions.

Hydraulics

The angle between the siphon inlet and the intake tube h a s been selected a t
90. The discharge capacity of the siphon d e c r e a s e s with the i n c r e a s e of this
angle.

F i g u r e 5-10 i s a graph, developed f r o m experiments, which shows the

relation between discharge and depth of submergence. F i g u r e 5- 1 1 i s a graph
showing the relationship between the length of the intake tube and the efficiency of
the siphon ( r a t i o between the actual and theoretical d i s c h a r g e s ) f o r depths of
submergence f r o m 5 cm to 9 c m . The graphs a r e valid for an intake tube length
of 12 c m and siphon of inside d i a m e t e r of 9 . 3 cm. I t will be seen f r o m F i g u r e
5- 11 that with an intake tube of 12 c m in length and a depth of submergence of
5 c m (corresponding to = 0.552) gives an efficiency of 98%. In the c a s e
D
(t)
of complete submergence ( = 1.00 ) efficiency i s 66%. It i s advisable
D(t)
 to u s e a submergence depth between 5 c m and 8 c m .

In p r a c t i c e the w a t e r velocity under shooting flow conditions in t e r t i a r y

c a n a l s v a r i e s between 2 . 5 m / s to 3 . 5 m / s , and the g r a p h s in F i g u r e s 5- 10 and
5- 11 give s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s and a r e valid f o r t h i s velocity range.

Design

The s u b m e r g e n c e depth for a given d i s c h a r g e to be p a s s e d f o r a tube with

a n inside d i a m e t e r of 9. 3 c m i s found f r o m F i g u r e 5- 11. F o r t h i s submergence
depth and the adopted tube length, the efficiency of the outlet, a s explained in
5.6. 3, i s found. Thjs efficiency should be a s high a s possible.

F o r example:

let Q of the outlet be 15 11s

d i a m e t e r of inlet tube b e 9. 3 c m
length of inlet tube 12 c m

F r o m F i g u r e 5- 10, submergence depth f o r a d i s c h a r g e of 15 l/ s = 5.5 c m .

The efficiency for this design i s about 9 7 . 5 %.

5.7 1/
OPEN FLUME OUTLET (INDIA AND PAKISTAN) -

5.7.1 General

The open flume outlet i s widely u s e d with s u c c e s s in Punjab, Haryana and

some other s t a t e s of India, and the provinces of Sind and Punjab of P a k i s t a n .
(See F i g u r e 5-12)

The e a r l i e r types of outlets developed in India - Kennedy's s i l l outlet,

Kennedy's gauge outlet, the Harvey outlet, the Harvey Stoddard i r r i g a t i o n
outlet - have been superseded either due to t h e i r not having been immune to

B a s e d on a note p r e p a r e d by A. D. Choudhry, Chief Engineer, I r r i g a t i o n Works,

Haryana (India), and K. C. Gupta, Executive Engineer, C e n t r a l Designs I r r i g a t i o n
Works, Haryana (India).
 tampering o r due to improved designs. The open flume outlet, a development of
the idea underlying the Harvey outlet, was f i r s t introduced by Crump in the
Punjab, and underwent improvements and modifications f r o m time to t i m e . The
two types which finally emerged a r e : the open flume a s used in the Punjab, and
the J a m r a o type open flumeL1 a s used in the Province of Sind, Pakistan.

FIGURE 5- 12. - Photogr aphs of open flume f a r m outlet

(Punjab type)

5.7.2 Structural and Design C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The open flume outlet ( a typical design i s shown in F i g u r e 5-13) i s

essentially a smooth weir with a throat constricted sufficiently to ensure a
velocity above the critical and long enough to ensure that the controlling section

?-I P a r t i c u l a r s
not furnished in this Handbook. The J a m r a o type open flume outlet
r e q u i r e s m o r e working head than the Punjab type open flume outlet.
r e m a i n s within the parallel throat a t all discharges up to the maximum. A flared
u p s t r e a m head wall and a gradually expanding flume, i s provided a t the outfall to
obtain the maximum recovery of head. The entire s t r u c t u r e i s built in brick
masonry; but to prevent tampering and also to help in the construction of a
p r e c i s e section of the throat o r gullet, an i r o n b a s e plate of about 6 m m thickness
and about 30 c m long should be fitted in the centre of the controlling section in the
gullet. Cast i r o n plates, 300 m m x 300 m m x 10 m m , should also be provided on
the side of the gullet in conjunction with the base plate a s shown in F i g u r e 5-14.
In c a s e of need to widen o r n a r r o w the controlling section a t a l a t e r stage, check
plates can be adjusted by the required width by m e a n s of sliding bolts. Mild
steel plates may also be used, after welding to size. The thickness of the base
plate and the check plate should be 5 to 6 m m when mild steel plates a r e used
and 10 to 12 m m when with c a s t i r o n plates.

The length of the throat should be equal to 2H(crt) and the controlling
section s t a r t s a t a distance of 2H
( 4f r o m the toe of the side slope of the supply
canal. In o r d e r to obtain the maximum recovery of head, the downstream side
walls a r e splayed at 1 : 10 for a length of 1 . 5 m (5 ft), having a width at the end
equal to 30 c m ( 1 ft) plus bed width of the watercourse o r f a r m canal. At the
downstream end t h e r e a r e wing walls on both sides. The s t r u c t u r e i s fitted
with a gauge on the u p s t r e a m s.ide to read H(,,t).

The slope of the downstream glacis depends on the bed level of the water-
course o r f a r m canal.

The f r e e board on the supply canal water surface up to the downstream end
of the throat i s 15 cm ( 6 inches). Downstream side walls o r wing walls a r e a t
l e a s t 15 c m ( 6 inches) above the water surface level in the watercourse o r f a r m
canal.

The s t r u c t u r e i s very durable and has a very long serviceable life. It i s

immune f r o m tampering when cast iron o r steel f r a m e and side check plates a r e
fitted in t h e throat. It can be adjusted, when required, by dismantling one side
wall, then either raising o r lowering the c r e s t level o r reducing o r increasing
the width of the throat and rebuilding the side wall at the required distance.
 Gullet of outlet

Check plates
* f
Base plate
------
in base plate
I

10-

L-375

Sectional Plan A - A
Base plates to check plates to be 10 mm to 12 mm thick when
of cost iron and 5 mm to 6 mm thick when of mild steel plates

Face of masonry wing walls

qt, varies min. 6 cm7 5
L- shape check plate to be of cast iron
or mild steel plates welded to shope

bond with mortar

FA0 - ICID
ADJUSTABLE PLATE IRON
BLOCK FOR OPEN FLUME OUTLETS
Section B-I3 FOR ej)
6 cm TO 2 0 cm

Showing instollation of check plates on Project, Region, Country

base plate lndio ond Pokiston
f A// ohensions ore in centimetresl '
F i g u r e No. 5-14
 The s t r u c t u r e o p e r a t e s without any control. The gauge at the outlet i s
r e a d once a month when the canal supervisor c a r r i e s out inspection of the outlet.

5.7.3 Hydraulic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

5.7.3.1 Accuracy

In this outlet discharge can be calculated f r o m the design formula

( s e e 5 . 7 . 4 ) so long a s steady standing wave f o r m s downstream and the water
surface level in the supply canal does not touch the bottom of the roof block, i f
the outlet i s fitted with one.

5.7.3.2 Flexibility

Flexibility (Fl) (the ratio which the r a t e of change of discharge of

outlet b e a r s to the r a t e of change of discharge of the supply canal) of the open
flume outlet i s given by:
dQ 2

Where Q2 i s the discharge of the outlet, Q1 i s the discharge of the supply

canal, and y i s the depth a t full supply level in the supply canal.
1

It will thus be seen that proportionality in discharge can be secured

by fixing the c r e s t of the outlet at 0 . 9 of the depth of the supply canal. If the
c r e s t be higher than this, the outlet becomes m o r e flexible, i. e. hyper-
proportional, and i f lower, i t tends towards rigidity. With a fall in the full
supply level in the supply canal, the flexibility would i n c r e a s e and with a r i s e
in the water level i t would d e c r e a s e

To d e c r e a s e the defect of high flexibility, a roof block ( F i g u r e 5-15)

i s fitted in the gullet of an open flume, a t the vena contracta, c l e a r of the water
surface in the gullet when the outlet i s drawing i t s full supply discharge.
 F.S.L. I

(A// dimensions ore

Length ocross the oxis of flow in centimetres)
= Bit) + 45 cm

. .

*-I.
I
30
Roof Block
I

FIGURE 5-15. - Open flume outlet. Details of roof block.

This clearance i s generally set a t 1.,5 cm in the head reach and 3 cm in the tail
reach of the distributing canals. The roof block should be fixed a t a distance
equal to H (crt) below the upstream end of the throat and the bottom of the roof
block should be a t a height of 0.75 H(crt) above t h e c r e s t p l u s t h e clearance of
1.5 t o 3 cm. The roof block should have a square edge a t t h e bottom and it may
be of b r i c k masonry o r reinforced concrete, t h e height up t o t h e t o p of t h e s i d e
w a l l s and length along t h e flow varying from 1 2 cm t o 23 cm. This device enables
t h e open flume t o s t a r t working a s an o r i f i c e a s soon a s t h e supply l e v e l i n t h e
F e n t canal i s above t h e bottom of t h e roof block.

Silt-drawing capacity

The higher the c r e s t of the outlet compared with the bed level of the
supply canal, the l e s s i s i t s silt-drawing capacity. h practice, the width of the
throat of the outlet i s limited to a minimum of 6 c m ( 0 . 2 ft) and, because of this,
i t often becomes necessary to r a i s e the c r e s t of the outlet much above the bed
FIGURE 5- 16. - Arrangement of open flume outlet
upstream of a fall.
 level of the supply canal. It i s apparent (except in small canals) that i t i s seldom
possible to place the c r e s t of an open flume outlet with a normal discharge of l e s s
than 56 11s ( 2 f t 3 / s ) a t the bed level of the canal.

5.7.3.4 Range of operation

This outlet can work a s a semi-module for all heads over the
minimum modular head and for all discharges generally required for outlets.

The open flume outlet with i t s c r e s t s e t a t 0.9 y

(provided B
1' (t)
i s not l e s s than 6 cm), can be used with advantage for proportional distribution
of water when the supply canals have to be run below the full supply level. The
working head r e q u i r e d for modularity under both full and minimum supply con-
ditions should be derived f r o m the expression:

where
h i s the minimum working head corresponding to Qmi,
(wk)min

i s the depth of water in the supply canal

y1
Qmin i s the lowest l i m i t of discharge a t which the supply canal i s to be run.

Qmin
For --- = 0.55
Ql

Thus, an open flume outlet with i t s c r e s t a t 0 . 9 y and having a working head of

1
not l e s s than 0 . 4 2 y will draw proportional discharge within the l i m i t s of 55% to
1
100% supply in the parent canal.

Open flumes a r e recommended for u s e within 300 m (1,000 ft)

u p s t r e a m of control points ( F i g u r e 5- 16), a t tail c l u s t e r s ( F i g u r e 5- 17) and
where adjustable semi-orifice module outlets cannot be designed with their c r e s t
a t o r n e a r bed level of the supply canal. Where banks a r e wide, i t is used in
combination with a pipe outlet.

5.7.3.5 Tail c l u s t e r s

When the discharge of a secondary, t e r t i a r y o r q u a r t e r n a r y canal

 diminishes t o below 150 l / s , it i s d e s i r a b l e t o c o n s t r u c t a l l the t a i l outlets in the
f o r m of a c l u s t e r f o r equal distribution of w a t e r . F i g u r e 5-17 shows t h r e e
s t a n d a r d d e s i g n s f o r open flume outlets i n t a i l c l u s t e r s .

The c r e s t s of the o u t e r f l u m e s i n a t a i l c l u s t e r (three-way and four-

way) a r e s o m e t i m e s built 0.06 c m lower than t h e i n n e r flume. To compensate
f o r velocity of approach the s t a n d a r d 30 c m (one ft) gauge should i n such c a s e s
be fixed with i t s z e r o a t the c r e s t l e v e l of the i n n e r flume. With t h i s a r r a n g e -
m e n t the widths of the flume above the full supply level a r e m a d e proportional
t o t h e designed width of the flume below the full supply l e v e l i n o r d e r to
d i s t r i b u t e benefits of any e x c e s s w a t e r reaching the t a i l of the canal
proportionately t o a l l the outlets.

5.7.4 Design F o r m u l a

The design f o r m u l a u s e d for a n open flume outlet i s :

where Q = design d i s c h a r g e of the outlet i n 11s o r f t3, 1 s ;

= width of the t h r o a t in c m o r f t ( t h r o a t width l e s s than 6 c m o r
B(t)
0.20 ft m u s t not be adopted);

H(crt)
= height of the designed full supply l e v e l in the supply canal
above the c r e s t l e v e l of the outlet in c m o r ft; and
C = a coefficient having the following values f o r different widths
of t h r o a t ( i n m e t r i c and B r i t i s h u n i t s ) .

B(t) ( c m ) C B(t) (ft) C

6 to 9.0 0.0160 0.20 to 0.29 2.90

9 . 1 $0 12.0 0.0163 0.30 to 0.39 2.95
Over 12.0 0.0166 0.40 and over 3.00

The m i n i m u m modular head adopted i s 0 . 2 When designing, it i s

n e c e s s a r y t o a s s u m e a p a r t i c u l a r value of B(t) o r H(,rt), then calculate the
other, and w o r k out the m i n i m u m modular h e a d , and then see i f the l a t t e r i s l e s s
I FA0 - ICID 1
 than the available working head. To find B(t) o r H f o r a given d i s c h a r g e
(crt)
and a working head, F i g u r e 5- 18 m a y be used.

5.7.5 N u m e r i c a l Examples

Example 1 - Design an open flume outlet, with a d i s c h a r g e of 50 l i t r e s

p e r second, for a canal with a full supply depth of 100 cm. The working head
available f o r the outlet i s 15 c m .

Since h (minimum working head) for an open flume outlet i s

(~k)min
0. 2 H( c r t ) , the m a x i m u m H f o r the outlet can be 75 c m .
(crt)

With H(crt. = 75 c m , and Q = 50 l / s , the width B

(9 will b e 4 . 8 cm,
i. e . l e s s than 6 cm.

. . Adopt the m i n i m u m value of B

(t>
= 6 cm

2
Then 50 = 0.016. 6 . H ( r e f e r to f o r m u l a under 5. 7.4).
(4

f o r which, = 1 2 . 9 c m against 15 c m available. The design i s

h(wk)min
64.7
suitable but setting of the outlet i s -
100
= 0.647.

This i s not too high but the outlet will not take i t s f a i r s h a r e of silt.

Should i t be n e c e s s a r y t o conduct s i l t effectively i t i s possible, though

costly, to build a combined pipe and open flume outlet. (See Section 5. 10)

To s a v e m a t h e m a t i c a l calculation, r e f e r e n c e m a y be m a d e t o the
d i a g r a m in F i g u r e 5- 18. It will be seen that f o r H(,,.) = 75 c m the value of
B(,) i s l e s s than 6 c m . For B = 6 c m and Q = 50 1 / s , HtCrt) i s
(t>
64.73 cm.
 Example 2 - A s s u m e the outlet in Example 1 i s located just above o r within
a s h o r t distance of a fall o r d r o p in the canal which h a s a depth over c r e s t under
full supply condition of 50 c m . Let the available working head of the outlet be
70 c m . Design a suitable outlet.

Since the outlet i s above o r close to a control point in the canal, H(crt) of the
open flume outlet should be the s a m e a s that of the fall, viz: 50 c m . This will
e n s u r e proportional distribution.

Thus Q = 50l/s

and C = 0.0160

Then = 8.84cm.
B(t)

This value of B(t) m a y a l s o be r e a d f r o m F i g u r e 5- 18.

The minimum working head r e q u i r e d f o r this s i z e i s 10 c m , which i s much

l e s s than the available working head.

If proportionality i s not n e c e s s a r y , a m o r e rigid outlet can be obtained by

designing an o r i f i c e semi-module.

Example 3 - Design a t h r e e way tail c l u s t e r open flume outlet in

accordance with the following data:

Tail right outlet : Q = 50 l / s and h = 12 c m

(wk)
Tail c e n t r e outlet : Q = 80 l / s and h (wk) = 30 c m

Tail left outlet : Q = 30 l / s and h (wk) = 15 c m

The full supply depth of the distributing canal a t the tail i s 40 c m , and full
supply depth i s 100 m.

An examination of the available working heads of the t h r e e outlets shows

that if H be 30 c m , a l l the outlets will work modularly.
(crt)
and = 6 cm
h(wk)min 3
-
2
Then f o r Tail r i g h t outlet Q
= C B ( t ) H(ct)
3
or 50 = CB(t) . 30 2
( C = 0.0166)

Adopt c r e s t l e v e l = 99.64 -3
2
Tail c e n t r e outlet 80 = CB(t) . 30

C r e s t level = 99.70 ( a x i s a s s u m e d p a r a l l e l to flow

in supply canal)
2

Tail left outlet 30

Adopt c r e s t level = 99.64

The s a m e values of B can be found f o r the given data f r o m

(t) .
F i g u r e 5- 18.

In c a s e of t h r e e and four-way c l u s t e r s ( F i g u r e 5-17) the c r e s t of the

c e n t r a l outlet with i t s a x i s p a r a l l e l t o the flow i n the supply canal will be 0.060 m
higher than the other two o r t h r e e side outlets.

Example 4 - Design an open flume outlet for proportional distribution in a

supply canal, the n o r m a l supply of which i s 5570 of the full supply.

Data:

As h i s m o r e than 0 . 4 2 y i. e . 5 0 . 4 c m , the open flume will d r a w

(wk)
proportional d i s c h a r g e f r o m 55% to 100% of the supply in the m a i n canal.
 H( crt >

B(t)

Since B(tlmin = 6 cm, the value of R(crt) is 60.3 cm.

The open flume outlet r e q u i r e s only small working heads. It i s very

suifable for proportional distributors, and f o r outlets within 300 m of a control
point, in tail r e a c h c l u s t e r s and even in head r e a c h e s of a supply canal when the
working head available i s only small. The s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e s no manual control.
The water surface level in the supply canal above the c r e s t of the outlet i s r e a d
and the corresponding discharge obtained.

A disadvantage i s that the outlet i s not provided with any gate arrangement
and i t i s not possible to shut i t when the supply canal i s running.

The open flume outlet h a s been developed for s y s t e m s in which distributing

canals a r e run a t full supply level with little fluctuation of discharge in the supply
canal. These.systems a r e usually not equipped with check s t r u c t u r e s , so that
in the c a s e of low discharges, the outlets would not draw t h e i r design discharge.

In many c a s e s the open flume outlet h a s to be either deep and n a r r o w (in

which c a s e i t i s easily blocked) o r shallow and wide (in which c a s e i t i s hyper-
proportional and also f a i l s to draw i t s f a i r s h a r e of silt). To overcome the
defect of high flexibility, a roof block i s fitted in the gullet of an open flume, a t
the vena contracta, c l e a r of the water surface in the gullet when the outlet i s
drawing i t s full supply discharge.

This outlet can be tampered with by placing a thin wooden plank, fitting the
throat, half way between the c r e s t and the water level. This i n c r e a s e s the
discharge if the outlet i s working a s a f r e e fall one by about 16%.
 5.8 AD JUSTABLE ORIFICE SEMI-MODULE (INDIA AND PAKISTAN) I'
5.8.1 Gen e r a1

Adjustable orifice semi-module outlets a r e widely used in Punjab and

Haryana and other p a r t s of India and in Pakistan.

Thqre a r e various f o r m s of these outlets but the e a r l i e s t of therri i s the one

.
introduced by E S. Crurnp in 1922 and called the "Adjustable Proportional Module"
(APM). Crumpl s design aimed at fixing the c r e s t at a setting of 0 . 6 of the supply
depth in the parent canal, which ensured exact proportionality. However,
according to past experience in Punjab with this APM canals fitted with i t silted up
badly. The problem was that i t could not draw i t s fair s h a r e of silt, an essential
requirement for those Punjab irrigation systems which draw their supplies f r o m
rivers. Thus the APM h a s now been replaced in India and Pakistan by the
Adjustable Orifice Semi-Module (AOSM) which i s neither proportional nor fully
modular, but e n s u r e s f a i r distribution of silt. (See Figure 5-19).

Structural and Design Characteristics

Structurally, the AOSM ( F i g u r e 5-20) m a y be regarded a s a long throated

flume with a roof block capable of vertical adjustment in the u p s t r e a m end of the
parallel throat, It differs from the open flume outlet a s r e g a r d s the length of
the throat and a l s o in that the upstream water level in the supply canal i s m o r e than
one third above the bottom of the roof block.

5.8.2.1 Upstream and downstream approaches

The u p s t r e a m face wall o r u p s t r e a m wing wall on th,e supply canal i s

curved and flared, the curvature ending 7 . 5 cm upstream of the s t a r t of the c r e s t .
The downstream face wall, o r downstream wing wall on the supply canal, i s s e t

forward inside the canal by a distance, which i s generally equal to:

L' Based on a note prepared by A. D. Choudhry, Chief Engineer, Irrigation Works,

Haryana, and K. C. Gupta, Executive Engineer, Central,Designs, Irrigation Works,
Haryana.
where Q2 = d i s c h a r g e of outlet,

Ql, B1 and y a r e respectively the discharge, bed width and depth of the
1
supply canal section just u p s t r e a m of the outlet. Setting forward should only be
done when the bed width of the canal i s reduced below the outlet, keeping the
downstream wing wall a t the downstream end and the u p s t r e a m wing wall a t the
u p s t r e a m toe slope.

II G U ~ Z 5 - 19. - General view of an AOSM outlet t o a f a r m

w a t e r c o u r s e (Haryana, India).

The length of the p a r a l l e l t h r o a t i s 60 c m ( 2 ft) f o r a l l c a s e s . There

i s no horizontal c r e s t portion of the t h r o a t and a g l a c i s sloping a t 1 in 15 s t a r t s
right f r o m the u p s t r e a m end of the p a r a l l e l s i d e s of the throat.
 pr4/ +23 l
-
r

Bar No.l Front elevation

r B

Bar 3 mm
I
Bar No.2
I!
-&,I+ 7 4

Cross section on 0 - 8
Detoils of precast R.C. Roof
S W.G. (Standard wire gauge1

Fixing of precast R C . Roof block

G x
Lonqitudinol section through outlet
I F A 0 - I C I D I
ADJUSTABLE ORIFICE
Note AN dimensions ore III centfmefres SEMI - MODULE
DETAILS AND FIXING O F ROOF BLOCK

r
-

-. P r o j e c t , R e g i o n , .Country
lndio and Pokiston
I
I Figure No. 5-21
I
 Roof block

The roof block m a y be of c a s t i r o n but i t i s now generally of

reinforced cement ( s e e F i g u r e s 5-20 and 5-21). The face of the roof block i s
s e t 5 c m f r o m the starting point of the p a r a l l e l throat. It has a l a m n i s c a t e curve
a t the bottom with a tilt of 1 in 7 . 5 in o r d e r t o converge the water instead of a
horizontal b a s e which would diverge i t . The c a s t i r o n roof block i s 30 cm thick.
The p a r a l l e l t h r o a t h a s a c a s t i r o n bed and check plates.

5.8.2. 3 Side walls

The side walls downstream of the throat a r e given a splay of 1 in 10,

i. e . up to 150 c m ( 5 ft), a f t e r which they a r e straight up to a length depending on
the bank width ( ~ i ~ u 5-20)
r e

5.8.2.4 Susceptibility to tampering

The s t r u c t u r e of the outlet i s v e r y strong and h a s a long serviceable

life. However, c a s e s of tampering with the outlet a r e not infrequent. The roof
block i s s o m e t i m e s r a i s e d bodily and refixed but the tampering i s easily detected.
A wooden plank i s s o m e t i m e s i n s e r t e d a t the downstream side of the roof block
and covered with e a r t h and g r a s s , thus forming an air-tight roof in continuation
of the roof block. This i n c r e a s e s the discharge due to i m p e r f e c t aeration of the
jet.

Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s

Flexibility

This type of outlet i s instantaneously proportional when the bottom of

the roof block i s a t 0 . 3 of the full supply depth of the supply canal. With a r i s e
in the full supply level the flexibility, which i s equal to 2 , i s reduced
10H(crt)
and the outlet becomes sub-proportional. Similarly with a fall in the full supply
level the flexibility i s i n c r e a s e d and the outlet becomes hyper - proportional.

When the outlet i s s e t n e a r bed level, with any r i s e in the full supply
level, the value of 3 f a l l s and the outlet tends t o move f u r t h e r f r o m
H
(4
 proportionality in the direction of rigidity. A fall in the full supply level
similarly i n c r e a s e s the flexibility and the outlet moves towards proportionality.
With the outlet s e t a t bed level, the flexibility remains constant at 0. 3 .

This outlet draws a t bed level about 1470 and below bed level at 12/ 10th
setting) about 29% m o r e silt than i t would draw a t 6110th setting when i t i s
proportional.

5.8.3.3 Adjustability

The outlet i s easily adjustable, a t a small cost, either by raising o r

lowering the roof block o r by dismantling one side wall.

5.8. 3 . 4 Range of operation

The outlet can work semi-modularly for all heads and.with all working
heads above the minimum modular head and for all discharges f r o m 28 l / s to
150 11s ( 1 f t 3 / s to 5 ft 3/ s ) - i. e . the discharge range generally required for
outlets.

5.8.3.5 Suitability

This outlet i s eminently suitable in head reaches of distributing

canals. In the c a s e of distributing canals carrying silt, setting a t bed levels i s
considered the best for silt-conduction into the outlet. In the c a s e of distributing
canals receiving water f r e e of silt, a setting a t 0. 6 y i s the b e s t for proportion-
1
ality .
The outlet can also be designed to draw proportional discharge f r o m a
distributing canal in which the discharge fluctuates from a certain minimum to
full supply discharge.

Design Formula (According to Grump)

where Q2 o r Q = the discharge of the outlet in 11s

C = 0.0403
 B = width of the throat in cm
(t)

H(orf) = height of the orifice in c m

= the depression head o r height of the full supply

H( sof)
level in the supply canal above the bottom of the
roof block = H
( 4- H( o r f )
Also, minimum modular head = h
(wk)min
= 0.82 H(
sof)
- 0.5 B ( q

It should be noted that recent r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d out on the adjustable orifice

semi-module in Pakistan h a s shown that the coefficient of discharge v a r i e s with
the throat width of the structure, i. e. with the ratios y1
- and Y1 .
-
H(crt) B(t)

Consequently the s t r u c t u r a l shape of the outlet differs slightly f r o m the design

presented h e r e . F o r further information r e f e r e n c e may be made to the
proceedings of the 7th NESA Irrigation P r a c t i c e s Seminar, Lahore, Pakistan,

To design an orifice semi-module, i t i s n e c e s s a r y f i r s t to m a k e a t r i a l

calculation. Suitable value of B(t) and H a r e f i r s t assumed; the value of
(crt)
H and h a r e then calculated. H(orf) h a s to be l e s s than half H
(orf) (wkImin (4
to ensure the orifice flowing full. If h(wk)min, a s calculated, i s l e s s than the
available working head, the p r o c e s s h a s to be repeated with modified values of

H( c r t ) Or B(t)' To save this "trial and e r r o r " arithmetical work, diagrams

have been prepared ( F i g u r e s 5-22 to 5-26) in which the relationships between
outlet discharges and minimum working heads for different values of H( c r t ) and
H(orf) a r e shown. There a r e s e p a r a t e d i a g r a m s for B(t) = 6 cm, 7.5 cm,

9 cm, 1 2 cm and 15 cm, which a r e the m o s t commonly adopted.

5.8.5 Numerical Examples

Example 1
Design an orifice semi-module having a discharge of 60 l / s on a canal
with full supply depth of 90 cm. Available working head i s 54 c m .

Given Data

Q = 60 l / s

y1 = 90cm
 If i t i s d e s i r e d that the o r i f i c e semi-module should be proportional, then
H(crt) = 0 . 6 ~= ~ 0 . 6 . 90 = 54 cm.

An examination of the c u r v e s of F i g u r e 5-22 shows that for B(t) = 6 c m

and Q = 60 l / s , H(crt) m u s t be m o r e than 54 c m . Similarly with B(t) = 7 . 5
c m and B(t) = 9 . 0 c m vide F i g u r e s 5-23 and 5-24. F o r B(t) = '12 c m
( F i g u r e 5-25) the intersection of H
(4= 54 c m and Q = 60 l / s gives
H(,,f) = 21 c m , H(sof)l = 5 4 - 21 = 3 3 c m , and h(wk)min = 20cm.

The setting being 0 . 6 y l , the outlet i s l i k e l y t o draw i t s fair share of

silt. F o r canals c a r r y i n g c l e a r water the setting a t 0.6 y i s ideal f o r
1
proportionality.

F o r rigidity and b e t t e r s i l t drawing capacity, the outlet should be s e t a t

bed level, viz: H(crt) = 90 c m . F r o m F i g u r e 5-25, with B (t) = 12 c m for a dis-
charge of 60 l / s, H(orf) should be 14.2 c m , but the minimum modular head i s
a little m o r e than the available working head of 54 cm.

I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , n e c e s s a r y t o reduce H( s o f ) l . An inspection of F i g u r e
5-23 shows that with B(t) = 7 . 5 c m and H 90 c m f o r a d i s c h a r g e of
( 4=
60 l / s , H(orf) should be 24.5 c m and h = 50 c m which i s l e s s than the
(wk)min
available working head.

Another suitable s i z e i s H( c r t ) = 90 c m , H(,,*) = 3 3 . 0 c m and

B(t) = 6 c m ( F i g u r e 5- 22) with h(wk)min = 45 c m .

Should the working head be v e r y low and no suitable s i z e of o r i f i c e s e m i -

module with a reasonably deep setting can be designed, it would be n e c e s s a r y to
r e s o r t to another type of outlet such a s a combined pipe and semi-module.

Example 2
An o r i f i c e semi-module i s found t o be working non-modularly
during an inspection of the outlet. The actual working head on m e a s u r e m e n t i s
found to be 30 c m . How can the outlet be adjusted to give i t s design d i s c h a r g e ?
Given Data

Q = 60 l / s , H(crt) = 90 cm, H(orf) = 29.5 c m and B(t) = 6 cm.

Figure 5- 22 shows that for the given data, should bl 47 c m against

h(wk)min
only 30 cm actually available. The f i r s t immediate remedy i s to c l e a r s i l t from
the watercourse if possible, and to i n c r e a s e the available head to 47 cm. If
this i s not possible, then the roof block may be r a i s e d so that the orifice
working under submerged conditions gives the requisite discharge, which can be
calculated roughly by adopting C = 0. 0354 in the formula:

If neither of the above two alternatives a r e possible, i t i s essential to provide a

temporary outlet to supplement the discharge of the existing outlet.

The final remedy l i e s in redesigning the outlet with H(crt) = 75 cm and

H(,,f) = 36.5 c m which gives h(wk)min = 29.0 cm. This would involve

raising the c r e s t of the outlet by dismantling one side wall.

Summary

The outlet i s easily adjustable a t a nominal cost. It i s generally immune

to tampering due to i t s c a s t iron o r reinforced concrete roof block.

The discharge of the outlet i s independent of the water level in the water-
course provided a standing wave f o r m s .

The outlet i s eminently suitable (provided a minimum working head i s

available) in head reaches of distributing canals, for drawing i t s fair share of
silt.

It i s automatic in operation. The gauge a t the outlet i s r e a d once a month

during routine inspection by the canal supervisor.

This outlet requires m o r e working head than the open flume outlet and i s
not suitable for use a t t a i l s o r immediately upstream of control points.
5.9 JAMRAO TYPE ORIFICE SEMI-MODULE (SIND, PAKISTAN)

Gener a1

The J a m r a o Type Orifice Semi-Module ( F i g u r e 5-27) h a s been widely u s e d

on t h e J a m r a o Canal in Sind in Pakistan.

The outlet was evolved in Sind by Kirkpatrick in 1925. It h a s proved to be

a successful m a s o n r y replacement f o r the Kennedy Gauge Outlet. (See 5.1.2. )

Structural C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The u p s t r e a m approach of the outlet i s only 0 . 6 m (2 ft) long and i s shaped

like a truncated square pyramid with a convergence of 1 to 4. The control i s a
square orifice in an angle-iron f r a m e . The downstream flume, 3.0 m (10 ft)
long, h a s a horizontal floor with the side walls a t a splay of B 4
where B(t) i s
300
in c m . The horizontal floor i s then sloped down to m e e t the bed of the water-
course.

Kirkpatrick h a s stated that the coefficient of discharge for this converging

orifice i s a s nearly constant a s that of the elongated bell-mouth and that h i s
design gives the best r e s u l t s a s r e g a r d s the maximum recovery of head.

The m o s t essential feature of this semi-module i s the introduction of baffles

i n the downstream f l u a , which work a s a roof sloping gradually upwards, and
through their presence recover considerable head. At the s a m e t i m e the outlet
discharges under f r e e atmospheric conditions. The optimum slope for the roof
(i. e. lower edge of the baffles) i s 1 in 15. The optimum number of baffles i s
t
nine, of which the f i r s t six a r e equally spaced, and the l a s t t h r e e somewhat
spread out. To protect the baffles and the angle-iron f r a m e f r o m outside
interference, an expanded m e t a l sheet i s fixed a s shown in F i g u r e 5-27.

The outlet works proportionately when the centre of the orifice below the
full supply level, H(c,t) , i s a t 0. 3 of the depth in the parent canal.

The outlet i s very durable and h a s a long serviceable life. It i s immune

f r o m tampering because of the expanded metal protection and angle-iron f r a m e of
 the controlling section. It i s automatic in operation and there a r e no mainten-
ance problems.

Longitudinal secrion

FIGURE 5-27. - J a m r a o type orifice semi-module.

5.9.3 Hydraulic Characteristics

This orifice type module with H(cnt) l e s s than 0.45 m (1.5 ft) i s
susceptible to upstream variation but a s i t works proportionately at 0 . 3 y of
the full supply level, i t can be used on canals with depths g r e a t e r than 1.37 m
 (4.5 ft) so a s to give H(cnt) of 0.45 m ( 1 , 5 ft) a t least.

This module r e q u i r e s m o r e working head than an open flume type for the
s a m e H(crt) a s H in this device. Consequently i t can be employed where
( cnt)
a g r e a t e r working head i s available. This generally happens a t heads of l a r g e
distributaries, and so these semi-modules a r e used in head reaches of l a r g e
canals.

The baffles introduced in this type of device help recovery of considerable

head. F o r example, when the centre of the orifice below full supply level i s
0.90 m the working head without baffles i s 0.52 m , but with 9 baffles for a 12 c m
square orifice the working head i s only 0.27 m . This reduction i s due to the
fact that water between the baffles automatically applies the c o r r e c t p r e s s u r e to
secure a roof which suppresses the standing wave.

The capacity to draw silt will depend on the setting, and in this r e s p e c t i t
may be considered similar to the Adjustable Orifice Semi-Module except that the
upstream approaches of the AOSM a r e likely to be m o r e conducive to silt
induction than the truncated square pyramid set back in the bank.

5.9.4 Design Formula

The discharge formula applicable to the J a m r a o Type Orifice Module was

determined experimentally and i s

Numerical Example

Design a J a m r a o Type Orifice Semi-Module with a discharge of 60 l / s , on

a canal with a full supply depth of 200 cm. The available working head i s 20 cm.

F o r proportionality H
(4
= 0.3 . 200 ' = 60 cm.
 By t r i a l and e r r o r L ' i t i s found that for H = 60 cm, and an orifice of
(cnt)
14 c m x 14 cm, the discharge i s 60. 37 l / s , which i s satisfactory.

for 6 baffles = ! f d - - -60 -

h(wk) 3.8 3.8 - 16cm

for 9 baffles -- %
4.55
= 13cm
h(wk)

. . u s e six baffles.

5.10.1 General

The Pipe Semi-Module i s widely used in Haryana and Punjab (India) and
in Pakistan. The outlet may be regarded a s a development of the Stoddard-
Harvey improved irrigation outlet. This outlet i s eminently suitable when the
supply canal h a s wide banks and/or i s in high filling because an open flume o r
an orifice semi-module built in such a bank would be much m o r e expensive.
This type of device i s a l s o used in lined canals. F u r t h e r , the outlet i s suitable
for drawing i t s share of silt when i t i s not possible to achieve a deep setting a s
required by an open flume o r an orifice semi-module. The lead-in pipe i s s e t
a t o r n e a r the bed level and it opens into a tank on the downstream side to which
an open flume o r an orifice semi-module (Punjab o r J a m r a o type) o r a
Scratchley outlet (with f r e e flow conditions) i s fitted.

5.10.2 Structural Characteristics

The outlet (Figure 5-28) consists of a lead-in pipe from the supply canal
which discharges into a tank on the outer side of the bank of the supply canal.
The upstream end of the lead-in pipe can be placed a t any suitable level in the
supply canal depending upon the desired silt-draw. The downstream end of the

L ' ~ a b l e s a r e available in (105) and other references.

? / ~ a s e don a contribution by A . D . Chaudhry, Chief Engineer Irrigation Works,

Haryana, and K. C. Gupta, Executive Engineer Central Designs, Irrigation
Works, Haryana (India).
 Pipe -cum - Open Flume

Bank

Pipe-cum- A . O . S . M .

Pipe - cum - Jomroo Type Orifice - Semi - Module

PIPE SEMI- MODULE

FOUR EXAMPLES

Pipe -cum - Free Fall Scrotchley Outlet

 lead-in pipe m a y be horizontal o r given an upward slope of about 1 to 12 to
reduce the depth of the tank. The tank is'approximately 60 c m square for a
30 11s discharge, 80 cm square for 60 11s and 100 c m square for 90 11s discharge.
In the downstream wall of the tank a semi-module i s fitted, four examples of
which a r e shown in F i g u r e 5-28.

5.10.3 Hydraulic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

Flexibility

The flexibility of this outlet depends on the flexibility of the semi-

module incorporated with i t except that i t s flexibility will be modified slightly by
the action of the pipe between the supply canal and the tank. The flexibility may
be expressed thus:

P i p e with open flume

-
1 h + -
lo H
3 (4 9 (crt)

P i p e with Jamrao-type YI >

orifice semi-module

Pipe with adjustable

orifice semi-module

In actual practice, to obtain maximum possible rigidity, a pipe with

an open flume i s used when the working head available i s smal1,and a pipe with
an orifice semi-module when the working head i s somewhat g r e a t e r .

5.10.3.2 Efficiency

The efficiency of this outlet depends on the type of semi-module fixed

to i t and on the l o s s of working head through the pipe. As the amount of silt
induction into the outlet depends only on the position of the pipe with r e s p e c t to
the bed, the c r e s t of the semi-module can be placed a t any level so that the l o s s
in head through the pipe can be m o r e than compensated for by a higher setting of
the outlet. The position of the pipe does not affect either the discharge o r the
proportionality and the pipe can be r a i s e d o r lowered depending on the silt-draw
requirements .
5.10.4 Design Formula

The size of the lead-in pipe i s fixed so a s to achieve a minimum l o s s of

head, subject of course to obtaining sufficient velocity in the pipe t~ convey silt
from the supply canal.

Various sizes of lead-in pipe for various discharges a r e given below.

Pipe size
Discharge (11s)
Width (cm) Height (cm)

Let h ( o be %as of head

Q2
Then h(&) (or '6(wk)l) = 926 -
A~
X

where A = cross section of the pipe in cm 2

X

Q = discharge in 11s.

F r o m this the water level in the tank can be determined a s the FSL in the
supply canal minus the l o s s of head through the pipe. The semi-modular outlet
(open flume, orifice semi-module, Scratchley etc.) can now be designed, the type
depending on the head available and other conditions.

5.10.5 Numerical Example

Design a pipe semi-module for the following data:

Assume any standard size of pipe, say 30 cm diameter.

 Then h = 926
Q~
- =
926 . 42'
= 3 cm
2
(wk)1
*x 0.7854' . 900'

. . The working head l e f t for the semi-module i s 17 c m .

If h = 17 c m , the maximum head (H ) for the open flume outlet can be

(wk)2 (4
85 c m . F o r Q = 42 1 / s , = 6 cm, H(crt) = 57 cm;
h(wk)min f o r t h i s
s i z e i s 12 c m against 17 c m available.

In the above example, instead of an open flume, an o r i f i c e semi-module

could a l s o be designed with the following dimensions:

J a m r a o type
AOSM
o r i f i c e semi-module

5.10.6 Summary

The o u t l e t i s v e r y durable a n d h a s a l o n g s e r v i c e a b l e l i f e . Ithas ahigh

degree of immunity f r o m i n t e r f e r e n c e due t o the certainty of e a r l y detection, and
it h a s a wide range of modularity. The working head r e q u i r e d i s low,
particularly with an open flume outlet attached. It i s l e s s costly than the open
flume o r o r i f i c e semi-module outlets built in the bank of wide supply canals. It
can be conveniently adjusted while the supply canal i s running. This type of
outlet can be used with advantage if it i s r e q u i r e d t o work under conditions of
high supply. The pipe can be placed with i t s sill above the low supply level and
since the head o v e r the c r e s t i s m e a s u r e d in the tank, the design of the outlet i s
simple. No water will e n t e r the tank until the water level in the supply canal
r i s e s above the low supply level.
5.11 FAYOUM STANDARD WEIR FARM OUTLET (ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT) 1-I

5.11.1 General

The Fayourn Standard Weir F a r m Outlet d e l i v e r s water f r o m distributing

i r r i g a t i o n canals to an i r r i g a t o r o r a group of i r r i g a t o r s . It i s a simple a c c u r a t e
device f o r both m e a s u r i n g and controlling water and i s widely u s e d in the Fayoum
province of the A r a b Republic of Egypt, where the slope of the i r r i g a t e d a r e a i s
s t e e p enough to p e r m i t the u s e of weir outlets. I t can be used e i t h e r a s a c l e a r
overfall weir: 21 o r a s a submerged weir-3 / .
The i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m inithe Fayoum
p r o v i n c e i s of g r e a t antiquity and the w e i r s on it a r e , a s originally constructed, of
rough m a s o n r y ; they have now reached a m o r e o r l e s s standard section a s
described in 5. 11. 2. .
Much r e s e a r c h work h a s been c a r r i e d out in the past on this w e i r , taking
into consideration the following p a r a m e t e r s :

- width of w e i r ,
B(t)
- height of w e i r , H(bmc)

- length of c r e s t , L(crt)

- upstream corners

- velocity of approach, v
(~ P P )
- aeration.

F o r example, 500 experiments w e r e c a r r i e d out on the weir in the Delta

B a r r a g e experimental tank by AD. Butcher in 1920 and m o r e investigations have
been m a d e subsequently on a model a t the Hydraulic R e s e a r c h and E x p e r i m e n t

L/ B a s e d on information supplied by A. A. Eldarwish, Inspector General of

I r r i g a t i o n & D i r e c t o r General Hydraulic R e s e a r c h & Experiment Station, Delta
B a r r a g e , and M. Kotb Nadar, Deputy ~ i r e c t o r ,HRES A r a b Republic of Egypt.

.2/ A weir i s described a s a c l e a r overfall when the downstream w a t e r level i s

below the c r e s t of the w e i r .

A weir i s d e s c r i b e d a s submerged when the downstream water level is above

the c r e s t of the weir.
 Station in recent years. As a result of these experiments, the discharge formula
has been deduced. It has been found that the average variation of an individual
experiment from the corresponding deduced formula i s below three per cent. For
practical purposes, this deviation i s acceptable. Further, the experimental
results have led to the following conclusions:

- by correctly adjusting the radius of the corners to the width of the weir
a s e r i e s of weirs of widths from 0.01 m upwards may be constructed, for
which the discharge per m e t r e width i s the same for all widths.

- the discharge can be determined accurately from the upstream gauge with
a probable e r r o r of l e s s than bne per cent.

- the velocity of approach may be neglected in practice.

- the downstream conditions (wing walls, etc.) do not affect discharge,

provided that the downstream slope of the weir i s about half to one.

5.11.2 Structural Design

The standard Fayoum type weir (Figure 5-29) i s essentially a very simple
construction of rough masonry. It consists of a masonry wall 0.5 m thick a t the
c r e s t , vertical on the upstream face, and with a 1: 0.5 slope on the downstream
side. The c r e s t i s usually of dressed stone and the width of the weir i s defined
by blocks of masonry on the c r e s t itself. Sometimes pre-cast concrete blocks
with a smooth surface a r e used. In this way the width of the weir can be
adjusted to a very high degree of accuracy. The standard height has been
adopted a t 0.65 m which, with a full supply depth 0.5 m dver the weir, will
give a depth of 1.15 m in the canal,. which i s believed to be about the mean depth
of Fayoum small canals. Variations from this depth will inevitably occur, but
this will not result in e r r o r s of more than 2%.

The total discharge of any outlet i s usually known from the cultivated a r e a
i t serves and the crop water duty. According to the depth of water in the canal
and land levels, the water head (over the c r e s t level) can be easily determined.
As the water head i s fixed and the discharge i s known, the width of the weir (i. e.
4

the defined width between the blocks) can be calculated either from the formulae
( (1) or (2) ) given under 5. 11.4, or i t can be taken directly from Table 5-1.
 Section A-A

FIGURE 5-29. - Fayoum standard weir f a r m outlet; general

structural design.

The field outlet weirs feeding several f a r m ditches a r e usually situated in

groups, and called "nasbas" (Figure 5-30); the crest' of all the w e i r s in the
group a r e a t the same level and the width of each weir i s varied to give the
required discharge.

The flowing water, after passing the weir c r e s t , i s conveyed t o the

irrigated land through open field laterals. If t h e r e a r e banks, the flow may
f i r s t pass through a culvert, such a s a pipe ok a brickwork arch.

5. 11.3 Hydraulic Characteristics

. The structure can be used either a s a controlling device o r for water

distribution.
 Section A - A

Plan

FIGURE 5 - 3 0 . - Fayoum standard weir farm outlet with a

group 6f field outlet weirs or "nasbas".
 It has been demonstrated that the discharge per rnetre width can be the
same for all widths of weir provided the radius of the upstream corner i s
correctly adjusted to the weir width. Weirs so designed and with their c r e s t s
0 . 6 5 m above the upstream bed a r e r e f e r r e d to a s standard weirs. The dis-
charges resulting from various depths of water over the weir a r e shown in
Table 5-1.

Dischorge I per cent obove rtondord

------
*-/c---
4~~ Discharge stondord7
I

' I
-/-t----1-
/ ~ ~ i s c h o r g eI per cent below standard

0 0-5 1.0 1- 5 2.0 2-5 3.0

Width of the weir in rn

FIGURE 5-31. - Fayourn standard weir f a r m outlet.

Relation of upstream corners to width of weir.

The correct relation of the radius of the upstream c o r n e r s to the width of

the weir i s shown in Figure 5-31. It can be seen from Figure 5-31 that the
radius of the corners necessary to give standard discharge d e c r e a s e s with the
width of the weir until a width of about 0 . 2 m i s reached. Thereafter, the
radius of the c o r n e r s again i n c r e a s e s rapidly. This increase in the radius for
emall widthe i s probably , h e to the increasing action of friction on the sides of
 the w e i r . This friction b e c o m e s relatively m o r e i m p o r t a n t when the w e i r i s
u
n a r r o w , and i t i s probable that below a width of 0 . 2 m the d i s c h a r g e depends
l a r g e l y on the d e g r e e of roughness of the m a t e r i a l used. Above a width of 3 m
the action of the c o r n e r s will b e relatively s m a l l and a r a d i u s of 0.25 m will
probably be c o r r e c t f o r a l l w i d e r w e i r s . This r a d i u s i s t h a t a d o p t e d f o r a l l
l a r g e w e i r s i n Fayourn.

5. 1 1 . 3 . 1 Accuracy

The Fayoum w e i r type i s considered t o be a v e r y a c c u r a t e field

outlet.

5. 1 1 . 3 . 2 Silting

A s the standard w e i r height i s 0. 65 m above the bed level, i t i s

possible that silting m a y o c c u r . However, because a l l c r e s t l e v e l s a r e the s a m e
in the "nasba", the d i s c h a r g e passing through each outlet will not be affected a t
all .

5. 1 1 . 3 . 3 Range of operation

The Fayoum weir can work for a l l heads s t a r t i n g f r o m 0 . 0 1 m to

1.00 m , and for a l l widths f r o m 0.01 m to 10 m .

Design F o r m u l a e

5. 1 1 . 4 . 1 C l e a r overfall weir

In general, the method used to d e r i v e the standard f o r m u l a i s t o plot

the logarithm of the d i s c h a r g e against the logarithm of the depth of w a t e r on the
w e i r f o r the standard types of w e i r and t o d r a w a m e a n c u r v e through the
resulting points.

This c u r v e i s found to be b e s t p r e s e n t e d by a s t r a i g h t line between

H ( c r t ) = 0 m a n d H( 4
= 0. 14 m and a slightly curved line above H(,,.) =

0 . 1 4 m , the corresponding f o r m u l a being :

From H = 0 m to 0 . 1 4 m
(crt)
I

From H
(crt)
= 0.14 t o 1 . 0 0 m q = 1.956H
( 4
+ 0.014 (2)
 w h e r e H(crt) = depth of u p s t r e a m water l e v e l on the w e i r , and

9 = discharge p e r m3/s per metre width.

The two f o r m u l a e o v e r l a p i n the neighbourhood o ~ . H ( , , ~ ) = 0.14 m

and the f i g u r e s in Table 5- 1 a r e calculated d i r e c t f r o m t h e m .

5. 1 1 . 4 . 2 Submerged w e i r

(i) D e p r e s s i o n head. The l e v e l of the w a t e r u p s t r e a m of the w e i r

m e a s u r e d f r o m the weir c r e s t l e v e l i s called the d e p r e s s i o n head (symbol

H(,rt)). The t e r m i s usually applied only to a weir working a s a c l e a r overfall

and f o r any p a r t i c u l a r width of w e i r the d i s c h a r g e Q depends only on H(crt), but
i t h a s been u s e d h e r e a l s o for a submerged w e i r to bring out the equivalent head
f o r a s u b m e r g e d w e i r f o r different d e g r e e s of submergence in t e r m s of H(crt).

(ii) Depth of s u b m e r g e n c e . When a weir i s s u b m e r g e d the depth of

w a t e r on the u p s t r e a m side i s r e f e r r e d to simply a s the " u p s t r e a m depth"
(symbol H(crt)) and the depth of w a t e r on the downstream side, m e a s u r e d beyond
the region of disturbance, a s the "depth of submergence", (symbol H(,)).

(iii) P e r c e n t a g e submergence. It i s often convenient t o e x p r e s s the

depth of submergence 'H(,)' a s a percentage of the u p s t r e a m depth 'H(crt)' and
t o call i t briefly the percentage submergence 'r(,)'.

Studies on 1 : 12.5 s c a l e m o d e l s f o r submerged conditions have been

conducted a t the Delta B a r r a g e . The w e i r s w e r e a l l of standard shape without
wing walls but v a r i e d in width f r o m 0. 20 m (2.50 m ) to 0. 01 m (0. 125 m ) and w e r e
t e s t e d a t a l l depths f r o m 0.024 m ( 0 . 3 0 m). to 0.08 m ( 1 .OO m).-1/

In p r a c t i c e , two c a s e s of the u s e of submerged w e i r s m u s t be

distinguished:

( a ) a submerged w e i r fed f r o m a l a r g e pool (unaffected by changes

i n the d i s c h a r g e o v e r the w e i r ) ;
(

(b) a s u b m e r g e d w e i r s e t in a canal ( s o that the whole d i s c h a r g e h a s

to p a s s o v e r the weir).

The f i g u r e s i n b r a c k e t s would be the corresponding full- s i z e dimensions.

?
0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10
H/,I in m
FA0 - lClD
THE FAYOUM STANDARD WEIR
FARM OUTLET
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN H,CrIl AND
ys,FOR,ALL VALUES OF &r&qr OR OF Q

Project, Region, Country

Fayourn Province, A.R. E.
Figure No. 5-32
b
 TABLE 5-1

Discharge of Standard Weirs per Metre Width

1.54
H(crt) = 0.00 to 0. 14 m. Discharge = 1.652 H(4

= 0.14 to 1.00 m .
H(crt) Discharge = 1.9555 H
( 4
+ 0.014
pp --

H(c,t) Discharge H(c,t) Discharge H(,,.) Discharge

3
H(c,t) Discharge
m m3/ s m m3/ s m m /S m m3/ s
 In c a s e ( a ) the effect of gradually submerging a clear overfall weir
will be to momentarily reduce discharge: but ultimately to r a i s e the upstream
level, the discharge returning to i t s original value.

In c a s e (b) the effect of submergence will be to permanently reduce

discharge, the upstream level remaining constant. In o r d e r to ascertain what
reduction in the discharge of a clear overfall weir will be caused by a definite
degree of submergence r e f e r e n c e may be made to Figure 5-32 o r to Table 5-2.

TABLE 5-2

Depth a s
Reduction in discharge
clear
overfall 5% 10% 15% 20%

Percentage sub-
mergence causing
reduction in
discharge

Numerical Examples

Example 1 - clear overfall weir

Design a field outlet (clear overfall weir) with a discharge of 0.25

3
m /s on a canal with a full supply depth of 90 cm. The available working head of
the outlet i s 25 cm.

F o r m u l a (2) of section 5.11.4 i s applicable

= 0.194 m 3/ s p e r m e t r e width
 F r o m Table 5-1, q for H = 0.25 can be r e a d off
(4
= 0.1941 m 3 / s p e r m e t r e width

A s the total d i s c h a r g e = 0.25 m 3 /s

0. 25
the b r e a d t h of the weir should be = -
0.194

Example 2 - submerged w e i r

( a ) What will b e the r e q u i r e d width of a submerged w e i r c a r r y i n g a

d i s c h a r g e of 4 . 0 0 m 3 / s having u p s t r e a m and downstream w a t e r depth of 0 . 9 3 m
and 0.73 m r e s p e c t i v e l y ?

F r o m F i g u r e 5-32 the d e p r e s s i o n head H

CJL
can be d e t e r m i n e d
(crt)eqv
f o r the u p s t r e a m and downstream water depths.

F o r H( ) = 0.93 m and H(,) = 0.73 m

H(crt)eqv = 0.80m (Figure5-32)

T h i s gives a n actual d i s c h a r g e of 1. 346 m 3 / s p e r m e t r e width.

A s the total d i s c h a r g e = 4.00 m 3 / s

4.00
the width of this submerged w e i r - -
1.346

(b) What will b e the reduction i n the d i s c h a r g e of a w e i r 1.00 m

wide having an u p s t r e a m head of 0.50 m , if i t i s submerged t o a depth of 0.40 m ?

F r o m F i g u r e 5-32, a s H(,,.) = 0 . 5 m and H(s) = 0.4 m ,

H(crt)eqv = 0.45 which gives a d i s c h a r g e of 0.509 m 3 / s p e r m e t r e width.

F o r a c l e a r o v e r flow w e i r of H ( ) = 0 . 5 m , the d i s c h a r g e
( T a b l e 5-1) = 0. 608 m 3 / s p e r m e t r e width.

The reduction percentage i n d i s c h a r g e =

= 16.3 p e r cent.
The s a m e reduction percentage can be taken for H(crt)eq, = 0.45 m from
Table 5-2 a s 1 6 . 3 p e r cent.
 ( c ) A weir of 1.00 m width with an u p s t r e a m depth of 0.60 m i s
What will be the new weir.width if it i-s s u b m e r g e d with
working f r e e l y .
H(s) = 0 . 4 6 m so a s to give the s a m e d i s c h a r g e ?

A c l e a r overfall w e i r of 1.00 m width under a head of 0.60 m gives a

d i s c h a r g e (Q) of 0.826 m 3 / s .

A submerged w e i r of 1.00 m width having H

(4= 0.60 m and
H S = 0 . 4 6 m gives a d i s c h a r g e of 0.705 d / s ( f r o m F i g u r e 5-32).

To keep the d i s c h a r g e the s a m e a s the c l e a r overfall weir

(0.826 m 3 / s ) t h e submerged w e i r should be i n c r e a s e d i n i t s width by A B(t) which
gives a d i s c h a r g e of:

0.826 - 0.705 = 0.121 m 3 / s .

0.121
i. e . the i n c r e a s e in width, A B
(t)
-
-
-
0.705
- 0.172 m

i. e . the new width of the w e i r should b e :

5.12 SCRATCHLEY OUTLET (INDIA AND PAKISTAN^1/

5.12.1 General

The Scratchley Outlet i s u s e d in Punjab and Haryana i n India and in

P a k i s t a n when working h e a d s available a r e s m a l l .

This non-modular type of outlet differs f r o m the pipe outlet only a t its
downstream end. I t s advantage o v e r the pipe outlet i s i t s e a s y adjustment and i t
h a s a m o r e o r l e s s constant coefficient o f discharge.

5.12.2 S t r u c t u r a l and Design C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The Scratchley Outlet ( F i g u r e 5- 33) c o n s i s t s of an inlet pipe (or b a r r e l )

L/ B a s e d on a contribution by A.D.
Chaudhry. Chief Engineer, I r r i g a t i o n Works.
Haryana, and K. C. Gupta, Executive Engineer, C e n t r a l Designs I r r i g a t i o n Works,
Haryana (India).
 . insertion of
stop-logs t o
close the outlet )e!Jt?l of the ~OtarCOurSe

Plan

c-wr,-I
Note: Dimensions ore in cm.

Section A-A

FIGURE 5 - 3 3 . - Scratchley outlet.

which opens into a small tank o r cistern a t the outer side of the bank of the
distributing canal, a t the outer end of which i s fixed a c a s t iron, stone o r concrete
orifice of the c o r r e c t dimensions for the required discharge of the outlet. This
orifice i s kept submerged in the tail water to function a s a non-modular outlet. If
the orifice i s s e t c l e a r of the tail water, i t will function a s a semi-module due to
f r e e flow conditions.

The s i z e of the c r o s s section of the pipe ( o r b a r r e l ) should be l a r g e enough

to pass the required discharge a t a nominal head loss. The recommended size of
the c r o s s section of the orifice and the corresponding c r o s s section of the b a r r e l
a r e a s given in Table 5- 3.

TABLE 5-3

C r o s s section of b a r r e l
C r o s s section of orifice (cm2)
Breadth (cm) Height (cm)

A standard pipe instead of a b a r r e l , approximately equal in a r e a of c r o s s

section to the b a r r e l a s given in Table 5-3 may a l s o be used.

The dimension of the cistern o r tank for outlet discharges below 30 l / s i s

generally 60 c m by 60 cm. F o r discharges between 30 11s and 60 l / s , the cistern
i s generally 80 c m by 80 c m and for discharge over 60 11s the cistern i s 100 c m
by 100 c m .

The sill of the b a r r e l i s generally placed a t the bed of the supply canal and
J

the orifice a t bed level of the f a r m watercourse, unless i t can work a s a f r e e fall,
when the sill of the orifice i s placed higher than the.water level in the watercourse.
Stone blocks a r e used on the side of the orifice to discourage tampering. The
 s t r u c t u r e o p e r a t e s automatically.

The size of the orifice can be modified i f required with the channel running.
The cost of alteration i s small. (It i s only the downstream end-wall which h a s to
be dismantled and rebuilt. ) The tolerances in the capacity of the b a r r e l a r e
l a r g e enough to allow for a small change in the designed discharge.
-
The coefficient of discharge i s the same for all orifices, provided the length
of the orifice along the axis of flow i s f r o m 1 . 5 to 3 t i m e s the l e a s t of the
dimensions of width ( a c r o s s the axis of flow) o r height of the orifice.

The outlet r e q u i r e s only a small working head although a little m o r e , say

2- 3 cm, than the direct pipe outlet, a s a small amount of head i s l o s t in the lead-
in pipe.

The working head of the outlet can be m e a s u r e d much m o r e easily than in

the case of those outlets where the supply water level and the delivery water level
a r e somewhat a p a r t ; h e r e , i t i s the difference in water levels on either side of
the sam'e wall.

Silt entry into the outlet can be better controlled by placing the upstream
end of the inlet pipe a t , above, o r below the bed of the supply canal.

The main disadvantage of the Scratchley outlet i s that i t i s not immune f r o m

tampering. The discharge can be i n c r e a s e d by: lowering the water level in the
watercourse; rounding the edges of the orifice; and making holes in the cistern
wall.

When the orifice i s s e t for f r e e flow conditions, a comparatively l a r g e

working head i s required. F a r m e r s could thus r a i s e the water level in the
watercourse and render the orifice partially submerged. This would r e s u l t in
some i n c r e a s e in the discharge. However, tampering can be fairly easily
detected in this type of outlet.

5.12.3 Design Formula

 where
Q = d i s c h a r g e of the outlet i n l / s
L
Axorf = c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of the o r i f i c e , in c m

= working head, i. e . the difference i n w a t e r l e v e l s of the

h(wk)
c i s t e r n and the w a t e r c o u r s e , i n c m

C = coefficient of d i s c h a r g e = 0.0354

= l o s s of head through b a r r e l o r pipe

h@l

where .A, i s the c r o s s sectional a r e a of b a r r e l o r pipe. (In working out

hg) , it would b e b e t t e r ,to u s e t h i s f o r m u l a d i r e c t . )

5. 1 2 . 4 N u m e r i c a l Example

Design a Scratchley outlet in accordance with the following data:

A s s u m e the water l e v e l i n the supply canal = 200.00 m

Then the water l e v e l in the w a t e r c o u r s e = 200.00 - 0.15
= 199.85m

A s an approximation, a s s u m e i n the f i r s t instance a lo'ss of head of 3 c m

through the b a r r e l . The working head available f o r the o r i f i c e will then be
12 c m . F o r the drowned condition,

The s i z e of the o r i f i c e i s 18. 5 c m x 15 c m and accordingly, vide Table 5- 3,

the c r o s s section of the b a r r e l will b e 3 0 . 5 c m x 30.5 c m .

F o r a b a r r e l s i z e a s worked out above, to calculate the exact differences

of w a t e r l e v e l s in the distributing canal and the c i s t e r n u s e the formula:
 where Ax i s a r e a of b a r r e l o r pipe

which gives h = 1 . 2 cm.

(wk)
The water s u r f a c e l e v e l i n the c i s t e r n = 200.00 - 0.012
= 199.988 m

The working head for the outlet = 199.988-199.850

= 0.138 m
= 13.8 cm

Now adopt t h i s value of h(wk) in the f o r m u l a

and r e c a l c u l a t e Ax(orf) which c o m e s to 259 c m 2 .

, . The s i z e of the o r i f i c e should be 17 c m x 15.25 c m .

5.13 11
P I P E OUTLET (INDIA AND PAKISTAN) -

5. 13. 1 General

The pipe outlet i s the s i m p l e s t and oldest known type of outlet. Originally
the pipes w e r e of earthenware but w e r e gradually replaced, in m o s t p l a c e s , by
rectangular wooden and m a s o n r y b a r r e l s . C a s t iron, s t e e l and concrete pipes w e r e
p r o g r e s s i v e l y introduced a t l a t e r s t a g e s .

This outlet can be built a s a f r e e fall type if sufficient head i s available.

I t i s generally u s e d w h e r e the s i l t c h a r g e i n the supply canal i s low and the canal
i s running i n high filling. When the head available i s v e r y s m a l l , the submerged

I' B a s e d on a contribution by A.D. Choudhry, Chief Engineer, I r r i g a t i o n Works

J a r y a n a , and K. C. Gupta, Executive Engineer, C e n t r a l Designs, I r r i g a t i o n
Works, Haryana (India).
 pipe outlet i s the obvious choice.

5. 13.2 Structural and Design Characteristics

The pipe outlet consists of an upstream headwall, a pipe and a downstream

headwall. In a submerged pipe outlet (Figure 5-34) the upstream end i s a little
above, o r sometimes below, the bed level, depending upon the desired silt draw.
The other end of the pipe opens into the f a r m watercourse below the water surface
level. The pipe can be placed horizontally o r sloping slightly up a t 1 in 12 down-
stream. Both ends of the pipe a r e built into masonry to prevent tampering and to
guard against any leakage along the outer side of the pipe.

FIGURE 5-34. - Submerged pipe outlet.

The f r e e fall pipe outlet may have a horizontal pipe with i t s downstream end
above the water surface level in the watercourse but in that case i t cannot, usually,
draw i t s fair s h a r e of silt. In an attempt to fix the pipe a t the bed level of the
supply canal and yet obtain f r e e fall conditions (where levels permit), some pipes
have been laid with their upstream ends a t bed level of supply canals and sloping
upwards through the banks s o that the downstream lips reach a height of 15 cm
above the highest water level in the watercourse. There a r e practical limits to
the amount of slope that can be given and i t should not generally be m o r e than 1 in
12 (based on experience on the Western Yarnuna Canal).
 Hydraulic Characteristics

5. 13. 3. 1 Flow through pipe outlets

The conditions of flow through a pipe apply equally to pipe

outlets.

5.13. 3.2 Flexibility

The flexibility of a pipe outlet depends on the ratio which h(wk) o r

H(cnt) b e a r s to the full supply depth in the supply c a n a l . In Punjab and

Haryana (India), wherever pipe outlets a r e used, i t has been the general practice
to place them a t the bed level of the supply canal. This setting i s given to enable
the outlets to draw their f a i r s h a r e of silt from the supply canal.

5. 13.3.3 Silt drawing capacity

No r e s u l t s of comprehensive experiments on the silt drawing capacity

of pipe outlets appear to have been reported, but such experiments would be
useful. On the other hand, according to experience so far, canals fitted with pipe
outlets at bed level seldom give any silt trouble.

5. 1 3 . 3 . 4 Efficiency

Pipe outlets, working under non-modular conditions, suffer f r o m all

the defects inherent in the non-modular type. They a r e important, however, in
that they can pass the required discharge with a very small working head, (even
only 2.5 cm, with which no semi-module can function).

5. 13.3.5 Adjustability

While appreciable adjustment of the design discharge would require

dismantling and reconstruction of the structure; o r p a r t of it, small changes in
discharge can be effected by lowering, o r raising, the bed level a t the pipe
outlet, and this would change the working head.

5.13.4 Design Formulae

5.13.4. 1 Submerged pipe outlet

 1 '

Where Q - discharge of the outlet in 11s;

A,
- c r o s s sectional a r e a of the pipe in cm2;

ywk)
-- difference in water surface levels in the supply
channel and the water course in cm;

g - . acceleration due to gravity in c m / s 2 .

The value of C for ordinary cast i r o n pipe of 15 c m internal

diameter h a s been found to be nearly 0.00074.

A simpler formula for the outlet i s

Where C -- 0.028 and 0.033 respectively for long ( m o r e than

600 cm) and short ( l e s s than 600 cm) pipe.

5.13.4.2 F r e e fall pipe outlet

Where
Q -- discharge of the outlet in 11s;

- c r o s s sectional (internal) a r e a of the pipe;

Ax

C -- coefficient of discharge = 0.0276

H - head of upstream water surface over the

(4 centre of the pipe.

The discharge i s sensibly c o r r e c t so long a s H i s greater

(4
than 2 D(p) (inside diameter of the pipe) and i s approximately c o r r e c t for

but i s appreciably different f r o m that given by the formula for

H(cnt) = D(p)
 H l e s s than D
( cnt) (P)'

5. 13.5 Numerical Example

Example 1

Design an outlet for a discharge of 3 4 11s on a distributing canal

having a full supply depth of 90 cm and with an available working head of 6 cm.

The available working head of 6 cm i s low and the outlet must

be submerged.

or D -- 23.3 cm.
(P)

This may be rounded to the nearest standard size of pipe available.

Example 2

If in Example 1 the available working head i s 75 cm, a wide

choice would be possible for the type of the outlet to use. If, however, a
pipe outlet i s considered desirable, either f r o m the point of view of cost o r i f
the outlet i s required only temporarily, i t would be desirable t o install a f r e e fall
outlet so that i t might work a s a semi-module.

Assuming water level to be 200.00 in the distributing canal, the

water level in the watercourse would be 200.00 - 0.75 = 199.25. As a t r i a l ,
a s s u m e a pipe of 15 c m diameter, then:

48.6 cm.

The centre of the 15 cm diameter pipe should thus be a t a level of

200.00 - 0.485 = 199.515 and the outlet would be semi-modular, since the water
surface level in the watercourse would be 199.25, (which i s well below the bottom
level of the outlet, i. e. 199.36).

Summary

The pipe outlet i s the simplest and the cheapest type of outlet. It can
function with very small working heads, even a s small a s 2.5 cm. Under
submerged conditions the discharge of the pipe outlet depends on the downstream
water level (i. e. the level in the watercourse). The discharge can be
increased by lowering the water level in the watercourse. On the other hand,
if the watercourse should silt up, the working head will reduce, resulting in a
d e c r e a s e in discharge. In a f r e e fall outlet, i r r i g a t o r s may be tempted to r a i s e
the water level in the watercourse to make the outlet partially submerged and
thus obtain an increased discharge. The discharge coefficient of the pipe outlet
i s not con stant.
5.14 FARMOUTLET ( U . S . S . R . ) - 1/

5.14.1 General

The outlet described h e r e i s used to deliver water to a temporary feed-

ditch, up to a discharge of 150 l/ s and with a working head of up to 60 cm.

The early f a r m outlets of this type were controlled by wooden flap gates.
The main shortcomings of these early outlets were their short life and frequent
failures. The wooden gates havenow been r e p l a c e d b y steel discs. These
outlets a r e .the smallest s t r u c t u r e s on irrigation systems but they a r e also the
m o s t numerous, accounting for m o r e than half of the total number of s t r u c t u r e s
in a system.

5. 14. 2 Structural Characteristics

The main p a r t s of the f a r m outlet a r e : a pipe; a disc gate; and, for drops
over 20 cm, a damper o r a stilling basin.

In the submerged f a r m outlets,types VT- 300 and VT-400 (Figure 5- 35),

horizontal pipes ape used for working heads up to 20 cm.

In the f r e e fall f a r m outlets, types VTP-300 and VTP-400 (Figure 5-36),

inclined pipes a r e used up to working heads over 20 cm but not exceeding 60 cm.
In both c a s e s the pipes a r e of low p r e s s u r e asbestos cement, 30 c m and 40 c m in
diameter.

Regulation of the water supply i s accomplished by the manually operated

disc gate.

5. 14. 3 Hydraulics

The discharge capacity of the f a r m outlet for design purposes i s determined

by using the following formula.

Based on information provided by A. T. Koshkina, E. P. Martin, A. V.

Shatalova, D.D. Aliera and B. V. Kazarinov (U. S. S. R. )
I bO-d Cross Section I - I
Hydroulic chorocteristics
+
-bIPqd-, cast-in-situ con crel'e Free outfall
Type of structure VTP - 300 -
VTP 9 0 0
Dischorge 11s 50 100 ( 150
h k ) an 20 1 6 0 cm
&PI mm 300 400
H(crf/ Cm 27 36 47

I stilling basin- k l l 6 ~&+-104r

Hydroulic chorocteristics with inlet unsubmerged
- .
aJ
.-a I s- I
5
Discharge f/s
I
n
-E :; 50 100 150
," E g g 2 '
.i 5 g e0wI
H m ~ ~ YcrfJAx@k H c f j ~
vcf,x/ YCI~J &IN) &{IN/ & f t ~
g.8 m2 cm m/s cm m2 crn m k cm m2 cm d cm

L i s t of details

Tvoe o f detoil for detail lment w e i ~ h t Lt0

oncrete volume Detoil reinforce- Number of details according
structures' 'YWs

Detoil 0.25 11.94 I I

Asbestos cement QiJ= - - I -
pipe 4i,, = 400 cm
$;'386 mq - - - I

Volume of moin works

r
3 4
Cross Section 3 - 3
I Llrl.r
IVUIIIC
I ..-.--
wurerlu~ ? - I I.. . 1. T- v ~ eof
unit structure I
VTP-300 VTP-400
Cross Section 2 - 2 ~-zoo-+,~oo --q Reinforced concrete details
Dl )w? = 300 mm
Concrete
Reinforcement
Asbestos cement
5
kq
0.25
11.94
4
0.25
11 - 94
-
Pipes
Dr$out = 400 mm grovlty ptper - 4
Disc valves 674 - -.
Steel kg - 8.59

(All dimensions are in cm)

FIGURE 5-35. - F a r m outlet ( U . S. S. R. ) to a t e m p o r a r y feed

ditch for d i s c h a r g e s of up to 150 l / s - outlet submerged.
 Cross Section 1-1 Hydroulic chorocteristics

Outlet submerged

Type of structure VT-300 VT - 400

Discharge l / s 50 100 1 150
h(~k)- an 7 9 1 20
D@l- rnm 300 400
%,tl - mm 49 59
i

Hydraulic porometers with inlet submerged

t

1
-
O 1
a,

8;-
..
50
Discharge
100
0s
150
a 0
a:
P
VT-300
1 F E. o g h ~ ~ k l Y s d 4 4 c r t ) 4 w k )
,
-.= z* cm rn/s cm cm cm
29110067 7 0-75 13 49
V
V Y
Yss~ '
'q
~ ff h
h%q)bltl
% rr // )) 'IWXI
)brt)
m/scrn crn crn N s c m cm
- - - - - - - -
-
'IWXI vV

hfwklL-- 2 0 cm
List of detoils

Type of detail structures' types

detail

L = 4 0 0 cm

Volume of moin works

Cross Section 3-3 Norne Material Un~t .Type of structure
VT-300 VT-400
Cross Section 2 - 2
P~pes
&,=300mm Asbestos qrovlty rn - 4- -4
qD,= 400mm
-29'
PlPes
6.74 -
'
DISC valves 2 -386
Steel kg - 8.59

cm

( A l l dimensions ore in c m )

- Farm outlet ( U . S. S. R. ) to a temporary

FIGURE 5 - 3 6 .
feed ditch for discharges of up to 150 11s free outfall. -
With submerged outlet

1
where C = = 0.65
1 + s C(Hr) +

(f-P)

= l o c a l hydraulic r e s i s t a n c e coefficient = C(f-IN) +C = 0.976

i n which ( s s ) - -
750 = 0.833
90

C(f-~)
= frictional r e s i s t a n c e coefficient = C" -
with C1I = 8 N2 ( -4 l
) 7 = 0.0612
4P)
with L(p) = 4 m

D(p)= 0.389m

N = coefficient of roughness = 0.015 (for a s b e s t o s cement pipes).

The depth of the w a t e r s u r f a c e above the bottom of the pipe a t the inlet should be:

with ( h(wk) + , H(sof)2 ) = 0.20m,

With f r e e flow outlet

The depth a t the inlet, H(crt)a i s defined a s :

where Vc(1~) = c r i t i c a l i n l e t velocity,

H c ( ~ ~ =) c r i t i c a l inlet depth,

=v = coefficientofvelocity = 0.85,

= pipe d i a m e t e r .
D ( ~ )

The c r i t i c a l inlet depth (for a round c r o s s section) i s defined by A . M .

 Latishenkovls method, a s Hc(IN) -- Hc(cir)~

= critical depth for circular c r o s s section

Hc(cir)
with D(p) = 1 m and discharge q = -Q
D2. 5
(PI
Q
Critical velocity v C(IN) --

The value of the critical depth Hc(cir) depends upon q and according to
the following table:

The design discharges a r e co-ordinated with the discharges of the

temporary feed-ditches and a r e assumed a t 50 and 150 11s.

The height of the embankment above the water surface on the downstream
side i s 20 c m and on the upstream side 30 cm o r more.

Depending upon the conditions of operation of the disc gates, the upper
inlet edge of the pipe should not be submerged by m o r e than 20 cm.

5. 14.4 Numerical Example

A f a r m outlet i s required to discharge 90 l / s through a pipe, of 400 m m

outside diameter, 5. 7 m m thick and 4 m long, under submerged conditions.
Find out the working head and design the outlet.

Let inner diameter of the pipe be D = 0.389 m

Let sectional a r e a be A, =; 0.119m2
The coefficient of discharge C = 0.65
 The design of the outlet will be a s for type VT-300 detailed in
F i g u r e 5-35.

1/
5.15 PRE-CAST FARM TURNOUT (TURKEY) -

5. 15. 1 General

The P r e - c a s t F a r m Turnout described h e r e i n i s widely used i n some p a r t s

of Turkey to deliver water to f a r m l a t e r a l s f r o m distributing canals. The design
of the turnout i s adapted f r o m that of a constant head orifice. All p a r t s of the
device a r e p r e - c a s t units, and the whole s t r u c t u r e i s very strong and durable.

5. 1 5 . 2 S t r u c t u r a l and Hydraulic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

A s shown in F i g u r e s 5- 37 and 5-38, the turnout consists of the following

parts: a p r e - c a s t concrete pipe of 30 c m d i a m e t e r provided with a gate a t the
inlet; in front of this pipe t h e r e i s an approach box. The wing walls on both
sides, the headwall and the floor of the box a r e a s s e m b l e d a s one p r e - c a s t
reinforced concrete unit. Th'e reinforcing s t e e l b a r s a r e of 6 m m d i a m e t e r and
the spacing between them m u s t not exceed 20 c m ; t h e r e i s a p r e - c a s t downstream
head wall; t h e r e a r e p r e - c a s t check blocks in the supply canal, downstream of
the turnout, provided with grooves for insertion of stop-logs to r a i s e the water
level; p r e - c a s t lining i s provided in the supply canal on t h e s i d e s and on the
bed; t h e r e i s c o a r s e gravel protection in the f a r m l a t e r a l just below the turnout
structure.

The quantity of cement in the p r e - c a s t concrete m i x i s 400 kg p e r cubic

m e t r e of concrete.

At p r e s e n t , the turnout i s simply a pipe outlet operating under submerged

conditions. However, i t can be c ~ n v e r t e dto a constant head o r i f i c e should the

Based on a note p r e p a r e d by Htiseyin K ~ m t l r c t i o g l u (Turkey).

 Sect~onD D

Detail of central plate Check block Front elevation

3 number

The details of entrance

,
Section H-H
The detoll of downstream head wall
of the turnout

Note - 1\11 the are In cm

d~mens~ons

F A 0-ICID

PRECAST FARM

TURNOUT
Section B-B

Project, Region, Country

Turkey

Sectlon F-F Sectlon A-A

Figure 5-37
r
-

Bottom of farmer's ditch

1.r Cross section of precosl form turnout

30 r

25,
I
0

.
Note: Dimensions are in centimetres.

P
.
.-CC
b

F A O - ICID
Q,
t

RATING CURVE OF PRECAST

FARM TURNOUT

Project, Region , Country

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Turkey
Discharge , O , 1 /s
T h e roting curve Figure No. 5-38
 need a r i s e by installing a gate in the guides provided for the purpose.

The turnout works satisfactorily for all discharges up to 60 11s.

5. 15.3 Design F o r m u l a

See F i g u r e 5-38 which gives discharges for different openings of the

gate.

5. 1 5 . 4 Numerical Example

Design a p r e - c a s t turnout for a discharge of Q = . 45 11s

Difference of surface water levels in
the supply canal and the f a r m l a t e r a l , h(wk) = 10 c m

F r o m F i g u r e 5-38, for a working head of 10 c m and a discharge of 45 11s

the gate opening H(go) = 19 cm. Other dimensions a r e given in Figure 5- 37.

General

With the advent of double cropping in Malaysia, suitable conditions have to

be developed for proper water management, which c a l l s for better water control
systems.

The adjustable weir f a r m outlet, meant for delivering water f r o m a

distributing canal to a field canal serving a group of i r r i g a t o r s , h a s been
developed by the Design Branch of the Malaysian Drainage and Irrigation Depart-
ment to overcome some of the field problems inherent in the e a r l i e r types
of outlets. These e a r l i e r outlets ranged f r o m simple orifices to orifices
incorporating some rudimentary f o r m s of regulating valves; they were largely
u s e d on irrigation systems drawing water supplies f r o m r i v e r s for irrigating one
crop. Basically they suffered f r o m inadequate control in the supply, l a r g e head
l o s s e s and wastages due to tampering.

<J

L1 Based on information supplied by the Malaysian National Committee, ICID.

 Structural Characteristics

The outlet i s strong and durable. I t c o n s i s t s ( s e e F i g u r e 5-39) of an inlet

pipe opening into a well-chamber (inside dimensions 5 ft by 5 ft) a t the down-
s t r e a m end of which i s an opening with i t s top 2 ft f r o m the floor of the well-
chamber. This opening i s 2 ft wide ( a c r o s s the flow) and 3 ft high. The
1 3
adjustable w e i r , consisting of m i l d s t e e l plate, - inch thick, 7- inches wide
4 4
and 2 ft 10 inches high, s l i d e s up and down by m e a n s of a screw-down device.
A gauge i s fixed to the weir t o enable the head over the c r e s t t o be r e a d .

On the downstream side of the weir t h e r e i s a s m a l l c i s t e r n , 5 f t long

a c r o s s the flow and 2 ft wide in the direction of the flow. I t i s roofed by p r e -
c a s t s l a b s which s e r v e a s a platform to o p e r a t e the screw-down device. At the
end of the c i s t e r n t h e r e i s an opening of the s a m e section a s the c r o s s section of
the field canal.

5. 1 6 . 3 Hydraulic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

A s r e g a r d s hydr&lic p r o p e r t i e s of the outlet, i t i s simply a thin weir

s t r u c t u r e which h a s been calibrated in the l a b b r a t o r y . No calculations using
formulae a r e required. The operational p r o c e d u r e of this outlet h a s been
simplified by preparing c h a r t s , a s r e f e r r e d to in 5 . 1 6 . 4 below. The o p e r a t o r
m e r e l y s e t s the head above the weir c r e s t a s r e q u i r e d f o r any p a r t i c u l a r
discharge, (which i s r e a d off directly f r o m F i g u r e 5-40), by moving the weir
up and down by the screw-down device. ( F o r details of this gate s e e Vol. 111
of this handbook. )

Additional s e t s of graphs a r e being p r e p a r e d for varying depths of chamber

w a t e r lever t o r e n d e r the operation of the outlet m o r e v e r s a t i l e .

This outlet i s not suitable f o r withdrawal of s i l t f r o m the supply canal.

The outlet generally o p e r a t e s f o r a discharge of 85 l / s ( 3 ft 3/ s ) but a

g r e a t e r capacity could be achieved if sufficient head w e r e available. The
difficulty would be in taking the readings because of the unsteady condition of
flow prevailing in the well-chamber f o r d i s c h a r g e s over 85 11s ( 3 f t 3 / s ) .
5. 1 6 . 4 Design P r o c e d u r e

The outlet h a s been c a l i b r a t e d i n the Hydraulics Laboratory, with a constant

w a t e r depth of 4 f t in the c h a m b e r . Two g r a p h s ( F i g u r e s 5-40 and 5-41) and one
table (given on F i g u r e 5-40) have been developed f o r operating t h i s outlet.
F i g u r e 5-40 shows the relationship between d i s c h a r g e through the weir against
the head o v e r t h e weir f o r two conditions of flow, i. e. ( a ) f r e e flow, and (b)
dowhstream level 4 i n c h e s below u p s t r e a m l e v e l (submerged). F i g u r e 5-41
gives the head l o s s e s i n the inlet pipe for varying discharges: The Table on
F i g u r e 5- 40 shows the m i n i m u m differential h e a d r e q u i r e d f o r v a r i o u s d i s c h a r g e s
f o r maintaining m i n i m u m f r e e flow condition.

5.16.5 N u m e r i c a l Examples

Example 1
D e t e r m i n e the head o v e r the w e i r H(crt), if
-
(i) the d i s c h a r g e Q r e q u i r e d i s 3 f t 5 / s ;

(ii) F S L ~ ' in the i r r i g a t i o n canal i s 20.00;

(iii) w a t e r l e v e l r e q u i r e d in the field canal i s 18.00.

F r o m F i g u r e 5-41, head l o s s through delivery pipe

J =. 1.4 inches (0. 12 ft)

F r o m the Table on F i g u r e 5-40, for f r e e flow condition the

differential head
= 5 . 8 inches (0.48 ft)

. . Total head r e q u i r e d f o r f r e e flow condition

= (1.4 + 5.8)
= 7 . 2 i n c h e s ( 0 . 6 ft)

Head available i s 20.00 - 18.00 -

- 2.0 ft.

.. D i s c h a r g e o v e r weir i s i n a f r e e flow condition -

F r o m F i g u r e 5-40, H(crt) = 0.62 ft.

Example 2

D e t e r m i n e t h e head over the w e i r H(crt), if

FSL, f e e t above s e a level.

 (i) the discharge Q required i s 3 f t 3 / s ;

(ii) FSL in the irrigation canal i s 18.45;

(iii) water level required in the field canal i s 18.00.

.. Head available h(wk) = 0.45 = (18.45 - 18.00)ft

F r o m Example 1 total head required f o r the f r e e flow condition

= 0.6ft

.. Flow i s submerged

F r o m Figure 5-41, J = 1 . 4 inches (0.12 ft)

Differential head between chamber and field canal water level

i s 0.45 - 0.12 = 0.33ft (4inches)

Hence f r o m Figure 5-40 (submerged condition)

5.17 11
PVC P I P E TURNOUT (REPUBLIC O F KOREA) -

5. 17.1 General

An e a r l i e r f a r m turnout designed in the Republic of Korea consisted of a

pair of wing walls and an inlet floor, a concrete conduit and a steel o r wooden
side gate. The construction of each turnout involved a significant amount of
concrete and mechanical work a t considerable cost in m a t e r i a l s and time. Also,
the maintenande of the slide gate h a s been a problem owing to the turnouts being
scattered a l l along the irrigation canals f a r f r o m villages. The Agricultural
Engineering Research Center, one of the prominent laboratories in Korea, has
developed the PVC pipe turnout to overcome the disadvantages of the older type
of structure. It was developed in 1969 and h a s been recommended for u s e on
new irrigation projects in the country.

L1 Based on information supplied by U. C. Yeo, Republic of Korea.

 Structural Design

The turnout consists of a bell-mouth inlet, a pipe and a specially designed

outlet with a screwed stopper (Figure 5-42). The inlet bell-mouth h a s two hori-
zontal b a r s to prevent weeds, debris, etc. blocking the pipe, and any m a t e r i a l
collecting t h e r e can be easily removed.

- Sectional view of the P V C outlet installed through a

F I G U R E 5-42.
canal embankment. Note lining of the bed in the field canal below the
downstream end of the pipe and in the parent canal.

The PVC pipe h a s a length equal to the bottom width of the canal embank-
ment plus 20 cm. The bell-mouth inlet and the outlet device a r e connected to
each end of the pipe with synthetic bond.

F I G U R E 5-43. - View of the P V C pipe assembly.

 FIGURE 5-44. - View of bell-mouth inlet with c r o s s b a r s .

F i g u r e 5-43 i s a view of the assembled PVC pipe a s s e m b l y . F i g u r e 5-44

shows the bell-mouth inlet, and F i g u r e s 5-45 and 5-46 show the outlet closed and
open respectively. This type of outlet can be used for d i s c h a r g e s a s shown in
Table 5-4 for different lengths and d i a m e t e r s of pipe and working heads.

FIGURE 5-45. - View of PVC pipe outlet closed.

 FIGURE 5-46. - View of P V C pipe outlet open

As the pipe assembly i s made of light weight m a t e r i a l i t i s easy to t r a n s p o r t

1 1
and to install. Mass production i s possible and i t s cost i s low (;T to -i; of the cost
of existing f a r m turnouts). The l o s s of head i s low and the discharge f r o m the
outlet can be controlled easily by the screwed stopper device. The outlet i s
susceptible to damage by heat but i s not inflammable. It would be weak to
mechanical impact a t t e m p e r a t u r e s below freezing point.

Discharge through the outlet i s accurate provided the head and the length
and diameter of the pipe a r e carefully designed.

5. 17.3 Hydraulics and Design F o r m u l a

In the design of this outlet the standard pipe flow formula i s u s e d :

where Q = discharge of the outlet in m 3 / s ;

*x = internal c r o s s sectional a r e a of P V C pipe in rn2;

h(wk) = difference between designed full supply level in the
supply canal and water level of the field channel in m ;

g = acceleration due to gravity in m / s 2 ;

C = coefficient derived f r o m the following formula:
 where C(f-IN) = l o s s coefficient of inlet, screen ( b a r s ) and outlet p a r t
(by t e s t i t h a s been found that the coefficient = 1. 135);
= l o s s coefficient for friction in pipe having a value of
C(f-p)
8gN2
R(H)'/~ L(p)/D(p)
N = roughness c o e f f i c i e n t = 0.01 o f t h i s m a t e r i a l

D(~) = internal diameter of pipe;

= length of pipe;
L(~)
R(H) = hydraulic radius.

Figure 5-47 i s a standard design drawing for a PVC pipe turnout with D(
P) =
107 m m . Table 5-4 shows velocity and discharge of a PVC turnout for D(p) =
107 mm. Figure 5-48 i s a discharge diagram for a PVC turnout with D(p) =
107 mm.

FIGURE 5-48. -
Discharge diagram for a PVC pipe
turnout for D(p) = 107 m m .

5.17.4 Numerical Example @

The difference in the designed full supply level in the supply canal above
the water level in the field canal i s 0.5 m . The internal diameter of the P V C
pipe i s 107 m m and i t s length i s 6 m . Calculate the discharge of the outlet.

We have h
(wk)
-- 0.5m
 2 g x
d d
. . . .
m m o o
N N
NCOmCO
sat-r-
d d d d
. . . .
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
II I I L
r-df*m m m o o a s o r - m m m d a ~ a1 - 4 ~
--.IP-~N;
A
p, m o ~ N da o o a m a m m m m
1 - 4
m c o m a mcoNa, E
JV
I ~ m m w
. . I . .
O O , d d

m a a t -
4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d

C O
d H d d

C O ~0 ~
0 - 4
N N N N
N N
N N N N
~ Mv ~ ~ m m ' o
. . . . ; u
N N N N
1 I E
Nt-Nt- Nt-Nt- N t - N P 1 O
m m o o --INN mmv*;L2
4 4 N N N N N N N N N N
. . . . . . . . . . . . uG
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
.I
1
aN CO m m m o a ( Y t - m C O ; FI
mmd'o m 4 t - N COmm*'
. . .
d d N ? ???? ?gat-:
N N N N N N N N NNN'N'l
I---------' +
t-mCO,*
N m m
mm-t-
* m a 9
g
N NNIS N N N N
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
ddd;d
. . . .
0 0 0 0
k
Q
a
COamm
mat-t-
d d
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

4 d

a m m m
COmmo
d H d N
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

N C Q * d
- 4 m m
N N N N
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

I-mm'a
m**'m
NNNIN
00010
. . . I .
0 0 0 , o

NCO*O
Gar-CO
N N N N
. . . .
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

-
*
a,
w
0
a,
M
. . . .
O H N N
N N N N
?**In ar-t-:co
N N ' N ' N ' N'N'N'IN'
. . . .
- m o d
N N m m
&
a,
I 9
mt-'ofi
COmldN
~ 0 m - u
mTd.'m
9 m
~ - 1 ~ *- H P - ~ O t - m o t - m ~ ~ ~ m
at-cOcO
2NNN *mml\D .a - J ~
N P * O
~ ~
. . . . . . . . . . . . O. d d d . . . . . . . . .I:
O O 1 d d d d d d d d d d d N N N NNN,N N N N N
oo]oo 000.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
dd;dd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O O 0 ' 0
I
0 0 0 0 a,
4
P- N 0 t-
NcOaN
. . . .
O O d N
m m m m
(- - - --I I
,omr-CO d O m m CO m l N 0
I D O d N O O d N m a ~ r - a
O d - 4 d N N N N N N N N
1 0 0 0 0
; o o o o
. . . . . . . .
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 010 0
d dl6 d
r
I d c o d * t- 9 ' N 4 mt-mm d m't- a m m * *
. m. m. *. m.a t.- P. C. . m ' 0 . mN. Nm. mm. m* .
I O a o N m ~ m m
m m d m t- *IN d 0CQmm
I d d m * N CQ
I . . . . . I .
l d d d d N N N N N N N N N NImm
I
r - -C-Q- -m-h-l --
CO a m1d
-----I
o r-d'Nd M O N O
4 N mud' d'mat- t-COmo 4 N m m
N N N N N N N N N N N m m m m m
.
0 0 010
0 0 O ( 0
. I .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
dddd
. . . .
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
;P-+CQN L O P - C O OO O ~ a m m l ~o r - m e
F ~ o m m - d * ~ '')
m ~ m N
o ~ V I P -t - t - m m N - ~ I C O a m - 0 m a d ' * a a m m 6 . 1
; O N m m at-CQm O d N m *mm1a t-CQmo O d N m * m a 0 0 E
a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . m. m. m. m. m. m. m. m. 0
I ~ 4 - d- 1 4 4 , N N N N N N N ~ NN N N ~
z
m o m 0 m o m o m o m 0 m o m o m o m o m o m 0 m o m 0
. . . . . .
d N N m m * * m
0 0 0 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m. * .* m. .
m a a t - I-COCOm m o o 4
O d d +
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
d N N 0
F i d d d d d d d
 0.107'
4
Now
R ( ~ ) -
- % = n 0.107
= 0.02675 m
P(w) -

The difference f r o m Table 5-4 i s 0.0004 m 3 / s and i s i m m a t e r i a l f o r

practical purposes.

The d i s c h a r g e can be found e a s i l y f r o m the d i s c h a r g e d i a g r a m , F i g u r e 5-48

( p r e p a r e d by hydraulic t e s t ) .

If t h i s d i s c h a r g e i s l e s s than the design d i s c h a r g e , u s e a l a r g e r d i a m e t e r

pipe o r two pipes i n p a r a l l e l .

5.18 PIPE OUTLET (PHILIPPINES)- 11

5.18.1 General

A P i p e F a r m Outlet with a standard inlet was introduced in the Philippines

B a s e d on information supplied by the Philippines National Committee, ICID .

 i n 1969 to be u s e d i n a l l National I r r i g a t i o n S y s t e m s i n the country.

With the water management p r o g r a m m e being undertaken by the National

Irrigation Administration (NIA), i t b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y to gate a l l i r r i g a t i o n t u r n -
outs f o r p r o p e r control of w a t e r . At the s t a r t of the p r o g r a m m e , the NIA needed
t o provide about 20, 000 gated turnouts. The existing turnout headwalls i n the
Philippines w e r e designed t o c a r r y concrete pipe conduits. These headwalls
c o s t about $ 22.00 f o r a 12-inch d i a m e t e r pipe, while the corresponding standard
hand-operated s t e e l g a t e s c o s t about $ 22.00, o r a total of $ 44. 00 p e r complete
unit. F o r the 20,000 gated turnouts, the total outlay would be $ 880,000, an
amount which'the operation and maintenance budget of the NIA could not finance.

T h e r e f o r e , due t o the urgency of instafling gated turnouts and the n e c e s s i t y

for'adjusting the elevations of s o m e of the existing ones, a p r e - c a s t headwall h a s
been designed, which i s supported by the pipe conduit i n s t e a d of vice v e r s a a s i n
the c a s e of t h e e a r l i e r s t r u c t u r e s . It i s light and can be c a r r i e d by hand to the
s i t e even during the rainy season. It can be installed i n a few h o u r s without sub-
stantially affecting the water supply i n the canal. If the elevation of a n outlet
s t r u c t u r e h a s to be adjusted, it i s e a s y to accomplish and a t l i t t l e cost. The
p r e - c a s t headwall for a 12 inch d i a m e t e r outlet c o s t s only $2.00 installed
while the corresponding s t e e l gate c o s t s only $3.00 o r $ 5 . 00 p e r unit.

5.18.2 S t r u c t u r a l and Hydraulic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The outlet s t r u c t u r e con-sists of a p r e f a b r i c a t e d headwall and a gate ( F i g u r e

5-49) and a pipe. The g a t e s a r e designed f o r manual operation. The opening of
the gate i s controlled a t the s t e m of the headwall. The original design did not
f o r e s e e that f a r m e r s would u s e the s t e m for tethering t h e i r w a t e r buffaloes; the
r e v i s e d design t a k e s t h i s into account.

The s t r u c t u r e i s on the whole durable although t h e r e a r e s o m e r e s e r v a t i o n s

about the c o n c r e t e s t e m . All components a r e p r e f a b r i c a t e d and e a s y to a s s e m b l e
by unskilled labour. Quality control and m a s s production i s possible using l o c a l
labour and minimum supervision . Installation can be done a t any t i m e of the
year.

-The m a x i m u m head recommended f o r t h i s outlet i s 20 c m .

 The diameter of the pipe i s usually dictated by the standard commercial pipe
available. The nearest l a r g e r diameter pipe to the design diameter i s usually
adopted. The intake of water i s controlled by the pre-determined and permanent
calibration of the gate stem. The degree of accuracy i s on the low side.

The capacity of the turnout i s from 20 to 90 l / s , which will serve from 10 to

30 ha of land.

5. 18. 3 Design Formula

The usual pipe formula i s used, namely:

where Q = design discharge;

= internal c r o s s sectional a r e a of concrete pipe;
Ax

g 8
= acceleration due to gravity;
= head of water - the difference in water level a t the
h(wk)
inlet and outlet of the structure;

C = coefficient related to transition, contraction,

friction and other losses, which may be determined from
actual discharge measurements through a typical headwall.

On a fairly well finished headwall, a coefficient of 0.6 i s a conservative

value.

5.18.4 Numerical Example

A farm having an irrigable a r e a of 15 ha requires water from an irrigation

canal. The water duty a t maximum demand i s about 3 l / s / h a . The difference
in the water surface of the supply canal and the farm canal at maximum designed
capacity should not exceed 0.05 m . Design the size of outlet required.

Q = 0.003 x 15 = 0.045 m 3 / s , maximum design discharge

of f a r m canal
 Use s t a n d a r d s i z e of c o n c r e t e pipe with d i a m e t e r of 31 cm,
say, 12 inches.

The crown of the outlet pipe m u s t be s e t a t l e a s t 0.05 m below the w a t e r

s u r f a c e elevation.

5.19 GATED P I P E OUTLET (FERRARA TYPE, ITALY)

5.19.1 Application and S t r u c t u r a l F e a t u r e s

This Gated P i p e Outlet h a s been developed by the t'Consorzio della Grande

Bonificazione F e r r a r e s e t ' in F e r r a r a , Italy, and i s widely used i n the i r r i g a t i o n
d i s t r i c t s of the P o Delta in n o r t h e r n Italy, p a r t i c u l a r l y for r i c e cultivation.

FIGURE 5-50. - P r e f a b r i c a t e d gated outlet ( F e r r a r a type).

 As F i g u r e s 5-50 to 5-55 illustrate, the s t r u c t u r e consists of a covered con-
c r e t e pipe, connecting the distribution canal with the f a r m watercourse o r basin to
be i r r i g a t e d . At a convenient place along the pipe (normally n e a r the d o w n s t r e a r
end) t h e r e i s a stand which houses a flow regulating gate. As the figures show, the
stand consists of a concrete block fitted to the pipe and a covering slab o r box. If
required the stand can be extended by putting a second block on top of the bottom
one. All p a r t s of the stand a r e prefabricated. The metallic concrete moulds a r e
hired to contractors by the "Consorzio" for fabrication of the concrete p a r t s a s
required. The n o r m a l sheet m e t a l slide gate i s operated f r o m above, a s can be
seen f r o m the F i g u r e s . The F i g u r e s also show that the stand i s equipped with an
anti-tampering.locking mechanism.

FIGURE 5-51. - P r e f a b r i c a t e d gated outlet ( F e r r a r a type)

FIGURE 5-52. - P r e f a b r i c a t e d gated outlet ( F e r r a r a type).

FIGURE 5-53. - P r e f a b r i c a t e d gated outlet ( F e r r a r a type).

 Field ditch or basin

Longitudinal section

Open,

~inished

Ti Plan
-Ti--
F A 0 - ICID
Note: Unless otherwise stated, oll dimensions ore
GATED PIPE O U T L E T
in centirnetres.
(FERRARA T Y P E )

Project, Region, Country

Italy

Figure No. 5-54 (a)

 Plon of stond

FAO-ICID

I PlPE STAND IN GATED PlPE OUTLET I

( F E R R A R A TYPE)
Sect~on A-B
Project, Region, Country
I1 oly
Note: All dimensions ore In centimetres.
Figure No. 5-54 (b )
Note: All dimensions ore in millimetres.
 Note All d~rnenstons ore In rnill~rnetres

600 x 400 steel gate

FAO-ICID

COMPLETE OUTLET S T A N D (LOW T Y P E )

FOR 4 4 0 0 m m PIPE

Project , R e g ~ o n Country
,
lfoly

F ~ g u r eN o 5-55 (b)
1
 Materials required for a 10 m long outlet a r e :

stand (low type) - 0.25 m 3 concrete; 25 kg reinforcement

steel; 53 kg steel for the gate.

3
pipe - 9 m prefabricated concrete pipe; 2.3 m
in situ concrete; 69 kg reinforcement
steel.

The total cost for prefabrication and installation of a 10 m outlet amounted to

approximately $ 450 in 1970, of which the gated stand accounted for approximately
$ 170.

This outlet i s a simple and reliable structure adaptable to any bank width.
It i s particularly suited to a r e a s where the working head of outlets has to be kept
small, i. e. where outlets have to work under submerged conditions. Operation
of the s t r u c t u r e i s simple and tampering i s not possible. The gate can be used
for instantaneous discharge measurements. Outlet gates for smaller pipe
diameters a r e being developed.

5.19.2 Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s and Operation

The outlet i s basically non-modular because the downstream end i s usually

submerged. The discharge for a given opening i s thus a function of the difference
in levels between the water surface in the supply canal and the f a r m o r field water-
course. The relationships between working head, gate opening and discharge
have been determined experimentally for the standard 400 m m diameter outlet
under submerged conditions and a r e shown in Table 5-5.

In Table 5-5 the gate opening i s converted into the number of revolutions
of the screw used to lift the gate. This enables the table to be used directly for
determining the discharge for any given head. The head i s r e a d f r o m staff
gauges permanently installed at both ends of the outlet. The table shown i s a
sample extract f r o m the original table which ranges from 3 to 32 screw revolutions
and correspondingly f r o m 2.5 to 407 l i t r e s per second. A discharge formula for
this outlet i s not available.
 TABLE 5-5

D i s c h a r g e Table f o r 400 m m D i a m e t e r Gated P i p e Outlet

(Submerged Condition)

"Number of s c r e w revolutions
?wk)
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
D i s c h a r g e in l / s
 / GATE

GUIDE DETAIL
% ..
SECTIONAL ELEVATION

G o k guide, Grout joint

, or direct*d

I ' Additlonol pope as

I Drill fhoieg 1 noadad - not part d
(r ------ ------
L -.( structure described END ELEVATION
PLAN

wins ocmra top

VIEW N O R Y ~ LTO 'fo.c. min.
SIDE ELEVATION
HEADWALL 4"0. C mar.

DIMENSIONS a QUANTITIES FOR DIFFERENT CAPACITIES AS INDICATED

I PIPE IHEADWAUI GATE I QUANTITIES

FIGURE 5-5.6. - Concrete pipe outlet from primary to .

secondary farm ditches. ( 1 3 )
5.20 OUTLET STRUCTURES ON THE FARM

On the f a r m outlet s t r u c t u r e s and devices a r e used to divert water f r o m a

p r i m a r y into a secondary watercourse o r ditch o r f r o m a head ditch onto the field.
Structures for these purposes a r e usually small with capacities f r o m a few l i t r e s
p e r second up t o the maximum discharge delivered to the f a r m .

The type and capacity 'of field outlets depends primarily on the method of
irrigation. In basin irrigation, outlets a r e spaced along each side of the supply
ditch. Each outlet may s e r v e one o r s e v e r a l successive basins inter connected
with control gates. Capacities of outlets m a y be a s high a s 500 l i t r e s p e r second.
Outlets should be provided with slide gates o r flashboards in o r d e r to allow control
of flow and basin water level; this i s of paramount importance in r i c e irrigation.

.A commonly used permanent concrete pipe outlet discharging f r o m p r i m a r y

ditches into field ditches i s shown in Figure 5-56. This type can be used a s a
permanent field outlet a s well. Another type of concrete pipe outlet with a t a p a t
one end i s shown in Figure 5-57.

Table 5-6 gives the approximate discharge of these types of outlets.

Reference may a l s o be made to the pipe outlets discussed in previous Sections of
this chapter.

TABLE 5-6

Flow through Concrete Pipe Field Outlet in L i t r e s p e r Second

Diameter
of pipe
P r e s s u r e head - cm
(cm) 5 10 15 20 25
 SECTION
PERSPECTIVE OF TAP

FIGURE 5-57. - Concrete pipe outlet with tap at one

end.

Figures .5-58, 5-59 and 5 - 6 0 show commonly used wooden outlet boxes.
For the selection of a suitable width for such outlets reference may be made to
Table 5-7.
FIGURE 5-58. - Wooden outlet for furrow irrigation ( 1 3)

FIGURE 5-59. - Wooden outlet for basin or border

-
irrigation maximum discharge around 85 l / s ( 1 3 ) .
 FIGURE 5-60. - Wooden outlet for basin o r border
irrigation.

TABLE 5-7

Approximate D i s c h a r g e of Small Wooden F i e l d Outlets

Depth of w a t e r o v e r D i s c h a r g e p e r 10 c m
the s i l l a t the intake width of sill-1/
cm l i t r e s p e r second

" Valid in the range of 30 t o 100 c m width.

 The m o s t popular type of outlet device in f u r r o w i r r i g a t i o n i s the siphon. Siphons
a r e usually p r e - f o r m e d f r o m aluminium o r plastic pipe, but a r e s o m e t i m e s made
of flexible m a t e r i a l s such a s butyl r u b b e r o r corrugated plastic. They have the
advantage s of e a s y installation and r e m o v a l without disturbing the ditch bank and
1
portability' r e d u c e s the n u m b e r required. The flow can be regulated by changing
the p r e s s u r e head o r varying the s i z e o r number of siphons. Commercially
available siphons have capacities f r o m 4 l / s up t o s e v e r a l hundred 11s. The l a r g e
ones a r e s o m e t i m e s u s e a a s field outlets o r for diversion of flow f r o m lined into
unlined ditches. L a r g e ones r e q u i r e a device f o r priming.

TABLE 5-8

Flow through Small Siphons in L i t r e s p e r Second

Diameter I P r e s s u r e head - cm
of syphon
cm 1 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20

The flows through v a r i o u s s i z e s of siphons when operated under different

p r e s s u r e h e a d s a r e g i v e n i n Table 5-7. The p r e s s u r e h e a d i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
elevation between the water s u r f a c e in the f a r m ditch and either the c e n t r e of the
outlet if i t i s f r e e flowing o r the water s u r f a c e above the outlet if i t i s submerged.

A disadvantage of the siphon i s that i t m a y become deprimed during

operation due t o falling water level o r blockage by t r a s h o r s i l t . Recent r e s e a r c h
c a r r i e d out by the USDA to r e m e d y this problem h a s r e s u l t e d in the Snake River
auto- s t a r t siphon a s shown in F i g u r e 5- 61. This siphon i s equipped with a cup on
each end that holds the water o v e r the ends of the siphon so that a i r cannot e n t e r
the tube when the water supply level r e c e d e s . The cups hold enough water to
maintain the water level above the tube ends for 10 to 14 days; thus no repriming
i s required during this period. Both CURS must be at approximately the same
elevation. The minimum recommended cup diameter i s 2.25 times the tube
diameter. The length of the cup from bottom to lip equals 1.41 (E) - (D - d - S)
where E = nominal 10 day evaporation (inches), D = diameter of cup
(inches), d = tube diameter (inches), S = distance between bottom of cup
and tube end (inches).

R A W SCREEN
f INLET END CLAWS - TO

FIGURE 5-61.. - Snake River auto-start eiphon (89).

In border irrigation the same type of outlets a s used for basin irrigation
can be installed a s well a s siphons. Outlet capacity depends on the width of the
check between two borders, the slopes and the' soil, and may range from a few
l i t r e s per second up to 300 11s. Structures may be temporary (portable) or
permanently installed and a r e usually equipped with flashboards or slide gates.
FrequentIy used materials a r e wood and concrete. The bottom of the outlets
should be placed a t a lower elevation than the surface of the border so that the
water will discharge into a pool at the downstream end.
Dii~mmmotioSution
Through Open TIP~ Box

FIGURE 5-62 ( a ) and (b). - Outlet boxes for border

irrigation. ( 1 3 , 65)
 LIST O F REFERENCES

USDA Soil Conservation S e r v i c e - National Engineering Handbook. I r r i g a t i o n ,

Chapter 3, Planning F a r m I r r i g a t i o n S y s t e m s .

Canada. Water Rights B r a n c h of the Department of Lands and F o r e s t s . P r a c t i c a l

Information on Irrigation for B r i t i s h Columbia Water U s e r s .

S i r A. Gibb & P a r t n e r s . irrigation and Drainage P r o j e c t in the Balikh Basin.

G e n e r a l ~ d m i n i s t r a t i o nf o r the Development of the E u p h r a t e s Basin.

Edward, G. Y. Mechanics of F i e l d I r r i g a t i o n . Scheduling, utilizing Bouyoucos

1951 blocks. Agric. Eng. 32: pp 148- 151, 154.

Pruit. Irrigation Scheduling Guide. A g r . Eng. 37: pp 180- 181.

A m e r i c a n Society of Agricultural E n g i n e e r s . Managing Irrigation Water on the

F a r m . T r a n s a c t i o n s 8: pp 433-436.

F e r g u s o n , D. S. I r r i g a t i o n & Drainage (with p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e s t o efficiency

1968 of land and water u s e ) . Water for P e a c e , Vol 7 . U. S. Government
P r i n t i n g Office: pp 252-261.

M e r r i a m , J. L. I r r i g a t i o n System Evaluation and Improvement. 1415 Monterey

1968 S t r e e t , San L u i s , Obispo, California 93401.

M. B a k e r Jr. INC. R o c h e s t e r , Pennsylvania and H a r z a Engineering Company.

1955 J o r d a n Valley P r o j e c t , M a s t e r P l a n Report, Vol VII. Recommended
Irrigation Features .

Nath, B. C r i t e r i a for Fixing Outlets and t h e i r Commands of P e r e n n i a l I r r i g a t i o n

19 69 S y s t e m s in Northern India. 5th I r r i g a t i o n P r a c t i c e s Seminar NESA
Region, New Delhi.

L a m b a , S. S. and Murthy, A. N. Determination of Command A r e a of Outlets.

1969 5th I r r i g a t i o n P r a c t i c e s S e m i n a r NESA Region, New Delhi.

Cummins, J. Check S t r u c t u r e s in I r r i g a t i o n Channels. ICID Annual Bulletin.

1959

U. S. A. USDA B u r e a u of Reclamation, Washington. I r r i g a t i o n A d v i s e r s ' Guide.

1951

Robinson, E . P . Water Right S t r u c t u r e s f o r F a r m Channels. Victoria State

19 64 R i v e r s and Water Supply Commission, Melbourne.

P o r t l a n d Cement A s s o c . , Chicago. I r r i g a t i o n with Concrete P i p e .

1952
 L i s t of References
Cont'd.

16. Proceedings of The ASCE ( J R 4 ) - Rectangular Cut-throat Flow ~ e a s u r i Flume.

n~
1967

17. Butler, S. S. Irrigation Systems of the T i g r i s and Euphrates Valleys. P r o c . ASCE,

1960 ( J R ~ )No 86

18. Second Regional Irrigation p r a c t i c e s Leadership Seminar, Teheran.

1958

Rolley, P. Ameliorations Agricoles. Irrigations. 480 p. L i b r a i r i e J. -B.

1953 ~ a i l l i ' e r e & Fils. 19, Rue Hautefeuille, P a r i s .

Lauritzen, C. W. Butyl for the Collection, Storage and Conveyance of Water.

1967 Bull. 465 Utah State University, Logan, U. S. A. r

Colorado State University Experiment Station - F a r m Irrigation Structures.

1966 Bulletin No.496-S. F o r t Collins. .

Houk, I. E. Irrigation Engineering. Vol I and 11. John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York
1951

OEEC, Greece - F a r m Irrigation. Report on a Training Course.

1954

Boardman, J. A Comparative Study of Irrigation Canal Outlets. University of

1966 Southampton, Department of Civil Engineering.

Mahbub, S. J. and Gulhati, N. D. Irrigation Outlets. 184 p. Atma Ram & Sons,
1951 K a s h m e r e Gate, Delhi.

USDA Bureau of Reclamation, Reclamation Manual - Canals and Related Structures.

1952 Design Supplement No 3 to P a r t 2 Engineering Design of Volume X,
Design and Construction.

USDA Soil Conservation Service, National Engineering Handbook - Irrigation.

1967 Chapter 3, Section 15. Planning F a r m Irrigation Systems. Washington.

Neyrpic Grenoble - ~ k a l i s a t i o n sNeyrpic dans l e domaine de l'irrigation. R. J. 580.

29. Rouse, H. Engineering Hydraulics. Proceedings of the Fourth Hydraulic

1949 Conference, Iowa, Institute of Hydraulic Research, Iowa, June 12-15.
John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York.

30. Priyani, V. B. Irrigation Engineering. Revised Edition. Charotar Book Stall

1964 Tulsi Sadan, 'Statron Road, Anand, India.

31. Cantor, L. M. A World Geography of Irrigation. Olives & Boyd, Tweeddale Court,
Edinburgh and 3 9 Welbeck
~ Street, London.
 L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s
Cont'd.

Ozal, K. P r i n c i p l e s and Methods of Capacity Determination of I r r i g a t i o n

1965 Distribution Systems. Miihendislik Fakiiltesi, Ankara, Yayin,
Publication No 22. Ankara.

Robinson A. R. e t al. Distribution Control and M e a s u r e m e n t of I r r i g a t i o n Water on

1963 the F a r m . USDA Miscellaneous Publication No 926.

Thomas, C. W. World P r a c t i c e s i n Water M e a s u r e m e n t a t Turnouts. Journ.

1960 I r r i g . & Drainage Division. ASCE. 86 (IR2: pp 29-54).

Associazione Nationale della Bonifiche delle I r r i g a z i o n i e dg Migliamenti fondiari -

1958 Manufatti Idraulici N o r m a l i p e r l a Bonifica e l ' i r r i g a z i o n e . Tipographia
Tip. Roma.

P e t e r k a , A. J. Water M e a s u r e m e n t P r o c e d u r e s . I r r i g a t i o n O p e r a t o r s ' Workshop

19 64 USBR Division of I r r i g a t i o n Operations Office of Chief Engineer, Denver,
Col.

F r e e m a n , P. A. F l u i d i c s in Water Management. A g r i c u l t u r a l Engineering, June.

1971 0

H a r z a Engineering Company International. Etude d'un P r o g r a m m e d 1 ~ r n e / n a g e m e n t

19 69 Hydro-Agricole d e s T e r r e s Rizicultivables d e l a ~ a s s e - ~ u i n e / eRapport
.
F i n a l Vol IV, Juillet.

H e r sey-Sparling M e t e r Company. Sparling I r r i g a t i o n M e t e r s . Bulletin 500.

1964

R a y a r a t n a m , V. N. Distribut?on S y s t e m s to S e r v e S m a l l Holdings. 3 r d Regional

1960 I r r i g a t i o n P r a c t i c e s L e a d e r ship Seminar, L a h o r e . F A 0 l i b r a r y :
631.6(063)/N27/ 1960.

Deloye, M. and Rebour, H. L 1 i r r i g a t i o n en grande culture. ~ r e / ~ a r a t i oe tn

1958 gali is at ion d'un p r o j e c t d'irrigation k l a f e r m e . 286 p. P a r i s .

USDA :Soil Conservation S e r v i c e - Conservation Irrigation in Humid A r e a s .

1957 A g r i c u l t u r e Handbook No 107. Washington.

USDI/USDA - I r r i g a t i o n on Western F a r m s . Agric. Inf. Bull. No 199.

1959

FA0 - R e p o r t t o the Government of t h e U.A. R. .for Improvement of I r r i g .

1963 Practices. By Doneen, L.D. Rome.

Neyrpic - Emploi d e s a p p a r e i l s automatiques de distribution d'eau s u r l e s r g s e a u x

1951 d ' i r r i g a t i o n en canaux a commande p a r l'amont.

Darloi, A. ~ ' a m 6 n a ~ e m e d n et s s o l s en vue d e l ' i r r i g a t i o n . Publication du C e n t r e

1956 n ~ g n i eR u r a l de Rabat, No 6, Oct.
d e R e c h e r c h e s e t d ' ~ x ~ k r i m e n t a t i odu
 L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s
Contld.

47. King, H. W. Handbook of Hydraulics F o r t h e Solution of Hydraulic P r o b l e m s , 4th

1954 Edition. McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc. New York.

48. FA0 - Survey of I r r i g a t i o n P o s s i b i l i t i e s in the H a r i Rud and Upper Kabul R i v e r

1970 B a s i n s , Afghanistan. F i n a l Report.

49. USBR - Water M e a s u r e m e n t Manual, Second Edition, Denver, Col.

1967 9

50. Milinusic, B. M; Some P r o p o s a l s .on the Design of Irrigation S y s t e m s . Republic

19 66 of Cyprus, M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e & Natural R e s o u r c e s , Dept. of Water
Development. Report No 12. Nicosia.

51. .
Skogerboe, G. V. e t a l . R e s e a r c h Topics f o r Small I r r i g a t i o n S t r u c t u r e s . J o u r n a l
1970 of the I r r i g . & Drainage Division. P r o c e e d i n g s of the ASCE. IR 3. Sept.
p p 309-317.

52. Murley, K. A. I r r i g a t i o n Channel S t r u c t u r e s , Victoria, A u s t r a l i a . J o u r n a l of the

1970 I r r i g . & Drainage Division. P r o c e e d i n g s of the ASCE. IR 3, June.
pp 131-150.

53. Nugteren, J. Technical A s p e c t s of Water Conveyance and Distribution S y s t e m s .

1971 Working Document f o r FAO/UNDP Regional Seminar on the Effective
U s e of I r r i g a t i o n Water at the F a r m Level held in D a m a s c u s , S y r i a ,
Dec.

54. USBR - Canals and Related S t r u c t u r e s Design Standards No 3. Denver, Col.

1967

55. ICID - Hydraulic S t r u c t u r e s on I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage S y s t e m s . T r a n s a c t i o n s of

1957 the Third C o n g r e s s on I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage, Vol IV. New Delhi.

56. Oficina Nacional d e D e s a r r o l l o Communal, P e r u . Manual d e PegueEas O b r a s de

1968 Regadio. P r o y e c t o d e D e s a r r o l l o e h t e g r a c i o n d e l a Poblacion
Campe sina.

57. FAOfUNESCO - International Source book on I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage of A r i d Lands.

58. Humpherys, A. S. Mechanical S t r u c t u r e s f o r F a r m Irrigation. J o u r n a l of the

0 1969 I r r i g . & Drainage Division. P r o c e e d i n g s of the ASCE, Dec.

59. Bondurant, J.A. e t al. Cast-In-Place Concrete Trapezoidal Measuring F l u m e s .

1969 USDA, ARS 41-155, Nov.

60. Hurnpherys, A. S. and Robinson, A. R. F i e l d Evaluation of Drop- Check S t r u c t u r e s

1971 f o r F a r m I r r i g a t i o n Systems. USDA, ARS 41 - 180. March.
 L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s
Cont'd.

61. WMO - U s e of W e i r s and F l u m e s in S t r e a m Gauging. Technical Note No 117.

1971

62. Livingston, A. C. Control G a t e s for I r r i g a t i o n and D r a i n a g e P r o j e c t s .

1960 Communications of the 4th C o n g r e s s of ICID, Madrid.

63. Hernandez, N. M. I r r i g a t i o n S t r u c t u r e s . Section 34 i n Davis, Handbook of Applied

19 69 Hydraulics.

64. A r m c o Steel Corporation, Metal P r o d u c t s Division. A r m c o G a t e s for I r r i g a t i o n

197 1 and Other Low Head Applications. Catalog G- 1057 1, Middletown, Ohio.

65. Johnston, C. N. F a r m I r r i g a t i o n S t r u c t u r e s . University of California Agric. Exp.

Station. C i r c u l a r 362. 7945.

66. Blair, E . Manual d e Riegos y Avenamiento. Institute I n t e r a m e r i c a n o de Ciencias

Agricolas. L i m a , P e r u .

67. Nazionale Delle Bonifiche, delle I r r i g a z i o n i e dei Miglioramenti F o n d i a r i .

1958 Mannfatti Idraulici N o r m a l i p e r l a Bonifica e l l I r r i g a z i o n e (Standard
Hydraulic S t r u c t u r e s f o r Reclamation and I r r i g a t i o n ) . Supplement to
0 Bulletin No 9. Rome.

68. Lancastre - Manual dlHydraulique. Eyrolles.

69. Neyrpic - I r r i g a t i o n Canal Equipment. P a r i s , Grenoble.

1958
70. Di Ricco, G. L I I r r i g a z i o n e dei T e r r e n i . Edizioni Agricole. Bologna.
1967

71. Boyaci, R. and Savaskan, C. F a r m Layout and Distribution S y s t e m s - C u m r a -

19 64 Karkin I r r i g a t i o n Development P r o j e c t . Report on the 5th I r r i g a t i o n
P r a c t i c e s S e m i n a r , NESA Region, New Delhi.

,-
72. De L o s R i o s R o m e r o , D . F . Consideraciones Sobre F u t u r o s P r o y e c t o s d e O b r a s
19 63 en l a s Zonas Regables. Ministry of Agriculture, Spain.

73. Robinson,A. R. an& Humpherys, A. S. Water Control and M e a s u r e m e n t on the

1967 F a r m . I r r i g a t i o n of Agricultural Land. U. S. A. 1967.

74. USDA Soil Conservation S e r v i c e - Engineering Handbook Section 11, Standard

S t r u c t u r a l P l a n s . Lincoln, Nebraska.

75. U. S. A. w a t e r Control Corp. - Water-Cnntrol I r r i g a t i o n S t r u c t u r e s . Bulletin

HW-103. C r y s t a l Lake, Ill.

76. P r e s s , H. Stauanlagen und W a s s e r k r a f t w e r k e I1 Teil. Wehre, B e r l i n .

1959
 L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s
Contld.

77. Nugteren, J. Technical A s p e c t s of Water Conveyance and Distribution S y s t e m s .

1971 P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t the F A 0 Seminar on The Effective u s e of I r r i g a t i o n
Water a t t h e F a r m Levelc D a m a s c u s .

78. FA0 - Automated I r r i g a t i o n - Regulation of a Hydraulic S y s t e m by Cle/ment, R.

1971 Automated I r r i g a t i o n - I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage P a p e r No 5.

79. ICID - Eighth C o n g r e s s on I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage, Question 28.2. Reports for

1972 Discussion. Varna.

80. Thomas, C. W. World P r a c t i c e s in Water M e a s u r e m e n t s a t Turnouts. Journal

19 60 of the I r r i g a t i o n & Drainage Division. IR2, June.

81. USDI B u r e a u of Reclamation - Water M e a s u r e m e n t Manual. Second Ed.

19 67 Denver, Col.

82. USDA Soil Conservation S e r v i c e - National Engineering Handbook. M e a s u r e m e n t of

1962 I r r i g a t i o n Water. Section 15 Irrigation, Chapter 9. Washington.

83. Tsu- Yang Wu. Effects of Settlement on .Flume Ratings. Water Management
1971 Technical Report No 12, Colorado State University, F o r t Collins
Colorado.
L' 4
84. S e c r e t a r i a t d l E t a t aux Affaires ~ t r a n ~ k r -e sTechniques R u r a l e s en Afrique.
1970 4. L e s Ouvrages dlun petit r g s e a u d l i r r i g a t i o n .

85. Skogerboc, G. V . , Bennett, R. S. and Walker, W. R. Installation and F i e l d Use of

1972 Cut-throat F l u m e s for Water Management. Water Management
Technical Report No 19, Colorado State University, F o r t Collins,
March.

86. Bennett, R. S. Cut- t h r o a t F l u m e D i s c h a r g e Relations. Water Management

1972 Technical Report No 16. Colorado State University, F o r t Collins,
March.

87. USDA Agricultural R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e - C a s t - i n - P l a c e Concrete Trapezoidal

1969 Measuring F l u m e s .

88. Ozal, K. and Ozsoy, E . Measuring Devices for F a r m Turnouts and P i p e s .

M. E. Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.

89. Worstell, R. V. The Snake River Auto-Start Siphon Tube. A g r i c u l t u r a l

1971 Engineering, Vol 52, October.

90. ICID - Hydraulic S t r u c t u r e s on Small Channels. Question 24, Seventh C o n g r e s s -

1969 on I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage, Mexico City.
 L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s
Contfd.

91. Ponzoulet, J. M. and P o r c h e r o n , R. Utilization dfun ordinatein pour l e calcul d e s

19 67 r g s e a u x m o d e r n e s d l i r r i g a t i o n - calcul pratique d e s debits a l a
"demande" optimisation d e s p a r a m & t r es d e s canalisations. ICID
Annual Bulletin.

92. Starosolszky, 0. Measuring I r r i g a t i o n Water f o r Investigating the efficiency of

19 62 a n I r r i g a t i o n System. ICID Annual Bulletin.

93. Canada - A l b e r t a Department of Agriculture, Water Re s o u r c e s Division.

Commonly u s e d F a r m I r r i g a t i o n S t r u c t u r e s .

94. P r o c e e d i n g s of the A m e r i c a n Society of Civil E n g i n e e r s . Operation and

1973 Maintenance of Irrigation and Drainage S y s t e m s . Journal of the
I r r i g a t i o n & Drainage Division, Vol 99, No IR 3: pp 237- 338.

95. King, H. TN. Handbook of Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York.

96. Va-son-Boonkird. C u l v e r t s a s Flow Measuring Devices. Water Management

1972 Technical R e p o r t No 17, Colorado State University, F o r t Collins,
Colorado, F e b r u a r y .

97. V e r d i e r , J. and ~ a ~ n \ e r e J.
s , ~ i f f g r e n t stypes d e stations de pompage
automatiques. L a Houille Blanche, 5: pp 593- 61 0.

98. Conseil supe/rieur de l f A g r i c u l t u r e Roumaine. Fonctionnement e t rAgulation

d e s canaux d l i r r i g a t i o n . ~ & r i m k t r cea r a s u .

99. FA0 - Automated 1rrigatio.n. European Commission on Agriculture. Working

1971 P a r t y on Water R e s o u r c e s and Irrigation. Tel Aviv, I s r a e l , 1970.
I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage P a p e r No 5. Rome.

100. Humpherys, A. S. , Garton, J. E. and K r u s e , E . G. Auto-Mechanization of Open

1970 .
Channel Distribution S y s t e m s P r o c e e d i n g s of the National I r r i g a t i o n
Symposium, November 1970. 20 p. USDA, U. S. A.

101. Humpherys, A. S. Automatic Equipment for Surface I r r i g a t i o n . Working P a p e r

7 1968 f o r presentation a t 19 68 Annual Meeting of the Oregon Reclamation
C o n g r e s s , USDA, Kimberley, Idaho, U. S. A.

102. Shipley, H. Development of Automation on Salt River P r o j e c t . Journal of the

1970 I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage Division, ASCE, June.

103. ASAE Agricultural E n g i n e e r s Year Book - Trapezoidal F l u m e s for I r r i g a t i o n

1973 F l o w Measurement. Tentative Standard: ASAE S359T.

104. Bos, M. G. The Romijn Movable Measuring c u m Regulating Weir. Working Paper,
1972 International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement,
Wageningen, the Netherlands. 1972.
 L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s
Cont'd.

105. Khushalani, K.B. Irrigation, Vol VI, Distribution Works. C e n t r a l Water and
1954 P o w e r Commission, India.

106. Skogerboe, G. V. e t a l . Check-Drop-Energy D i s s i p a t o r S t r u c t u r e s i n I r r i g a t i o n

S y s t e m s . CUSUSWASH Water Management Technical R e p o r t No 9, May,
Colorado State University, Denver, Col.

107. Colorado State University - Commonly Used Drawings f o r Open I r r i g a t i o n S y s t e m s .

1970 Report No CB-5, Revised, Denver, Col.

108. USDA Soil Conservation S e r v i c e - Engineering F i e l d Manual. Washington.

1970

109. ASCE - Operation and Maintenance of I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage Systems. J o u r n a l

1973 of the Irrigation-and Drainage Division, Vol 99, No IR 3, September.

110. Abdul Hamid. Distribution and M e a s u r e m e n t of I r r i g a t i o n Supplies in West

1957 P a k i s t a n . ICID T r a n s . 3 r d C o n g r e s s I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage, Vol IV
Q 9, R 18, pp 9.235 - 9. 250. New Delhi.

111. Blackwell, B. T. Calibration of the Constant-Head Orifice Turnout - 1:2 Scale

1946 Model. USBR Hydraulic L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t No Hyd- 21 6, November
(unpublished).

112. B u t c h e r , A.D. C l e a r Overfall W e i r s .

1922

113. Butcher, A.D. Submerged W e i r s and Standing Wave W e i r s .

1933

114. Egypt - Ministry of P u b l i c Works, Calibration of R e g u l a t o r s and W e i r s .

1935

1 15. C r u m p , E . S. Moduling of Irrigation Channels. Punjab I r r i g a t i o n Branch, P a p e r

1922 No 26, G o v t . P r e s s , Punjab, Lahore.

116. K o r e a - A g r i c . E n g r . R e s . Centre. . E x p e r i m e n t for PVC P i p e Turnout. Hydraulic

1969 E x p e r i m e n t Report No 47, D e c e m b e r .

117. Hamid, Chowdhry Abdul. Distribution and M e a s u r e m e n t of Irrigation Supplies

1957 i n West P a k i s t a n . ICID, T r a n s . 3 r d C o n g r e s s on Irrigation and
Drainage, Vol IV, Q 9, R 18, pp 9. 234 - 9.250. New Delhi.

118. Inglis, C. C. Modules and Semi-Modules f o r I r r i g a t i o n . P r o c . Bombay Engng.

1921 Congr., Bombay, Vol IX, P a p e r No 8.

119. Kruse,E. G . The Constant-Head-Orifice F a r m Turnout. USDA Agric. R e s . Serv.

1955 Publ. ARS 41 - 93, J a n u a r y .
 L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s
Contld.

- 120. Mahajan, I. K. and Handa, C. L. Control and Distribution of Water in I r r i g a t i o n

1957 S y s t e m s with Special R e f e r e n c e t o the Punjab. ICID T r a n s . 3 r d C o n g r e s s
on I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage, Vol IV, Q 9, R 25, pp 9.369-9.398. New
Delhi.

121. ~ a h b u b ,S. I. and Gulhati, N. D. I r r i g a t i o n Outlets. pp 184. Atrna R a m & Sons,

1951 Delhi.
f

122. Neyrpic - /
M a t e r i e l d'irrigation, Notice A P 211.
1951

123. Meacham, I. Measuring I r r i g a t i o n Deliveries, the Dethridge M e t e r . Aqua, April.

1961 pp 184-189.

124. Molesworth, H. W. and Yenidunia, T.H. I r r i g a t i o n P r a c t i c e in Egypt.

1922

125. Murley, K. Dethridge M e t e r Investigations. Aqua, May. pp 201-21 1.

1966

126. P i e t r i , M. Ouvrages s u r canaux s e c o n d a i r e s e t t e r t i a i r e s dans l e s Beni Moussa

1957 (~iseau d e distribution). ICID T r a n s . 3 r d C o n g r e s s on I r r i g a t i o n and
Drainage, Vol IV, Q 9, R 24, pp 9.320 - 9.398. New Delhi.

127. S h a r m a , K. R. A T h e o r e t i c a l Design of New Type of Outlet f o r I r r i g a t i o n Channels.

1931 Punjab Engng. Congr. P r o c . , Vol XIX, P a p e r No 146, pp 105- 113K.
Lahore.

128. S h a r m a , K.R. Design of a n Adjustable P r o p o r t i o n a l Module. Punjab Engng.

1934 Congr., P a p e r No 176.

129. Sharrna, K. R. Improved Adjustable P r o p o r t i o n a l Module and Open F l u m e Outlet.

1940 Punjab Engng. Congr. P a p e r No 237. L a h o r e .

130. S h a r m a , K.R. Outlets and Tail C l u s t e r s . I r r i g a t i o n Engineering, Vol I,

1949 Chap. C XV, P t 11, pp 340-360.

?
131. S h a r m a , K. R. Silt Conduction by I r r i g a t i o n Outlets. Punjab Engng. Congr P r o c . . ,
1934 Vol XXI, P a p e r No 168.

132. Neyrpic - The Distribution of Water i n I r r i g a t i o n Networks with the Help of Neyrpic
1950 Apparatus. Grenoble .
133. Coeuret, C. Regulation dynamique du t r a n s p o r t e t de l a distribution d e l t e a u
d t i r r i g a t i o n - a s p e c t s the/oriquea - p r e r n i i r e s applications pratiques.
Working P a p e r f o r the Regional Meeting of ICID, Aix-en-Provence.
 L i s t of References
Contld.

134. Romijn, D. G. Een regelbare meetoverlaat a l s t e r t i a i r e aftapsluis. {A Movable

1932 Measuring Weir a s Turnout Structure.) De Waterstaatsingenieur, n r 9.

135. Romijn, D. G. Meetsluizen ten belmeve van irrigatie-werken. (Measuring Weirs

1'938 for Use in Irrigation P r o j e c t s . ) Handleiding. Manual by De vereniging
van Waterstaat ingenieurs in Nederlandsch-Indig.

136. Vlugter, H. De regelbar e meetoverlaat. (The Movable Measuring Weir)

1940 De Waterstaatsingenieur, n r 10.

137. Zwart, J. and Hooftrnan, P. Modelonderzoek n a a r de invloed van de pijlervorm

1940 bij Romijn meetoverlaten. (Model T e s t s on the Influence of Intermediate
P i e r Shapes with the Romijn Measuring Weir. ) Msc. thesis, Delft
University, (unpublished).

138. Cohen, A. Invloed van de instromingsvorm van een Romijn meetoverlaat op de

1953 .
afvoer coefficient (Influence on the Abutment Shape of a Romijn
Measuring Weir on the Discharge Coefficient.) Report of Hydraulics
Laboratory, Delft.

139. Ackers, A. and Harrison, A. J. M. Critical-Depth F l u m e s f o r Flow Measurement

1963 in Open Channels. Hydraulic Research P a p e r No 5. H. M. Stationery
Office, London.

140. Harrison, A. J. M. The Streamlined Broad-Crested Weir. Proceedings

1967 Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol 38. Dec. pp 657-678.

-
141. B r i t i s h Standards Institution Methods of Measurement of Liquid Flow in Open
1969 Channels. B r i t i s h Standard 3680; P a r t 4B, Weirs and Flumes. London.
 NO TATIONS AND SYMBOLS-11

-
A

Area

A r e a of c r o s s section

A r e a of critical section

Breadth o r width (usually a c r o s s the axis

of flow)

Bed width of canal upstream a f a l l , syphon,

aqueduct, etc., and in parent channel in
c a s e of intakes and outlets
B1
"
Bed width of canal downstream a fall,
syphon, aqueduct, etc. Bed width in the
offtake channel below the intake o r
watercourse below the outlet

Width of throat o r controlling section o r

width of w e i r c r e s t acrQss the axis of
flow B
(t)
Width of inlet

Width a t outlet end B

i (OUT)
Width of gate opening o r sluice opening B
(go)
Width of stilling basin, cistern, etc. B
(bas) Or (SB)

-11 F o r
terminology and definitions reference should be made to the Multilingual
Technical Dictionary on Irrigation and Drainage published by the ICID in
1967.
 c_
coefficient of d i s c h a r g e

Coefficient of roughness

Coefficient of submergence

Coefficient of submergence of hydraulic jump

Coefficient in Chezy's f o r m u l a

Coefficient, approach velocity

Depth of canal

Designed depth of canal (if distinguished)

Depth of canal u p s t r e a m of f a l l s , proportional

d i s t r i b u t o r s o r d i v i s o r s , syphons, aqueducts,
etc. , and in p a r e n t channels of outlets and
offtake channels 0

Depth of canal downstream of f a l l s , etc.

and depth of offtake channels 'below intakes
and of w a t e r c o u r s e s below outlets
Depth of stilling basin
Diameter
D i a m e t e r of pipe
Discharge
D i s c h a r g e intensity o r d i s c h a r g e p e r unit
width
D i s c h a r g e i n the p a r e n t canal

D i s c h a r g e of offtake channels o r outlets

S m a l l i n c r e m e n t in d i s c h a r g e
D i s t a n c e s and spacings
Efficiencies

Flexibility
F r e e board
Froude number

Height over hardings

Head over c r e s t , etc.

Working head

Head due to velocity of approach

Head l o s s

Height of gate opening

Height of c r e s t above upstream bed level

Height of c r e s t above bottom level of

stilling basin. H
(C-SB)
Height of c r e s t above downstream bed level H
(c-b)

.Height of u p s t r e a m water level above

soffits oT orifices, pipes, etc.

Height of orifice above c r e s t o r bottom H

level of control section (orf)
Hydraulic d r o p H
(dr)
Depth of flow a t the beginning of hydraulic
jump o r supercritical sequent depth
Depth of flow a t the end of hydraulic jump
o r subcritical sequent depth
Critical depth corresponding to minimum
energy
Length

Length of crest along the axis of flow

Length of glacis

Length of stilling basin

Length of pipe

Length of jump

Proportionality

Radius

Hydraulic radius

Ratio

Sensitivity

Shear stress

Slope (longitudinal)

Side slope

Thickness

Velocity

Critical velocity

von Karman's constant

Weights

Specific weight of fluid

A113N AND DRAINAGE PAPER
FA0 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE PAPER

small hydraulic
structures
by

d. b. kraatz
hydraulic engineer

and

i. k. mahajan
secretary, icid

prepared with the support of the

international commission on irrigation and drainage

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome 1975
 First printing 1975
Second printing 1982

The designations employed and the presentation

of material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of the Food and Agri~culture Organization
of the United Nations concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, city or area or
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-56
ISBN 92-5-100161-8

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic. mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission,
with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should
be addressed to the Director, Publications Division. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations. Via delle Terme di Caracalla. 00100
Rom'e, Italy.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

VOLUME I1

Page

PREFACE

6. WATER LEVEL AND VELOCITY CONTROL STRUCTURES

6. 1 Introduction 1
6.2 General Feat!ures of Checks o r C r o s s Regulators 1
6. 3 Checks with Fixed Overfall C r e s t without Movable Controls 4
6r3.1 General 4
6. 3.2 Hydraulic design 8
6. 3. 3 Design example (diagonal w e i r ) 16
6. 3.4 Design examples (duckbill w e i r ) 16
6. 3.5 Check- slab s t r u c t u r e (Mexico) 16
6.4 Checks Regulated by Stop P l a n k s (Drop B a r s ) o r F l a s h B o a r d s 22
6.4.1 General
6.4.2 D r o p - b a r check s t r u c t u r e (Victoria, A u s t r a l i a )
6.5 Checks Equipped with Hand Operated Gates
6.5.1 General
6.5.2 Standard check (USBR)
6.5. 3 Check s t r u c t u r e m a d e of sheet m e t a l
6.5.4 Wooden checks
6.5.5 P o r t a b l e checks
6.5.6 Radial gate check
6.5.7 The Romijn gate
6.6 Hydraulically Automated Checks (Neyrpic)
6. 6 . 1 General s t r u c t u r e and application
6. 6 . 2 Range of standard g a t e s available
6. 7 Semi Automatic Time Controlled Check
6.8 Check S t r u c t u r e s Combined with a F a l l , Drop o r Chute
6.9 General F e a t u r e s of Drops (or F a l l s ) and Chutes
 T a b l e of Contents
Contld.

Page

6. 10 Vertical Drops (or Falls)

6.10.1 General
6. 1 0 . 2 S a r d a - t y p e fall (India)
6. 10. 3 R e c t a n g u l a r w e i r d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t
6.10.4 V e r t i c a l c h e c k - d r o p (USBR)
6.10.5 YMGT-type d r o p ( J a p a n )
6. 11 Inclined D r o p s and Chutes
6.11.1 General
6.11.2 Standing wave f l u m e f a l l (India)
6. 11. 3 F l u m e type fall (CDO, P u n j a b , India)
6. 1 1 . 4 USBR r e c t a n g u l a r inclined d r o p
6.11.5 Rubble c a s c a d e inclined d r o p
6.12 Piped Drops
6.12.1 General
6. 1 2 . 2 Well d r o p r e g u l a t o r (U. S. S. R. )
6. 1 2 . 3 Well type d r o p (India)
6. 1 2 . 4 P i p e d r o p (India)
6.12.5 Inclinedpipedrop (U.S.A.)
6.12. 6 Inclined pipe d r o p (U. S. S. R. )
6.13 F a r m Drop Structures
6.13.1 General
6. 13. 2 Head wall d r o p with g r a v e l b a s i n
6.13.3 C e m e n t block check a n d d r o p
6.13.4 C o n c r e t e check d r o p
6.13.5 Wooden d r o p
6.13.6 Piped drops
6. 13. 7 Sloping r o c k d r o p

7. STRUCTURES AND DEVICES F O R WATER MEASUREMENT

Introduction
Sharp Crested Measuring Weirs
The Romijn B r o a d C r e s t e d W e i r
The Par s h a l l F l u m e
The Standing Wave M e a s u r i n g F l u m e
The C u t - t h r o a t F l u m e
The C o n c r e t e ( C a s t - i n - P l a c e ) T r a p e z o i d a l M e a s u r i n g F l u m e
U s e of C u l v e r t s a s M e a s u r i n g D e v i c e s
Propeller Meters
Deflection M e t e r s
The D e t h r i d g e M e t e r
The Constant Head O r i f i c e Turnout
C a l i b r a t i o n of M e a s u r i n g S t r u c t u r e s
 Table of Contents
Cont'd.

Page

LIST O F REFERENCES

NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS

 LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure
6-1. - Flow through check s t r u c t u r e s : ( a ) f r e e overflow; (b) submerged
orifice flow
6 - 2 ( a ) and (b). - Duckbill w e i r s on distribution canals (Spain).
6-3. - Small duckbill weir installed in a concrete flume distribution s y s t e m
(Kiti D a m P r o j e c t , Cyprus).
6-4(a). - Double duckbill weir for 480 l / s discharge capacity
6-4 (b). - Duckbill weir for 160 l/ s discharge capacity.
6-5. - D i a g r a m of flow o v e r diagonal, duckbill o r Z-type w e i r s .
6-6. - Determination of coefficient Im' for angles of ot g r e a t e r than 45O.
.6-7. -
Graph for determination of discharge o v e r diagonal, duckbill, o r
Z-type w e i r s (84)
6-8. - Determination of f r o m known B and S and of (84).
6-9. - Standard diagonal check weir for capacities up to 500 l / s (84).
6- 10. - Duckbill w e i r , (Italy).
6- 11. - Standard duckbill weir design type "Giraudet" for capacities up to
1000 11s.
6-12. - Duckbill weir for 260 to 280 11s capacity (Spain).
6-13. -
Check s l a b s in a channel s t r e t c h with steep grade. (State of
St. L u i s P o t o s i , Mexico).
6- 14. - Determination of spacing of check s l a b s
6-15. - Data for design of check slab s t r u c t u r e s
6-16. - Stop plank grooves (54).
6-17. - Concrete check s t r u c t u r e for average soil conditions (13).
6-18. - Small concrete check (33).
6- 19. - Ordinary flashboard check.
6-20. - Typical d r o p b a r check s t r u c t u r e (52).
6-21. - Drop b a r s t r u c t u r e (Australia).
6-22. - Hand operated check gate ( F e r r a r a , Italy).
6.23. - Concrete check. (u. S. A . )
6-24. - Check s t r u c t u r e m a d e of sheet m e t a l - dimensions
 L i s t of F i g u r e s
Cont'd.

Figure Page
6-25. - Check constructed f r o m prefabricated s t e e l p a r t s (75). 38
6-26. - Single wall check' with side walls only f o r protection of banks (65). 38
6-27. - Double wall check (74) 39
6-28. - P o r t a b l e check for f a r m ditches (46). 40
6-29. - P o r t a b l e canvas check, sleeve type (13). 41
6- 30 ( a ) . - Radial check gate ( T h e Netherlands). 42
6-30(b). - Downstream view of r a d i a l gate check (The Netherlands). 43
6- 31. - Typical medium s i z e u p s t r e a m constant level gate, (NEYRPIC -
AMIL).
6-32. - Typical downstream constant level gate (NEYRPIC - AVIS). 45
6-33. - Typical downstream constant level gate for discharge through an
orifice (NEYRPIC - AVIO). 46
6-34. - D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AMIL gate. 47
6-35 ( a ) . - D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIS gate f r o m 561106 to 901190. 49
6- 35 (b), - D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIO gate. 50
6-36 ( a ) . - B a s i c draw- s t r i n g check fitted with wing walls and bottom cut-off
f o r u s e in an unlined ditch. 51
6- 36 (b). - Semi automatic check installed in an unlined ditch. 51
6-37. - S a r d a type f a l l (U. P. ) 57
6-38. - Rectangular weir d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t . 62
6- 39. - Rectangular weir d r o p - relationship between H(crt), d i s c h a r g e
per m e t r e width of c r e s t and coefficients 0.32, 0 . 3 6 and 0.40. 64
6-40. - Concrete v e r t i c a l check with 1 . 5 f t drop. 67
6-41. - Concrete v e r t i c a l check with 3 . 0 ft d r o p 68
6-42. - D r o p s t r u c t u r e in s m a l l flume channel (Cyprus). 74
6-43. - YMGT type d r o p - sill w a l l and stilling basin. 75
6-44. - YMGT type d r o p - symbols
and notations for sill height, t r a j e c t o r y
of jet and dimensions of stilling basin 77
6-45. - YMGT fall - type 300. 83
6-46. - Details of a standing wave flume fall. 87
6-47. -
Height of hump r e q u i r e d to give proportionality for variation in
discharge. 92
6-48. - Height of hump to attain bulk proportionality. 94
6.49. - Details of deflectors. 98
 L i s t of F i g u r e s
Cont'd.

' Figure Page

6-50. - Standing wave f l u m e f a l l . 99

6-51. - Sketch of a f l u m e type f a l l with a d r o p of u p t o 0 . 9 0 m . 102
CDO type f a l l ( P u n j a b ) , h y d r a u l i c d r o p u p t o 1.00 m.
CDO type f a l l ( P u n j a b ) , h y d r a u l i c d r o p m o r e than 1 .OO m .
R e c t a n g u l a r inclined d r o p (U. S. A. )
D e s i g n of USBR inclined d r o p .
Rubble c a s c a d e type f a l l (India).
P i p e and s t r u c t u r e s .
Well d r o p r e g u l a t o r ( f o r c r o s s s e c t i o n s s e e F i g u r e 6-59).
D e t a i l s of well d r o p r e g u l a t o r ( a s shown i n F i g u r e 6-58).
P i p e d r o p spillway.
Well type d r o p
6-62. - P i p e d r o p without c o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n s .
6- 63. - P i p e d r o p with c o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n .
6- 64. - Check a n d pipe inlet. 149
6- 65. - C o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n ( s u p p l e m e n t t o F i g u r e 6- 63). 15 1
6- 66. - Pipe drop regulator. 161
6-67. - P r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e h e a d wall d r o p (60). 168
6-68. - C e m e n t block check a n d d r o p s t r u c t u r e ( C a n a d a ) . 169
6- 69. - C o n c r e t e check d r o p ( U . S . A. ) 170
6-70. - V e r t i c a l wooden d r o p , d = 8".
6-71. - V e r t i c a l wooden d r o p , d = 12".
6-72. - P l a n f o r a c o r r u g a t e d m e t a l pipe d r o p .
6-73. - Steel b a r r e l drop.
6-74. - Sloping r o c k d r o p s t r u c t u r e ( C a n a d a ) .

7- 1. - S t a n d a r d t r a p e z o i d a l (Cipolletti) m e a s u r i n g w e i r of 61 c m ( 2 ft)
c r e s t length i n s t a l l e d a t a f a r m outlet.
7-2. - D i a g r a m of f r e e d i s c h a r g e c o n t r a c t e d w e i r showing position of
staff gauge u p s t r e a m .
7-3. - P e r m a n e n t t r a p e z o i d a l w e i r d i s c h a r g i n g u n d e r f r e e flow conditions
7-4. - D i s c h a r g e o v e r a s u p p r e s s e d r e c t a n g u l a r w e i r p e r m e t r e of c r e s t
length.
 L i s t of F i g u r e s
Cont'd.

Figure Page

7 - 5 ( a ) and (b). - Small t e m p o r a r y V-notch w e i r s made of sheet m e t a l

(being u s e d for studies on i r r i g a t i o n efficiency and water l o s s e s ) . 20 1
7-6. - Example of a design f o r a 90 V-notch weir plate. 202
7-7. - Romijn b r o a d - c r e s t e d w e i r , sliding blades and movable weir c r e s t 204
7-8. - Romijn b r o a d - c r e s t e d weir, hydraulic dimensions of w e i r abutments. 205
7-9. - Values of Cd a s a function of the r a t i o Hcrt : L c r t for the Romijn
weir. 209
7- 10. - Approach velocity coefficient, Cv, f o r rectangular approach channel. 21 0
7- 11. - The Romijn movable measuring/regulating weir (drawing)
(with supplement, L i s t of M a t e r i a l s ) .
7-12. - Approach velocity coefficient, Cv, a s a function of the total head
over the movable weir c r e s t (H,,~) in the stage - d i s c h a r g e equation
2

- 2 1.5
Q = 5 C d C v ( j g ) 0 5 BtHcrt.

7- 13. Small standard P a r s h a l l flume in operation.

7-14. - P l a n and elevation of a concrete P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume showing
component p a r t s (82).
7-15. - D i a g r a m showing the r a t e of submerged flow in l / s and in f t 3 / s ,
through a 15.2. c m ( 6 inch) P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume.
7- 16. - D i a g r a m showing the r a t e of submerged flow, in 11s and ft3/ s,
through a 23 c m (9 inch) P a r s h a l l flume. .
7- 17. - D i a g r a m 'for computing the r a t e of submerged flow through a
30. 5 c m ( 1 ft) P a r s h a l l flume (82).
7- 18. - Effect of submergence on P a r s h a l l flume - f r e e d i s c h a r g e (81).
7- 19. - Section of a P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume illustrating the determination
of the p r o p e r c r e s t elevation (82).
7-20. - D i a g r a m for determining the head l o s s through the P a r s h a l l
m e a s u r i n g flume (82).
7-21. - P a r s h a l l flume of 152 c m ( 5 ft) throat width a s s e m b l e d f r b m
prefabricated sheet m e t a l p a r t s .
7-22. - P a r s h a l l flume of 183 c m (6 ft) throat width a t full discharge.
7- 23. - Commercially available P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume.
7-24. - Standard concrete P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume - t h r o a t width
1 f t to 8 f t .
7- 25. - Standard concrete P a r shall flume.
7-26. - Sketch of Cut-throat flume (85)
 L i s t of F i g u r e s
Contld.

Figure Page

7-27. - F i n a l design of a 61 c m (2 ft) rectangular Cut-throat flume (90). 246

7-28. -
Cut-throat flume of 30.5 c m (1 ft) throat width, with automatic
recording device, operating under f r e e flow conditions.
7-29. - Generalized f r e e flow coefficients and exponents and St for
Cut-throat flumes, in m e t r i c units.
7-30. - Installation of a Cut-throat flume.
7-31 ( a ) and (b). - Trapezoidal m e a s u r i n g flume with a r a i s e d bottom
c a s t in a concrete ditch. The discharge i s about 34 11s (1. 2 ft 3 1 s ) a t a
submergence of about 70% (87).
7-32. - Trapezoidal flume f o r 1 f t i r r i g a t i o n channels.
7-33. - Typical parallel flow c r i t i c a l depth flume.
7-34. -
P o r t a b l e s t e e l forin used to c a s t trapezoidal concrete flumes
in concrete ditches (8;').
7-35 ( a ) and (b). - M e t e r gate for pipe outlets (64).
7-36. - Sketch of pipe outlet with sliding gate for delivery control and
m e a s u r e m e n t (88).
7- 37. - Rating c u r v e for pipe outlet (8s).
7-38. - Sketch of a propeller m e t e r for open flows.
7-39. - P r o p e l l e r m e t e r installed a t a pipe outlet
7-40. - R e g i s t e r of a propeller m e t e r .
7-41. - Range ability of a propeller m e t e r and the selection of m e t e r
d i a m e t e r (+ 4% accuracy).
7-42. - Standard design of open type propeller m e t e r .
7-43. -Example of a deflection m e t e r with a pointer indicating against
a fixed v e r t i c a l scale (Rajasthan, India).
7-44. - The Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r in u s e .
7-45. - Commercially available deflection m e t e r .
7-46. - Sketch of the Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r .
7-47. -
Sample calibration curve for 30 c m ( 12 inch) Rajasthan
channel flow m e t e r .
 PREFACE

This publication i s the r e s u l t of a joint effort by the Food and Agriculture Organ-
ization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Commission on Irrigation and
Drainage (ICID) in producing a Handbook on small hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s and devices used
in open-channel irrigation distribution s y s t e m s . There h a s been general recognition of
a need to review the abundant information and experience available on the subject and to
condense and dovetail them into a comprehensive and practical Handbook. Much b a s i c
m a t e r i a l for the Handbook h a s been generously provided by National Committees of the
ICID and by F A 0 projects and contacts in Member Countries, while complementary data
and information have been assembled f r o m the extensive survey of the l i t e r a t u r e .

The scope of the Handbook i s confined a s the title suggests to small s t r u c t u r e s

used a t the f a r m level in fields, and in networks with small discharges a t the intakes,
such a s f r o m small surface o r ground water r e s o u r c e s . Such s t r u c t u r e s , having
capacities of l e s s than 1 cubic m e t r e p e r second, and, indeed,many of them having
capacities of l e s s than 300 l i t r e s per second, account for m o r e than 70 p e r cent of a l l
the hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s installed in many irrigation networks.

In the past these s m a l l s t r u c t u r e s have not always received the attention they
d e s e r v e f r o m planners and designers. It should be recognized that irrigation head
works, and other irrigation engineering works, however spectacular, would have little
value without an efficient distribution system (requiring small s t r u c t u r e s ) extending
right down to the f a r m e r s ' fields. The heavy investments normally involved in an
i r r i g a t i o n system can be justified, through conversion into cash benefits and the social
welfare of the r u r a l population, only by paying full attention to the function and place of
each of the small s t r u c t u r e s described in this Handbook.
 xiv.

The Handbook i s published in t h r e e volumes. Volume I c o m p r i s e s Chapters

1 to 5. The types of s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s available, and t h e i r importance for
efficient distribution of i r r i g a t i o n water supplies a r e discussed in Chapter I.
Chapter 2 d i s c u s s e s the operation of irrigation s y s t e m s and how this governs the
choice of the type of s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e b e s t suited to the purpose. Chapters
3 to 5 deal with s m a l l intake s t r u c t u r e s , s m a l l flow-dividing s t r u c t u r e s , and outlets
o r f a r m and field turnouts. Volume I1 c o m p r i s e s Chapters 6 and 7. Chapter 6
d e a l s with s m a l l water-level and velocity control s t r u c t u r e s (i.e . checks o r c r o s s
r e g u l a t o r s , falls o r d r o p s , and chutes) and Chapter 7 with s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s
and devices useful for m e a s u r i n g flow in i r r i g a t i o n networks. Volume 111, which will
be i s s u e d a t a l a t e r date, will cover s m a l l c r o s s - d r a i n a g e works, e s c a p e s and
miscellaneous s t r u c t u r e s and will include a chapter on the detailed design of
gates.

F o r definitions of t e r m s , r e f e r e n c e should be made to the ICID Multilingual

Technical Dictionary on Irrigation and Drainage. Units of m e a s u r e m e n t a r e generally
e x p r e s s e d in the units f r o m which the formulae, designs, tables and graphs have been
derived (and a r e thus best known in that s y s t e m ) but in certain c a s e s i t h a s been
considered advantageous to convert English to Metric units for application in countries
using only the M e t r i c s y s t e m .

Since the Handbook attempts to a s s e m b l e and d e s c r i b e many types of s m a l l

hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s which have proved successful in certain countries, and which
may be used elsewhere under s i m i l a r conditions, i t i s hoped that i t will prove useful
to young engineers, technicians and extension w o r k e r s involved in the remodelling
of existing irrigation s y s t e m s o r in the design of new projects. It i s a l s o hoped that
the Handbook will stimulate exchanges of ideas and information on techniques and
designs which have often been evolved in isolation.

The p r e s e n t edition i s a provisional version; i t i s intended that an updated

version covering Volumes I to I11 will be printed in final f o r m a t a l a t e r date.
Any comments o r further contributions which r e a d e r s might like to offer will be
gratefully received and will be considered for incorporation in the next
edition.
 xv.

Acknowledgments a r e due to the many who have a s s i s t e d in the production of

this Handbook, some with systematic contributions, such a s the ICID National
Committees of :

Arab Republic of Egypt Ecuador

Australia F e d e r a l Republic of Germany
Bulgaria Guyana
Canada Hungary
Colombia India
Czechoslovakia Japan
Republic of Korea Republic of China
Malaysia S r i Lanka
Mexico Turkey
Philippines U. S. A.
U. S. S. R

and personnel of F A 0 and individual contacts who have rendered valuable information
and advice, and to Mr. I. Constantinesco for h i s lucid eaiting of the manuscript.

Dated

Edouard Saourna K. K. F r a m j i
Director Secretary General
Land and Water Development International Commission
Division on Irrigation & Drainage
Food & Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations
 6. WATER LEVEL AND VELOCITY CONTROL STRUCTU'RES

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The w a t e r level and velocity control s t r u c t u r e s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s chapter

c o m p r i s e a group of engineering works installed in open channel i r r i g a t i o n networks
designed t o regulate the w a t e r l e v e l in a channel, to control the quantity of water .
passing through it, to dissipate energy and enable w a t e r to be delivered a c c u r a t e l y
and safely to the fields without causing erosion. Such s t r u c t u r e s include checks o r
c r o s s - r e g u l a t o r s , d r o p s ( o r f a l l s ) and chutes. F o r example, a check o r c r o s s
r e g u l a t o r will r a i s e the u p s t r e a m w a t e r level in a canal above i t s n a t u r a l flow l e v e l
during p e r i o d s of low d i s c h a r g e sufficiently to feed an offtake canal. A check will
a l s o h e l p to t e m p o r a r i l y a b s o r b fluctuations of w a t e r supply in v a r i o u s sections of
t h e canal s y s t e m , o r to control velocities and prevent b r e a c h e s in the t a i l r e a c h e s .
D r o p s ( o r f a l l s ) and chutes n a r r o w the difference in slope of the land and that
r e q u i r e d f o r the canal. Generally, a d r o p o r a fall will be used to obtain a
reduction in slope o v e r a s h o r t distance. When the distance i s g r e a t e r and the
slope m o r e gentle, but s t i l l s t e e p enough for the w a t e r t o flow a t too high a velocity,
control m a y be achieved by employing chutes.

A. CHECKS OR CROSS REGULATORS

6.2 GENERAL FEATURES O F CHECKS OR CROSS REGULATORS

Checks o r c r o s s r e g u l a t o r s m a y be fixed overflow w e i r s with no movable

controlling device, o r they m a y be provided with r a d i a l gates, slide gates, stop-
logs, checkboards (flashboards), o r combinations of t h e s e , o r include a device to
maintain a given u p s t r e a m water level. These s t r u c t u r e s may be fixed o r portable
(the f o r m e r should have provision f o r overflow) and they m a y be used in both lined
and unlined canals, ditches o r water c o u r s e s . Where check gates a r e fitted, t h e s e
m a y be hand o r hydraulically o p e r a t e d (such a s the automatic Neyrpic g a t e s ) o r
equipped with automatic and t i m e controlled r e l e a s e devices. Wherever possible,
and in the i n t e r e s t of economy, a permanent check should be combined with a d r o p
o r fall, o r a division box, o r a m e a s u r i n g device located above o r below an intake,
outlet o r escape.

FIGURE 6.1. - Flow through check s t r u c t u r e s :

( a ) f r e e overflow; (b) submerged o r i f i c e flow.

A check may be designed to function a s an overflow weir, a s an orifice o r a s

a combination of both. When a constant u p s t r e a m water level i s d e s i r e d an over-
flow type check i s normally used ( s e e F i g u r e 6. l ( a ) ). The flow over such a check
m a y be calculated f r o m the equation:

where
Q .-- discharge in m
3
p e r second

C
= 7P .& = d i s c h a r g e coefficient ( m
2
/ a)

B(t) = overflowcrestlength (m)

H = head o r water depth above the c r e s t , m e a s u r e d u p s t r e a m

(4 f r o m the check ( m )

Values of C a r e given below:

F o r m of Weir C r e s t C

/----a, broad c r e s t e d with rounded edges, horizontal 1.5 to 1 . 6

A- s h a r p c r e s t e d with a e r a t e d b e a m 1.9

L rounded with v e r t i c a l u p s t r e a m face and inclined

downstream slope 2.2

When the c r e s t length, B(t),' i s l a r g e , variations ifl discharge r e s u l t in relatively

s m a l l changes in the u p s t r e a m water level.

The above formula (derived f r o m Poleni) i s valid only for f r e e flow conditions.
The values of C a r e a c c u r a t e enough for design purposes, such a s dimensioning
w e i r s f r o m given d i s c h a r g e s and water l e v e l s , but not for exact water m e a s u r e m e n t .
Also; a number of types of check s t r u c t u r e s have been individually r a t e d and flow
formulae developed for them, a s will be seen below. The u s e of checks for water
m e a s u r e m e n t would r e q u i r e them to be constructed to standard dimensions for
which ratings a r e available o r to be calibrated individually.

Check s t r u c t u r e s m u s t be designed to c a r r y the full design discharge of the

canal a t maximum water l e v e l . The velocity of flow through check s t r u c t u r e s with
flashboards should not exceed 1 m / s because of the difficulty of placing and
removing the flashboards. Checks with gates can t o l e r a t e velocities g r e a t e r than
1.5 m/s. F r o m the selected design velocity the r e q u i r e d opening and the c o r r e -
sponding head l o s s a r e determined. The total head l o s s , h$) , through a check
 s t r u c t u r e can be estimated a t 0 . 5 of the difference in the velocity heads of the
u p s t r e a m canal section and the check opening, thus:

When the water level i s to be controlled downstream f r o m a s t r u c t u r e , an

orifice-type check i s m o r e desirable because of i t s m o r e constant discharge ( s e e
F i g u r e 6. 1 (b) ). The discharge through an orifice may be determined f r o m the
general equation:

-1
Q -- C A
(orf) ( '8 (crt) )

where
C = coefficient of discharge

A = a r e a of opening ( m2)
(orf)
and H
(4= head causing flow ( m )

The coefficient C r a n g e s f r o m 0 . 6 to 0 . 8 , depending on the position of the

orifice relative to the sides and bottom of the s t r u c t u r e and on the roundness of
the orifice edge. F o r f r e e discharge the head, H(crt), i s the u p s t r e a m water
depth m e a s u r e d f r o m the centre of the opening. F o r submerged flow, the
effective head i s the difference between the u p s t r e a m and downstream water
surface l e v e l s . Because of i t s head-di scharge relatianship, an orifice-type
check i s not so well adapted for u p s t r e a m water level control since fluctuations in
flow r e s u l t in relatively l a r g e u p s t r e a m water level variations.

6.3 CHECKS WITH FIXED OVERFALL CREST WITHOUT MOVABLE CONTROLS

6. 3. 1 General

A fixed overfall c r e s t o r weir controls the water level a t a given height

within relatively n a r r o w l i m i t s . This height and the c r e s t length, B(t), a r e
determined in relation to the discharge to be passed over the weir c r e s t and to
the control requirements ( e . g. maximum permissible level fluctuations, etc. ).
FIGURE 6. 2 ( a ) and (b). - Duckbill w e i r s on distribution
c a n a l s (Spain).
The n a r r o w e r the tolerances, the g r e a t e r m u s t be the c r e s t length. In d i s t r i -
bution channels the available width i s usually insufficient to accommodate a
t r a n s v e r s a l weir with a c r e s t long enough to p a s s the full supply discharge within
the level tolerances. Usual tolerances a r e in the o r d e r of 5 to 10 c m .

These conditions have led to the development of: the diagonal w e i r ; the
duckbill weir; and the Z-type o r other specially shaped w e i r s . Of these the
duckbill weir i s the m o s t commonly used because i t i s , under m o s t conditions,
the m o s t economical one, providing optimum discharge capacity in relation to
length of s t r u c t u r e and amount of construction m a t e r i a l . F i g u r e s 6 - 2 to 6-4
show different types of duckbill w e i r s .

FIGURE 6 - 3 . - Small duckbill weir installed in a -

concrete flume distribution system, (Kiti Dam P r o j e c t ,
Cyprus).

The g r e a t advantage of fixed weir c r e s t s i s t h e i r simplicity in construction

and maintenance and their reliability in operation. Tampering i s a l m o s t
impossible. However their ability to t r a p silt so efficiently prohibits t h e i r u s e
where i r r i g a t i o n water i s permanently charged with silt. If the silt load i s small
o r t e m p o r a r y , siltation can be avoided by providing a flush opening in the weir a t
the floor of the s t r u c t u r e . The provision of a gate i s advantageous on l a r g e r
FIGURE 6 - 4 ( a ) . - Double duckbill w e i r f o r 480 l / s
d i s c h a r g e capacitv.

FIGURE 6 - 4 (b). - Duckbill w e i r f o r 160 l / s d i s c h a r g e

capacity.
s t r u c t u r e s t o enable evacuation of the u p s t r e a m r e a c h .

Hydraulic Design

The following d i a g r a m s and c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m the handbook

" L e s o u v r a g e s d ' u n petit r e s e a u d ' i r r i g a t i o n " p r e p a r e d by the Societe G e n e r a l e
d e s Techniques H y d r o - A g r i c o l e s (SOGETHA) a n d published u n d e r the s e r i e s
"Techniques R u r a l e s e n Afrique" by the F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t in 1 9 7 0 .

The calculation of the d i s c h a r g e o v e r a diagonal o r a duckbill w e i r o r a

Z - t y p e w e i r i s b a s e d on the f o r m u l a :

-3

where m = d i s c h a r g e coefficient

B(t) = length of c r e s t

H = w a t e r depth, i. e . h e a d on the c r e s t ( s e e F i g u r e 6-5)

(crt)

FIGURE 6-5. - D i a g r a m of flow o v e r diagonal, duckbill

o r Z-type w e i r s .

The valu& of m depends on the shape of the c r e s t a n d t h e angle of 6 .

For 3 l a r g e r than 45' the v a l u e s shown i n F i g u r e 6-6 a r e u s e d :

 Diogond weir Duckbitl weir Z type weir
Unrounded
crest: m : 0.34 0.32 0.31

Crest rounded
I I ~ B ~ ~ ~ U Im:
I I : 0.38 0.36 0.34

FIGURE 6-6. - Determination of coefficient ' m ' f o r angles

of H g r e a t e r than 45O.

The graph, F i g u r e 6-7, can be u s e d to d e t e r m i n e the d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e

of c r e s t and f r o m this the total length of c r e s t r e q u i r e d .

F i g u r e 6-8 i s an aid f o r determining the angle f r o m the r e q u i r e d c r e s t

length. If oC i s below 45O i t i s recommended, f o r r e a s o n s of economy, that an
inclined w e i r be u s e d r a t h e r than a duckbill w e i r . Above 45O u p to 70 the u s e of
a duckbill w e i r i s p r e f e r a b l e . The end of the duckbill w e i r c r e s t i s fixed a t
40 c m independent of the bottom width of the canal. If the t i p of the duckbill i s
shaped s e m i - c i r c u l a r with a d i a m e t e r of 40 c m , the c r e s t length will be
approximately 60 c m .

Example:

Given Canal d i s c h a r g e 150'1/s

side s l o p e s 1.5: 1
bottom width 0.50 m
w a t e r depth 0.40 m

Maximum w a t e r l e v e l variation 0. 13 m ,
i.e. H = 0 . 1 3 m for 150l/s
(4
c r e s t height S = 0.40 - 0. 13 = 0.27 m

Available t r a n s v e r s a l c r e s t width B = 1.30 m ( f r o m F i g u r e 6-7)

(t)
m = 0 . 3 8 (rounded c r e s t , diagonal type )
m = 0 . 3 6 (rounded c r e s t duckbill t y p e )
 D i s c h a r g e ( I / s ) p e r m e t r e of c r e s t length

FIGURE 6-7. - G r a p h f o r determination of d i s c h a r g e o v e r

diagonal, duckbill, o r Z-type w e i r s (84).

F r o m F i g u r e 6-7 q = 80 l / s p e r m e t r e of c r e s t (diagonal type)

q = 75 l / s p e r m e t r e of c r e s t (duckbill type)

total length r e q u i r e d (diagonal type)

F r o m F i g u r e 6-8 the inclination of the w e i r @ i s found t o b e equal t o 47

0
.
T h e r e f o r e t h i s would call for a duckbill w e i r r a t h e r than f o r a diagonal one.

Required length f o r a duckbill w e i r :

FIGURE 6-8. - Determination of [ f r o m known B and S
and of d (84).
 Section A-A Section 0-0
Ronqe of suitoble dimensions for copocities
up to 5 0 0 L/s
B = 0 . 2 0 t o 1.00
f = 0.20 to 1.00
y, = 0.10 t o 0.70lupstreom woter depth)

yCItl= 0 . 0 5 to O.IS(difference between upstream

woter level ond crest level)
s = 0.10 to 0 . 6 0
c = 0.15 (thickness of weir)
f = (width of ovoiloble upstreom woter surface)

9
B(t)C (crest length) = C X &
o< = (ongle between weir crest and cross section

4
Plon

FIGURE 6-9. - Standard diagonal check weir for capacities

up to 500 l / s (84).
 S e c t ~ o n E-F

Offtake canal-

S e c t ~ o n C-D I
I F A 0 - ICID
I
DUCKBILL WEIR

P r c j e c t , R e g ~ o n ,Country
Agency for A g r o r ~ a n R e f o r m , C ~ c ~ l y
ltoly
Secrlon A-8

F ~ g u r e N o 6-10
+I -----I Section 8-8
Section A - A

Range of suitable dimensions for copocitlCs

up to \ooo c/s
6 = 0 . 2 0 to 1.00
f = 0.20 to 1.00
4 = 0 10 to 0.70 (upstream woter depth)
IfCrf,= 0 0 5 to 0.15 (difference between upstream woter
level and crest level)
3 : 0.10 t o 0.60
C = 0.15 (thickness of weir)
f = (width of ovoiloble upstream woter surface)
L = (tot01 lenqth of crest :0.40 2 A ) +
o< :(angle between weir crest ond cross section
of chonnel)
m = 1.5 f - 1.5s + 0.20
k = A sinw
p :2 . 5 f

t s f

FIGURE 6- 1 1 . - Standard duckbill weir design, type IqGiraudet"

for capacities up to 1000 l / s.
t

4
030

I
B d

3 80 - 1.00 -
Plan

+
t0 59
0 15

0-44
I 3
\
--'f-
. - -I . . . . . . . . . I
j0 15

lb " ' /
Cross section
-5 $ 5 per running metre
5 # 5 per running metre Concrete = 7 . 3 cbm
Iron = 25:5 kg

F A 0 - ICID

DUCKBILL W E I R
FOR 2 6 0 to 280 t / s CAPACITY

tr .
Project , Region , Country
Spoin
Detail A-A
Detail 6-6 Figure No 6 -12
 F r o m F i g u r e 6-8

Design E x a m p l e ( ~ i a ~ o n W
a le i r s )

F i g u r e 6-9 shows a s i m p l e but efficient design f o r i n situ c o n s t r u c t i o n of a

diagonal w e i r i n u n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e .

Design E x a m p l e s (Duckbill W e i r )

S t a n d a r d d e s i g n s f o r duckbill w e i r s have b e e n developed in s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s

of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n B a s i n . F i g u r e 6-10 shows a type u s e d in Sicily.
D i m e n s i o n s of c a p a c i t i e s between 110 a n d 370 l / s a r e given in the d r a w i n g . The
w e i r i s u s u a l l y combined with one o r m o r e f a r m o u t l e t s . They a r e u s u a l l y
provided with m a s k m o d u l e s but a l s o s i m p l e m e t a l g a t e s a r e in u s e . The
s t r u c t u r a l design i s adapted to lined c a n a l s .

R Bouillon e t a l . (55) r e p o r t on a duckbill w e i r of 24 m total c r e s t length.

With a h e a d of only 8 c m the w e i r d i s c h a r g e s 1, 100 l / s .

F i g u r e 6- 11 shows a s t a n d a r d d e s i g n developed by the SOGETHA (84) f o r

l i n e d and unlined c h a n n e l s . It can be c o n s t r u c t e d e i t h e r in c o n c r e t e o r m a s o n r y .
D i m e n s i o n s shown a r e f o r u n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e .

F i g u r e 6-12 i l l u s t r a t e s a design a s developed in Spain.

1/
6. 3. 5 Check Slab S t r u c t u r e (Mexico)-

6. 3 . 5 . 1 General
The check slab s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n , developed and in u s e in

" Based on i n f o r m a t i o n provided by J . A n s h e r t o Manobe Galvan, D e p a r t m e n t of

S m a l l I r r i g a t i o n , S e c r e t a r i a t of H y d r a u l i c R e s o u r c e s , Mexico.
 Mexico, i s an example of a check which controls depths and velocities in r e a c h e s
of field l a t e r a l s o r ditches which have steep g r a d e s , t o enable water to be
delivered to the field through siphons ( ~ i ~ u 6-13).
r e The slab i s adapted for
u s e in lined channels and can a l s o be used a s a water m e a s u r e m e n t device.

FIGURE 6- 13. - Check slabs in a channt . etch with

s t e e p grade. (State of St. Luis Potosi, Mexico)

6.3.5.2 Structural and design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The check slab s t r u c t u r e consists of a slab made of concrete, wood,

o r other m a t e r i a l s and placed a t convenient i n t e r v a l s a c r o s s the lined channel
sections in r e a c h e s of steep g r a d e s . Each check slab o p e r a t e s a s an independent
spillway where heads depend on the geometry of the slab.

T h e r e i s an orifice a t the lower p a r t of the check slab d r o p to allow

drainage and evacutation of sediments.
 The thickness of the slab m a y be 5, 10 o r 15 c m . The height of the
slab above the channel bed may b e 20, 30 o r 40 cm. The section of the channel
m a y be rectangular, o r trapezoidal with side slopes of 1 : 1

F o r smooth flow and to facilitate operation of the spillway, a minimum

w a t e r cushion of 10 c m a t the b a s e of each check slab i s required. Under these
conditions, the spacing, X, of check s l a b s (in m e t r e s ) will be given by the
following formula (where s i s the grade):

FIGURE 6-14. - Determination of spacing of check s l a b s .

Thus, for example where H( slab) of the check s t r u c t u r e i s 0.30 m, the spacing
will be :

0.30 - 0.10 - 0.20

X =
S
- S
(m)

F r o m t h i s X can be determined f o r different g r a d e s :

X
(metres)
 S i m i l a r tables can be p r e p a r e d f o r other values of H(slab) .
6.3.5.3 Application a s water m e a s u r i n g device

I t h a s been proved by experiments that the check slab s t r u c t u r e can

a l s o be u s e d a s a w a t e r m e a s u r i n g device by designing i t according t o the
following formulae:

where Q = d i s c h a r g e of the canal, in m 3 / s

= width of spillway slab a c r o s s the a x i s of flow,

B(t)
in m e t r e s

H = head on the spillway c r e s t , m e a s u r e d a t a distance

( 4 not l e s s than five t i m e s i t s approximate value
u p s t r e a m f r o m the check slab s t r u c t u r e , i n m e t r e s

f o r a trapezoidal section p will b e e x p r e s s e d a s

H(crt)
= 0.5 t 0.04
P H(slab) T( slab)

and f o r a rectangular section:

H( c r t )
= 0.6 t 0.01
r" H(slab) T( slab)

where:

H(slab) =
height of the check slab above the bed of the
channel, in m e t r e s
.
T(slab) = thickness of slab, in m e t r e s .

6.3.5.4 Numerical example

Design a suitable check slab s t r u c t u r e f o r a canal with r e a c h e s

having g r a d e s of 0.0005 (length 100 m , joints a t 30 m i n t e r v a l ), 0.005 (length
90 m ) and 0.02 (length 90 m ) a s shown in F i g u r e 6-15. A s s u m e a trapezoidal
section with side slope 1 : 1, channel bed width 0. 30 m , lined with plain concrete,
discharge 0.074 rn3/ s and N (roughness coefficient) = 0.01 6

Reoch A Reoch B Reoch C

I I
t I 1
FIGURE 6-15. - Data for design of check slab s t r u c t u r e s .

Using the above data, and Manning's Formula, the depths' and
velocities in the three reaches of the canal will be:

Reach

y (water depth
of channel ( m ) )

Hydraulic conditions of the canal in r e a c h e s B and C show relatively

high velocities and, consequently, insufficient depth for l a t e r a l irrigation with
siphons. One solution to the problem would be reduction of the grade and intro-
duction of falls in the channel bed. An alternative i s to maintain the g r a d e s but to
introduce check slabs a t appropriate distances. The l a t t e r has been found
economical in Mexico.

While reach A has favourable hydraulic conditions and needs no check

structures, i t i s essential to apply such s t r u c t u r e s to reaches B and C.

Reach B

Assume a check slab with H(slab) = 0.30 m and T(slab) = 0.05 m ,

then the maximum spacing of check slabs will be :

and B = 0.9 m .
(t)

This spacing m a y eventually be reduced to 30.00 m and s o the check s l a b s may be

located a t the construction joints of the concrete lining.

Now H
(4

and if C = $rfi

where = 0;30 m and T(slab) = 0.05 m

Then C = 1.477 + 7.885 H

(4

For Q = 0.074 and

Therefore

This equation i s solved by t r i a l s , a s s u m i n g different values of

H(crt), a s shown in Table 6- 1.

H being 0. 11 m , the channel will have the following c r o s s

(4
section, etc.
B = 0.30 m
-- 1.12 m
*(ws)
 TABLE 6-1

1 2 3 4 5 col 4 +5

Reach C
In t h i s r e a c h the c r o s s section of the channel will be the s a m e a s in
r e a c h B, the difference being the spacing of check s l a b s due to the different slope.
Thus the m a x i m u m spacing in t h i s c a s e will be :

The hydraulic dimensions of t h i s r e a c h will be the s a m e a s above

except that s = 0.02.

6.4 CHECKS REGULATED B Y STOP PLANKS (DROP BARS) OR FLASHBOARDS

6.4.1 General

Stop planks o r d r o p b a r s a r e used in checks with capacities l e s s than

1 . 5 m 3 I s , where operational changes a r e infrequent. The water p a s s e s freely
over the top of the planks which a r e fixed horizontally, in slots, in the s t r u c t u r e .
Flashboards should not be used in openings g r e a t e r than 1.5 m wide o r with water
depths over 2 m . The guides o r grooves should be vertical. F o r stop planks of
thicknesses above 5 c m the groove design shown in F i g u r e 6- 16 i s recommended.

Headed anchors welded to

-lct
ongle; for dio. and length,

L, Lonper leg of ongle -,

..
1 U
fi
U
L n
Y
n
U

All dimensions in inches

Stop plank Dimensions Angle for Weight Anchor

thickness groove p e r ft
A B C

1 1 1
2-
2
3 -2 2-x2
2
x -
4
3. 62 83 dia. x 4

3 4
3
-
4
3
1
x2-x-
2 16
5
5.60 -1 dia.. x 5

3 5 -43 3
1
x2-x-
5 ,, 5.60 21 dia. x 5
2 16

FIGURE 6- 16. - Stop plank grooves (54).

F i g u r e s 6-17, 6-18 and 6-19 show simple concrete check s t r u c t u r e s for

s m a l l flows.
 e ~ n ~ o nP U~ I IeO J ~
P Y ~ O ~ W O pOu n P ~ I I * l~l v 6 n w o q I .q p l n o w 1111 4 1 1 0 3
101s 40 *.PIS
p u n s p u e u o O ~ U O J O-+ elf
~ ) ~ e d w plnoqs e p ~ n o q q s q j
pOpUOLUUlO3OJ #I U!OlIOq V i 4 I P UDeJ4SU*OP "1 d o l d l l W O ( l
1e.11 ~ Y I S J O J U I ~a J q 101
~ pe4n~1)sqns
e q l n w UJOJ etJ) YO OIqOBMD OJD lDq4 SJDq UOJl

. .-
UWCO@
eel= , C C D ~ , C SI :a6 I

1; nY3
. 19 J
MI
,CCO<Qax,*
,FCOZEI ~ , Ea r a *IID**PIS
,csor,gar,sz I
IIP*PO*H

I)(;-
PA + Un39
J O ~d n3 c
I W o S El
IOADJ6 U J O d +
p u o e *IJW a
~ u o w e o4 ~ o . i 1
/ D l d / W JO l)UflOY/V O I D Y I X O J ~ ~ V e ~ n 4 l lP~I P U ~ U I Y ~ O ~ ~ Y

S311UN Wfk9 11383N03

 FIGURE 6-19. - Ordinary flashboard check.

1I
6.4. 2 Drop B a r Check Structure (Victoria, Australia) -

6.4.2.1 General

Check s t r u c t u r e s f o r irrigation canals a r e currently being standard-

ized in Victoria, Australia. Under the prevailing conditions a trapezoidal weir
fitted with drop b a r s , a s shown in F i g u r e 6- 20, h a s proved an effective and
economical m e a n s f o r controlling velocity a t o r below 60 c m p e r second. The
s t r u c t u r e maintains minimum water levels and depths of water for delivery
through f a r m outlets and minimizes l o s s of water when r a i n c a u s e s a shut-
down of irrigation. Under suitable conditions and with appropriate
modifications such checks may a l s o be used to m e a s u r e flows with a reasonable
degree of accuracy.

I' Based mainly on information f r o m the Australian National Committee of ICID.

 Prwa-t plmr* am4
CROS SECTION diopraghm

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

FIGURE 6-20. - Typical dkop b a r check structure (52).

Design considerations

These checks a r e construtted with C6. trapezoidal shape to fit the canal
c r o s s section; this i s then divided bf p i e r s - which m a y be p r e - cast - into
openings that a r e blocked by easily Handled timber d r o p b a r s , to the required
c r e s t height. The normal width of bpening between p i e r s i s 183 cm. This
width gives an easily handled b a r of 196 cm length with a c r o s s section of 10 cm
height and 7 c m width.

The limit of discharge for these checks i s 1,400 11s per 183 cm
opening, but i t i s m o r e usual to design for 850 11s per opening.

Downstream from the concrete apron, r i p - r a p i s placed on the bed,

and b a t t e r s f o r some 6 m . The r i p - r a p on the bed i s dished in shape. End sills
a r e not provided a t the end of the concrete apron.

There i s some problem in adapting the trapezoidal regulator to small

channels. F o r regulation, checks should be evenly spaced where possible, and
a t such intervals that when a channel i s shut down, the wedge volumes a r e small
enough to be successively passed down the channel within a reasonable period.
Spclting of checks must be such that the d r o p in water level i s generally l e s s than
 one m e t r e and the minimum water depth immediately downstream i s 30 cm.

F o r d r o p s in water level of above 30 c m a s many openings a s possible

should be used to p a s s the flow, provided that the minimum depth of water below
the outer openings i s 60 cm.

F o r s m a l l drops in water level, the water s t r e a m s through the open-

ings and the velocity energy i s not dissipated in the drop. In this c a s e the length
of c r e s t spilling the water should not be g r e a t e r than the channel water width
downstream, and water should not fall d i r e c t on to the concrete batter ; i t should
have a water cushion of some 60 c m in depth. The average channel velocity a t
the'downstream end of the s t r u c t u r e i s limited to 60 c m p e r second.

The s t r u c t u r e becomes v e r y l a r g e relative to capacity, particularly

when i t i s r e q u i r e d to provide a l a r g e d r o p in water level, but with p r e - c a s t units
i t i s still fairly econdmical.

6.4.2.3 Ratings f o r calculation and m e a s u r e m e n t

Because the previously used "Gibson" formula was considered to be

insufficiently a c c u r a t e and because of the i n c r e a s e d need to u s e d r o p b a r checks
f o r flow m e a s u r e m e n t s , model t e s t s were undertaken in o r d e r t o obtain m o r e
exact ratings f o r f r e e and submerged flow f o r a variety of s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e -
ments. The t e s t e d model check had openings of 61 c m width. Ratings w e r e
based on the total u p s t r e a m head applied t o the full c r e s t length.

The t e s t s showed that, for consistent and accurate r e s u l t s , special

attention m u s t be given t o the condition of the top b a r and, f o r f r e e flow w e i r s , to
aeration of the nappe. It was found that if the top u p s t r e a m edge of the c r e s t
d r o p b a r became rounded to 12 m m radius, the discharge could be i n c r e a s e d by
10%. F o r m o r e a c c u r a t e measurement, i t i s recommended that a m e t a l plate
with s h a r p edge be fixed to the u p s t r e a m face of the top t i m b e r b a r s .

Under f r e e weir flow, non-aeration of the overfall nappe may i n c r e a s e

the coefficient of discharge by up to 7%. Different methods of providing aeration
w e r e tested. The s i m p l e s t a r r a n g e m e n t suggested is the fixing of 7 . 5 c m x 3 c m
t i m b e r wedge deflector s t r i p s t o the drop b a r guides, ( F i g u r e 6-21 (b) ). The
other method is t o u s e an open m i l d s t e e l section, with a slotted inside face, a s
I ( a ) Port longitudinal section oftypical structure I
( b ) and (c) Plan view of aeration arrangements
( d Dipstick measurement of total head
(el , ( f ) and (9) Pier nose arrangements
( i Timber drop bars
I FA 0 - ICID
(ii) Drop bar guide
DROP B A R STRUCTURE
(iii) Dsflector strip
(iv) Slotted steel guide aerator
( v ) Average run-up on dipstick Project, Region, Country
(vi) Sharp upstream edge Victoria, Austrolio

Fi,gure No. 6- 21
the drop b a r guide, ( F i g u r e 6-21 ( c ) ).

A s well a s these two important f a c t o r s , the pier shape, position,

number of openings in the s t r u c t u r e and number of d r o p b a r s i n s e r t e d (i. e . c r e s t
height) a l s o affect the rating. Thus i t was found n e c e s s a r y to p r e p a r e s e p a r a t e
ratings for t h r e e different s t r u c t u r a l designs because of differing p i e r nose
arrangements:

- 23 cm thick concrete pier with a mild steel flat plate and d r o p b a r

r e (e) )
slot a t the u p s t r e a m edge of the pier, ( ~ i ~ u 6-21

- 23 c m thick concrete p i e r with square front face, except for 2.5 cm

chamfers on the edges, and drop b a r slot 33 cm in f r o m the u p s t r e a m
edge - present standard,(Figure 6-21 (f) )

- 30 c m thick concrete p i e r with u p s t r e a m edge rounded to a 15 cm

radius fofiowed immediately by the drop b a r slot, ( F i g u r e 6-21 ( g ) ).

With each s t r u c t u r a l design, different ratings were a l s o found to be

required for multi-opening s t r u c t u r e s , a s ratings differed between e x t r e m e outer
and inner openings and these in turn differed f r o m single opening s t r u c t u r e s .

Separate ratings were a l s o found to be required for inner openings

with six b a r s o r m o r e in place ( c r e s t height approximately 60 cm) and with five
bars or less.

The various ratings a r e close for low heads, but for heads f r o m 30 cm
up to 76 c m a s tested, t h e r e i s a variation f r o m 670 up to 1170 between and within
ratings f o r different s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s .

The multiple opening trapezoidal check i s the c u r r e n t standard used.

F o r accurate m e a s u r e m e n t this s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e s t h r e e tables, one for extreme
outer openings and two f o r inner openings related to number of drop b a r s in place.
If the top d r o p b a r s have s h a r p u p s t r e a m edges, f r e e flow has proper aeration,
a dipstick ( s e e below) i s used for u p s t r e a m total head m e a s u r e m e n t and the
downstream gauge i s correctly located for submerged flow. The model t e s t
ratings a r e considered to have a maximum probable e r r o r of + 2.5 70.
 A detailed s e t of t a b l e s f o r f r e e and submerged flow and different
p i e r and bay a r r a n g e m e n t s i s given in a r e p o r t "Rating of D r o p B a r Structures"
by C. Kirkham, September 1967. This r e p o r t a l s o s e t s out r e q u i r e m e n t s for
accurate measurement.

6.4.2.4 F r e e flow w e i r formula

The t a b l e s f o r f r e e flow w e i r s over d r o p b a r r e g u l a t o r s w e r e plotted,

and an a v e r a g e curve was interpolated and r e l a t e d t o the b a s i c weir formula:

where, Q = discharge in 11s

= full c r e s t length of opening in c m

B(t)
H(crt) = total head in c m

C = coefficient related to head a s given below.

The coefficients C calculated f o r an a v e r a g e rating w e r e a s follows:

+
This rating i s within - 5 0/0 of the rating'tables f o r the c u r r e n t
standard s t r u c t u r e f o r heads up to 76 cm. It a g r e e s within s i m i l a r l i m i t s f o r the
o t h e r two s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s , except at heads over 60 cm the difference i s
up to 7 % in s o m e c a s e s .

6.4.2.5 Submerged flow formula

The submerged flow r a t i n g s w e r e related to a coefficient C1 in the

formula :

where H i s the total u p s t r e a m head m e a s u r e d to the top of the d r o p b a r s and

( 4
 HDR i s the difference between w a t e r l e v e l s u p s t r e a m and downstream, both
m e a s u r e d in feet.

The coe'fficient C1 v a r i e s f r o m 0.58 t o 0.72 over the range of sub-

m e r g e n c e and different s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s tested, and i s s m a l l e s t a t 40 %

submergence, where submergence = H(crt) - H(dr) , The C1 values w e r e

H(crt)
plotted against the submergence f i g u r e s and a n a v e r a g e C1 rating interpolated a s

follows :

70 sub-
mergence 0 10 20 30 40 50. 60 70 80 90

The average rating i s within + 5% of the various ratings for the c u r r e n t standard
regulator and + 770 to+- 5% of the other a r r a n g e m e n t s .

6.4.2.6 Measurement of head

The common method of m e a s u r i n g u p s t r e a m head i s the u s e of a dip-

stick held vertically on top of the d r o p b a r . The head i s taken a s the depth of
w a t e r !!run-up" on the b a r a s shown in F i g u r e 6-21 (d). This method i s liable to
e r r o r s if the dipstick' i s not of a standard width and i s not held vertically. The
w a t e r height should be taken to the m e a n of the fluctuations in run-up and not to
the highest w a t e r m a r k .

The model t e s t s indicated that the use of a 5 c m dipstick i s a s a t i s -

factory method of obtaining head and gives a head v e r y close to the total head a s
indicated below:

.dipstick reading 19 c m 31.4 c m 46.5 c m 61.1 c m 75.5 cm

total head 18.5 30.6 45.7 61.0 76. 3

Because of this, the total head was used a s a b a s i s for the rating tables.

The head m a y a l s o be r e a d f r o m staff gauges s e t some 3 m u p s t r e a m

and close to the side of the channel.

F o r submerged flow conditions, the head difference between u p s t r e a m

 and downstream water levels i s taken f r o m staff gauges s e t u p s t r e a m and down-
stream.

The downstream gauge in the model t e s t s was placed immediately

downstream of the s t r u c t u r e behind the p i e r in s t i l l water. This location i s not
possible with some trapezoidal regulators and the t e s t s indicated that a staff
gauge placed some 4 5 m downstream, close to the side of the channel in a back
flow section and facing downstream against the back flow, would give a close
reading.

6.5 CHECKS EQUIPPED WITH HAND OPERATED GATES

6.5.1 General
Gated checks a r e commonly used in channels where water level
adjustment i s r e q u i r e d m o r e frequently o r where the higher cost, compared
to stop-logs a r e justified (e. g. saving of labour). These checks a r e usually
fitted with hand-operated slide gates ranging f r o m simple wooden s h u t t e r s to
hand-wheel noprated adjustable orifice type gates ( F i g u r e 6- 22).

FIGUdE 6-22. - Hand operated check gate ( F e r . ,ra, Italy).

 e wall, reinf. not shown

Extend c u t o f f

concrete as di

concrete deck

C.L. Pipe hondroil post connections.

Pipe hondrail post connection details

(Handroil requlred when H,k is qreoter
than 16 inches)

Assembly pole guides

w ~ t h flotheod bolls

Section A-A CONCRETE CHECK

 The s i l l of the gate i s usually made level with the bottom of the channel. Slide
gates a r e usually operated a s an orifice with the exception of w e i r , g a t e s , such a s
the Romijn gate ( s e e 6.5.7 and Chapter 7 ) which can be used a s an overfall weir.
Also, if checks a r e combined with a d r o p in the channel bed the gate may be
designed a s an overflow weir. The design of gates i s discussed in detail in
Volume 111 of this Handbook, while in this section discussion will concentrate on
the functional a s p e c t of gates and the design of the supporting s t r u c t u r e .

Checks may be stationary o r portable. A l a r g e variety of conventional

stationary checks exist, each of which have been developed to suit a given s e t of
conditions. These checks can be dimensioned a s outlined in section 6.2. A
few examples a r e described in 6.5.2 to 6.5.4 below and portable checks a r e
mentioned in 6.5.5.

1/
6.5.2 Standard Check (USBR)-

6.5. 2.1 General design f e a t u r e s

This check h a s been developed by the USBR for u p s t r e a m water level

control f o r maximum discharge capacities f r o m 300 l / s up to 2,400 l / s .

The structure, ( F i g u r e 6- 23), consists of:

- an u p s t r e a m approach of 3 m (10 feet) with gradually widening transition

f r o m the width of the n o r m a l channel section to the width of the check
( a c r o s s the axis of flow) and with the bed sloping down to the c r e s t of the
check

- a check wall with guides f o r a slide gate (the slide gate i s not shown in the
drawing), and wing walls

- a middle section with a p r e - c a s t concrete deck with handrail on the down-

s t r e a m side

- downstream wing walls and a 3 m (10 ft) transition returning back to n o r m a l

channel section.

I' See a l s o under drops.

 TABLE 6-2
Dimensions of Standard Check (USBR)

Slide gate .Standard dimension E s t i m a t e d Quantities

Str. Max. T(ww)
Width
No: Q Heighdl H ( f r a m e ) B~~ ywk) L(str) B(str)top X(vhr) L
1 ( ~ T~( ) 4 ~ T(CHW) Conc- Reinf. Misc.
Tcoff rete steel metal
11s ft3/s in ft
3
in in m kg kg

1 283 10 36 x 12 5 31 0" 1411 41 6" 101 6" - 24" 6 6' 2.1 150 30

2 425 15 36x18 5 31 on 2011 41 6" 121 0" 51 6" 24" 6 6 2.5 170 90

3 595 21 36 x 24 6 - 31 o w 21 2" 51 0" 131 6" 61 3" 24" 6 6 2.9 195 100

4 735 26 36 x 30 6 31 ow 21 8" 61 0" 151 on 71 0" 21 6" 6 8 4.5 245 110

5 595 21 48 x 18 5 4' 0" 2111 41 6" 131 3" 61 2" 24" 6 6 2.7 185 95

6 792 28 48 x 24 6 41 ow 21 3" 51 ott 141 9" 6111" 24" 6 6 3.1 210 105

7 990 35 48 x 30 6 41 0" 21 9" 61 0" 161 3" 71 8" 21 6" 6 8 4.7 260 110

8 1190 42 48x36 6 41 0" 31 3" 71 OH 171 9" 51 7" 21 6" 7 8 5.7 300 130
II

9 990 35 60 x 24 6 51 0" 21 3" 51 ott 151 9" 71 5" 24" 6 6 3.3 220 125

10 1220 4 3 60x30 6 51 OH 21 9" 61 0" 171 3" 51 511 21 6~ 6 8 5.0 280 145

11 1190 42 72x24 6 61 o w 21 311 51 011 161 9" 7111" 24" 6 ' 6 3.4 240 125

L 1 ~ h e na gate of specified height i s not available a gate with the next height available m a y be used with
appropriate f r a m e height.
 The whole s t r u c t u r e i s of reinforced concrete except the gate.
Transitions a r e in e a r t h but the bed i s protected by a l a y e r of c o a r s e gravel.

The e s s e n t i a l dimensions of the check a r e given in Table 6- 2 f o r 6

different standard s t r u c t u r e s . Size of s t r u c t u r e and elkvation i s determined a s
follows. The c r e s t i s s e t s o that the top of the check wall (adjacent to the gate)
is a t control w a t e r level. This i s the level to be held by the check and i s usually
equal to the n o r m a l level of the w a t e r s u r f a c e a t the check f o r design discharge.
F o r a known d i s c h a r g e ' Q 1 a s t r u c t u r e i s selected f r o m Table 6-2 and i t s c r e s t
( a t elevation B in F i g u r e 6-23) is s e t s o that the top of the check wall i s a t control
water level.

E x c e s s i v e flow can p a s s over the concrete check wall.

Numerical example

Given Q = 575 l / s

Elevation A = 310.25 m

= 45 c m
y1

a s s u m e n o r m a l water surface = control water surface

control w a t e r surface = 310.25 + 0.45 = 310.70 m

Refer to Table 6-2. T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e number for a Q of 575 l / s , s o

Q = 21 f t 3 / s = 595 11s. S t r u c t u r e s Nos 3 and 5 both
s e l e c t the next highest,
3 Select s t r u c t u r e No 5 because i t h a s a
have a maximum discharge of 21 ft / s .
working head (h(wk)).which m o r e n e a r l y suits the given canal section and i t h a s
l e s s concrete than s t r u c t u r e No 3.

Dimensions : h(wk) = 21 inches = 53cm

ElevationB = 310.70-0.53 = 310.17 m

l leva ti on of B m u s t not be higher than that of C )

Elevation C i s normally set 1. 5 to 3 c m lower than Elevation A to

allow for hydraulic head l o s s through the structure. Therefore, Elevation
C = 310.23 m.

Check Structure made of Sheet Metal

A prefabricated steel check structure i s shown in F i g u r e 6-24. The steel

i s g l a s s coated to reduce corrosion. The joints a r e bolted and sealed with a
special m a s t i c to help eliminate seepage. The data given below a r e for a
122 cm (4 ft) wide opening.

Model Dimension (ft) Arsa Wt. List ~ r i c e l /

Number L F B E C ft lb $ us

4 ft wide

4W4442 4 4 4 4 2 160 1075 380

FIGURE 6-24. - Check s t r u c t u r e made of sheet metal -

dimensions.
 FIGURE 6-25. - Check constructed from prefabricated
steel parts (75).

6.5.4 Wooden Checks

Designs of small wooden checks a r e shown in Figures 6 - 2 6 and 6-27.

Shutter
., ,
f -

Recommended S i z e s

ft3/s A B C D E F

3 71011 21'611 31011 11611 21011 31011

6 91011 31011 31011 21011 31011 31611
9 1010" 31011 41011 21011 31011 31611
FRONT VlEW
12 111011 31611 51011 21011 3lOl1 31611
16 1110" 480" 51011 21611 31011 4toll

.^------I REAR VlEW

FIGURE 6-26. - Single wall check with side walls only for
protection of banks (65).
 Minimum dimensions in inches

FIGURE 6-27. - Double wall check (74).

The s t r u c t u r e s can be improved by adding an apron at the downstream end. Aprons

can be made of almost any convenient m a t e r i a l ranging f r o m burlap sacks to con-
crete. The tables in F i g u r e s 6-26 and 6-27 give dimensions recommended for
various flow capacities o r opening widths. The capacities for the double wall
check in Figure 6-27 range f r o m 0 to 1,000 11s.
6.5.5 Portable Checks

Often i t i s desirable to use a ditch in sections, filling sections lower down-

s t r e a m a s irrigation progresses. A s e r i e s of permanent structures for this
purpose would be costly ; but a portable dam o r stop in the form of a f r a m e of
canvas, plastic o r butyl rubber, o r a metal panel that can be driven into the earth
and a c r o s s the ditch, can be used repeatedly to control flow. These devices a r e
applicable only to earth ditches. To permit the same control in lined systems,
slots f o r the checks can be cast into the sides of the channels a t any desired
interval. F i g u r e s 6-28 and 6-29 show two simple designs for local manufacture.

Ditch bonk

AL
L C O ~ O Ibottom
Angle bar 4 0 x 40

Section A-A

FIGURE 6-28., - Portable check for f a r m ditches (46).

6.5.6 Radial Gate Check

The radial gate check i s used successfully for level control purposes in the
Netherlands. Its g r e a t advantages a r e that: the gate a c t s a s an overflow weir,
which requires l e s s frequent adjustment should the discharge of the channel
fluctuate; i t allows debris to p a s s the weir; and the gate can be lowered for
periodical cleaning of the upstream channel section. The gate i s operated with a
portable screw-thread b a r and i s then kept in the required position by a chain on
FIGURE 6-29. - Portable canvas check, sleeve type ( 1 3 ) .
FIGURE 6-30 ( a ) . - Radial check gate h he Netherlands).
FIGURE 6- 30 (b). , - D o w n s t r e a m view of r a d i a l g a t e check ( T h e N e t h e r l a n d s ) .
 e a c h side. (See F i g u r e s 6-30 (a) and 6-30 (b).) L a r g e gates a r e operated by a
fixed hoisting device.

6.5.7 The Romijn Gate

The Romijn gate i s a hand-operated broad c r e s t e d weir used for: level con-
t r o l a t intakes t o distributing o r other subordinate channels; o r f o r level control
within a channel; o r a s a measuring device. The gate h a s been thoroughly
laboratory t e s t e d and r a t e d for water m e a s u r e m e n t and is t h e r e f o r e discussed in
detail under Chapter 7 - S t r u c t u r e s and Devices f o r Water Measurement in
Volume I1 of this Handbook.

6.6 HYDRAULICALLY AUTOMATED CHECKS (NEYRPIC)

6 . 6.1 General Structure and Application

The need f o r m o r e a c c u r a t e water level control than i s possible with hand-

operated check gates h a s , among other needs, l e d to the development of the
Neyrpic automatic gates. Their operation r e l i e s entirely on the f o r c e s in the
s y s t e m itself, such a s hydrostatic t h r u s t and the weight of the device. The devices
to be discussed h e r e a r e the standard AMIL, AVIS and AVIO gates.

The AMIL gate, a s shown in F i g u r e 6-31, i s designed f o r constant level

u p s t r e a m control. I t consists of a balanced radial gate with a float attached to the
leaf. The gate i s designed s o that the f o r c e s acting oneit position the leaf to

. maintain the u p s t r e a m water level a t the height required. With the constant level
downstream gate (AVIS) a s shown in F i g u r e 6-32 a float automatically positions the
gate leaf over the gate opening to maintain a predetermined and n e a r l y constant
level downstream. F i g u r e 6- 33 shows the AVIO gate, a variant of the downstream
level gate, which i s placed behind an orifice type outlet. The AVIO variant i s
required when the discharge of the supply canal i s l a r g e and the discharge to be
taken off i s small. I t i s m o r e generally used on water offtakes that a r e controlled
f r o m the level variations of a body of water such a s a storage pond. The choice
between the open and the orifice type gate i s solely determined by the maximum
level differential likely to occur between the u p s t r e a m and the controlled levels.
With the constant level u p s t r e a m gate the branch canal o r f a r m outlet i s placed
u p s t r e a m of the gate and with the constant level downstream gate downstream of
the gate. (See a l s o Chapters 2 and 3 . )

FIGURE 6-31. - Typical medium s i z e u p s t r e a m constant level gate,

NEYRPIC - AMIL. (1. Servo-tab, 2. float, 3. gate leaf, 4. hinge,
5. adjustable counterweight)

FIGURE 6-32. - Typical downstream constant level gate (NEYRPIC - AVIS)

 FIGURE 6-33. - Typical downstream constant level
gate for discharge through an orifice, (NEYRPIC-AVIO).
(1. Opening, 2. gate leaf, 3 . adjustable counterweight,
4. hinge, 5. float, 6. chamber communicating with the
downstream level. )

When comparing constant level gates with conventional gates the higher
initial cost of constant level gates h a s to be weighed against i n c r e a s e d water u s e
efficiency in the entire irrigation system. Other aspe*cts to consider a r e the
labour saving automatic operation v e r s u s the i n c r e a s e d attention n e c e s s a r y to p r e -
vent jamming of and tampering with the device. Because of t h e i r relatively high
cost and susceptibility to clogging by debris, the constant level gates a r e especially
suited t o h a r d surface lined canals o r flume irrigation s y s t e m s . F o r a choice
between u p s t r e a m and downstream control s e e Chapter 2.

6. 6.2 Range of Standard Gates Available

The information given in the following indicates the range of

available standard AMIL, AVIS and AVIO gates only. F o r selection of s i z e of
gate within each category the following data m u s t be known:
- maximum r a t e of flow

- minimum head

- maximum head a t z e r o flow

- maximum head a t maximum flow.

F o r design and o t h e r complementary information r e f e r e n c e should be

m a d e to the abundant information available with the manufacturers.

AMIL gates

AMIL gates a r e described by the dimension indicated by IDt, which i s

approximately the width of the water s u r f a c e , a s shown in F i g u r e 6-34.

FIGURE 6-34. - Diagrammatic layout of AMIL gate.

The depth of water u p s t r e a m i s 0.45 D ; the gate r i s e s to a maximum of 0.225 D ;

2
the a r e a of the p a s s a g e through which the water p a s s e s i s about 0 . 2 D ; and the
a r e a of wetted section of canal immediately u p s t r e a m f r o m the gate i s 0. 35 D 2 .
Table 6-3 s u m m a r i s e s the m a j o r p a r a m e t e r s of s m a l l AMIL gates.
 TABLE 6-3

Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small AMIL Gates

Approximate
Water Cross Overall
Approximate minimum
Type depth section
maximum head l o s s a t
Y1 (cm) (cm) discharge maximum
D R discharge
(cm) (cm) (cm) a b c U V W (11S ) (cm)

D 80 63 36 85 65 60 70 56 71 190 5
D 90 , 63 40 95 50 45 70 56 80 250 6
D-100 63 45 106 56 50 70 56 85 330 7
D-110 63 50 118 63 56 70 56 95 420 7
D-125 90 56 132 71 63 100 80 106 570 8
D-140 90 63 150 80 71 100 80 118 770 9
D-160 90 71 170 90 80 100 80 132 1100 10

6. 6. 2. 2 AVIS gates

AVIS gates a r e identified in t e r m s of float r a d i u s r and bottom

sluice k i d t h C I, both in c e n t i m e t r e s ( s e e F i g u r e 6-35 ( a ) ). Two groups of
gates a r e available, one f o r high heads and another f o r low heads. In the
3
capacity range below one m 1 s t h e r e a r e only two different s i z e s of the high head
type available, a s shown in Table 6-4.

TABLE 6-4
Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small High Head AVIS Gates

AVIS Appr ox:

high Max. min. head
Approx.
head O v e r a l l dimensions head Sluice loss at
max.
gate (cm) ( cm) (4 dis- maximum
No charge discharge
(r/c) A B C D E F R r Jrn C H L (l/s) (cm)

561106 164 135 121 90 102 62 9058 40 106 96 138.5 800 6

711132 205 165 155 110 127 78 112 71 50 132 121 180 1400 7
 downstream level

Sluice dimensions

FIGURE 6-35 (a). - Diagrammatic layout of AVIS gate

from 56/106 to 90/190.
6.6.2.3 AVIO g a t e s
- AVIO g a t e s a r e identified in t e r m s of float - outside r a d i u s in c m and
sluice c r o s s sectional a r e a s ( h x L ) in s q u a r e d e c i m e t e r s ( s e e F i g u r e 6-35(b) ).
A s an example the float r a d i u s and sluice c r o s s section of a n AVIO 56/25 gate a r e
56 cm and 25 dm 2 respectively. 3
In the capacity range f r o m z e r o to one m / s
t h e r e a r e 6 gate s i z e s available f o r high h e a d s and 4 for low heads a s shown in
Table 6-5.

TABLE 6-5

Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small t o Medium Size AVIO g a t e s

AVIO gate Approx.

Approx.
NO. O v e r a l l dimensions min. head
- (cm)
Max.
head Opening
max.
dis- loss at
- m a x . dis-
High Low (cm) (cm) charge charge
head head A I.
J~ h I., (11s) (cm)

281 6 85 60 65 35 50 28 142 25 25 80 14
36/10 105 75 85 45 63 36 140 32 32 110 16
451 1 6 135 90 100 55 80 45 180 40 40 280 20
45/32 135 90 100 55 80 45 . 90 40 80 410 12
5 6/ 25 165 115 130 7 0 1 0 0 56 224 50 50 49 0 26
56/50 165 115 130 7 0 1 0 0 56 112 50 100 750 15
71/40 210145170 90125 71 280 63 63 900 33
71/80 210 145. 170 90 125 71 140 63 125 1350 20
90163 265 180 210 110 160 90 355 80 80 1500 40
90/125 265 180 210 110 160 90. 180 80 160 2030 24
Moximum Constant
>
upstream level downstreorn level
7

FIGURE 6- 35 (b) . - D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIO gate.

FIGURE 6-36 ( a ) . - B a s i c d r a w - s t r i n g check fitted with
side wing walls and bottom cut-off f o r u s e in an unlined
ditch.

FIGURE 6- 36 (b). - Semi automatic check installed in an

unlined ditch.
6.7 SEMI AUTOMATIC TIME CONTROLLED CHECK

The u s e of t i m e controlled checks i s a s yet in the experimental stage and

t h e r e i s little field experience available. The method i s s o far. confined to water
level control in f a r m distribution ditches. After allowing the water t o r i s e t o a
predetermined level f o r a given t i m e an automatic gate i s r e l e a s e d , allowing the
water to flow on to the next check. A s e m i automatic portable check f o r u s e in
unlined ditches i s shown in F i g u r e s 6-36(a) and 6-36(b). Similar checks a r e
available for lined ditches. The check consists of a nylon reinforced butyl
rubber dam s ~ ~ , ~ o rint ea dm e t a l f r a m e designed t o fit the ditch c r o s s section.
In the closed position the top edge of the flexible dam i s supported by a draw-
s t r i n g threaded through g r o m m e t s . A plastic covered s t e e l cable i s used for the
draw-string. The draw-string i s r e l e a s e d a t the end of the d e s i r e d i r r i g a t i o n
period by a timing device. This device, which i s commercially available, con-
s i s t s of a wind-up spring, d i r e c t reading t i m e indicator, a tripping m e c h a n i s m
and an escapement r e l e a s e which i s operated by a small float. The t i m e r i s
mounted in a sealed casing. It o p e r a t e s a s soon a s water e n t e r s the ditch
immediately u p s t r e a m f r o m the check, when the timing mechanism i s tripped
into action by the r i s i n g float, T i m e r s a r e available f o r two, five o r twelve
hour periods. Checks have been manufactured for 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 c m
design water depths. Design details of the gates a r e given in Volume I11 of this
Handbook.

Humpherys (58) s t a t e s that the portable d r a w - s t r i n g check i s ideally suited

f o r u s e in an automatic cut-back furrow irrigation s y s t e m , i n a t h a t the a c r e a g e
one i r r i g a t o r can manage can be i n c r e a s e d up to ten o r m o r e times, while
keeping run-off a t a minimum. (See a l s o Chapter 2)

6.8 CHECK STRUCTURES COMBINED WITH A FALL, DROP OR CHUTE

Sometimes, it i s n e c e s s a r y to combine check s t r u c t u r e s with falls, drops

o r chutes, particularly when i t i s n e c e s s a r y to control the u p s t r e a m w a t e r level
and i t s velocity, in addition t o achieving a reduction in grade and velocity down-
stream. Examples of checks combined with falls a r e given in p a r t B of this
chapter, which follows.
6.9 GENERAL FEATURES OF DROPS (OR FALLS) AND CHUTES

Drops, o r falls, and chutes a r e control s t r u c t u r e s required a t suitable

intervals in canals o r channels which m u s t have a m o r e gentle slope than that of
the adjacent land, so a s to reduce the water level downstream, and reduce the
velocity of flow. They also provide for the safe dissipation of surplus energy.
Generally such a control structure i s called a drop, o r a fall, when the lowering
of the water level i s accomplished over a short distance. When the water i s
conveyed over long distances a t slopes which a r e still steep enough to maintain
high velocities (shooting flow), the structure generally used i s a chute. Chutes
may also be used on sloping land where a single drop, o r a s e r i e s of drops (i. e.
cascades), would be m o r e expensive o r otherwise undesirable.

In the c a s e of main canals, branch canals o r sub-branch canals, which do

not directly i r r i g a t e any a r e a , the site of a drop i s determined in consideration of
the cost of canal construction, including balancing cut and fill and the cost of the
structure itself. In the case of distributing canals, the falls a r e located so a s to
s e r v e the commanded a r e a without having to build the canal banks too high. The
possibility of combining a drop with an intake, c r o s s regulator, measuring
device, bridge o r some other canal structure must be given due consideration, a s
such combinations often r e s u l t in economy and better regulation. Drops a r e
usually provided with a low c r e s t wall, hump o r check gate upstream to prevent
shooting flow in the upstream approach section.

In this Handbook drops a r e subdivided into three categories: vertical drops,

inclined drops and piped drops. Chutes a r e regarded a s being in the same
category a s inclined drops.

The choice between vertical and inclined drops i s governed mainly by the
difference in water level to be controlled by the structure, in other words, the
energy to be dissipated. However, local conditions, traditional practices, e t c . ,
do not allow for generalization of the c r i t e r i a for this choice on a world-wide
scale. The n e c e s s a r y drop in level and dissipation of energy can be achieved
 either by one o r only a few l a r g e d r o p s o r by s e v e r a l m o r e small drops over the
s a m e distance. The choice again i s much dependent on m a t e r i a l and labour
available and the total cost of construction.

The inclined d r o p o f f e r s the alternative of dissipating energy through a

standing wave (hydraulic jump) whereas the shock of the overfall jet of the
vertical d r o p i s dissipated. Where the fall r e q u i r e d i s considerable the whole
s t r u c t u r e of the inclined drop r e q u i r e s l e s s m a t e r i a l and labour input than the
wall and dissipator basin s t r u c t u r e of the vertical drop.

Drops can be used to m e a s u r e the quantity of water flowing over them. For
example, a vertical d r o p may be equipped with a calibrated weir section; and
inclined drops may be designed so a s to include a calibrated flume section.

Pipe drops a r e often found useful and economical where a d r o p can be

sited so a s t o t r a v e r s e a road o r other crossing of an irrigation canal.

Drops in f a r m channels a r e basically of the s a m e type and function a s those

in distribution canals, the only difference being that the drops in f a r m channels
a r e s m a l l e r and simpler in construction and equipment. They a r e m o r e often
provided with a check gate, which may be a simple slide gate o r a wooden shutter.
Both vertical drops and pipe drops may be employed, although v e r t i c a l drops a r e
the m o s t commonly used.

In the sections which follow in this chapter, e x a y p l e s of'drops and chutes

applicable to main irrigation distribution s y s t e m s a r e given in 6. 10 to 6.12, while
examples of drops for f a r m irrigation channels a r e described in 6.13.

6.10 VERTICAL DROPS (OR. FALLS)

6.10.1 General

Energy dissipation by a vertical drop i s usually r e s o r t e d to where the drop

i s small, although the interpretation of "small" differs in various p a r t s of the
world. According to the USBR standards, a small vertical drop i s one which
does not exceed 3 ft ( say 1 m ) , except where the canal i s lined with a h a r d
surface downstream of the structure, when the d r o p may be up to 6 ft ( s a y 2 m ) .
 In Australian usage a small vertical drop does not exceed 1.05 m from c r e s t to
downstream bed (52).

The vertical drop structure generally incorporates a stilling basin and some
form of sill o r baffle, o r both, combined with side wall arrangements, to dissi-
pate the jet. These structural arrangements should create a r e v e r s e rolling flow
a t ground level to reduce scouring of the bed immediately downstream of the
structure. Rip-rap i s also usually placed on the downstream side to prevent
erosion. The dimensions of the stilling pool o r energy dissipator depend upon the
height of fall and the discharge over the crest.

Of a large number of designs available examples of t h r e e diverse designs

a r e described here, namely, the "Sarda" type used in India, the rectangular weir
drop proposed by SOGETHA (84), the standard USBR drop-check and the YMGT
type drop used in flumed systems in Japan. In addition to these i t m u s t be pointed
out that extensive r e s e a r c h has been c a r r i e d out in the U. S. A. on small vertical
drop structures, which a r e dealt with in detail in a special r e p o r t under 'the
CUSUSWASH water management s e r i e s of Colorado State University (106).

6.10.2 Sarda Type F a l l (India)

6.10.2.1 General

The Sarda type fall i s a vertical drop structure, developed on the

Sarda Canal P r o j e c t in Uttar P r a d e s h (India) to replace the notch fall. It has been
tested by hydraulic experiments in the laboratory and by observations on the
prototype. It i s both simple and economical and therefore i s widely used in
Uttar Pradesh. It i s not adapted to flow measurement but i t may s e r v e a s a
meter-fall when calibrated.

There a r e two types of Sarda fall, one with a vertical c r e s t wall for
discharges below 15 m 3 / s , and another with a trapezoidal c r e s t wall for
discharges above 15 m 3 1s. Only the vertical c r e s t type i s described herein.

At f i r s t no depressed cistern flaring in the downstream wing walls

were provided. While the behaviour of this prototype was, on the whole, very
satisfactory, erosion of the banks downstream of the structure was noticed in
 some c a s e s . Model experiments w e r e c a r r i e d out a t Bahadarabad R e s e a r c h
Station ( ~ t t a Pr r a d e s h ) to eliminate the defects,and the design c r i t e r i a given
below follow the recommendations based on those experiments.

6.10.2.2 S t r u c t u r a l design

The Sarda fall i s a r a i s e d c r e s t fall with vertical impact (F'igure 6- 37).

It consists essentially of u p s t r e a m wing walls, a c r e s t wall, downstream
expansion and wing walls, an impervious floor and a cistern, and downstream
side and bed protection.

The u p s t r e a m wing walls a r e generally shaped a s a segment of a

c i r c l e with a radius equal to 5 to 6 H(,,t) and subtending an angle of 60, and
c a r r i e d tangentially into the b e r m of the channel for a minimum of one m e t r e .
The foundations of the wing walls should be laid on an impervious concrete floor
( a t the level of the downstream bed), which should be extended on both sides for
the purpose.

One o r two drainage holes (15 cm width and 15 cm height) should be

provided in the c r e s t a t bed level to drain out the u p s t r e a m bed during a closure
of the canal.

The top width of the c r e s t wall, (along the axis of flow) L

(crt)
i s given by L(crt) = 55 H(c-b) in m e t r e s

The bottom width (along the axis of flow) of the c r e s t wall, ( T ) ~ ~ ~

i s given by (T)bot
= (min) q-
c-b
in m e t r e s ,

where H i s the height of the c r e s t above the downstream bed level of the
(c-b)
canal.

The c r e s t breadth, B(crt),(across the axis of f1ow)is given by the

expression

B(crt) = B1 + Y1

The downstream wings a r e kept vertical over a 1;ngth varying f r o m 5

to 8 t i m e s .f 1'
(Hdr)
, and then stepped down to their required level. They
a r e then flared, i. e . the water face i s gradually sloped f r o m vertical to 1.5 : 1 o r
lea 0 1 5 x 0 1 5 Downstreom F. S. L.

Downstreom bed

Longitudinal section

(All dimensions ore in metres)

SARDA TYPE F A L L (U.P)

1 : 1. If the wings be discontinued a f t e r they attain the slope of 1 : 1, the warping
m u s t be continued by the side pitching until i t h a s a slope of 1.5 : 1.

The total length of the impervious floor should be determined by

Bligh's theory, on the b a s i s of which the safe hydraulic gradients for different
kinds of soils a r e given hereunder :-

Type of soil Hydraulic gradient

sand mixed with boulders -

1
to -51
and shingles, and loamy soils 9

light sand and mud -1

8

fine micaceous sand

c o a r s e grained sand

The maximum hydraulic gradient will occur when the water i s headed
up to the top of the c r e s t on the u p s t r e a m side with no flow on the downstream
1
side. The total length of floor required i s - H(c,b), dependihg on the type
s(H)
of soil. Of the total length, the minimum length of floor on the downstream side
in m e t r e s should be 2 (water depth u p s t r e a m + 1.2) + drop. The balance of
the total length may be provided under and u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t wall.

U p s t r e a m of the c r e s t the uplift p r e s s u r e s a r e m o r e than counter-

. .
balanced by the weight of water standing on the floor. 4 Also the u p s t r e a m floor i s
laid below the bed u p s t r e a m of the fall and i s not subjected to flow, and thus a
thickness of 0. 3 m i s usually adequate for it. The thickness of the floor down-
s t r e a m i s generally 0. 3 m to 0.45 m .

F o r very s m a l l f a l l s no c i s t e r n i s n e c e s s a r y , but when the hydraulic

d r o p w a r r a n t s it, t h e r e should be one, according to the following p a r a m e t e r s :

length of cistern, L
(bas) = [ ~ ( d r ) 'H ( c r t ) ] 2

depth of c i s t e r n
 The downstream bed pitching m a y be protected with d r y b r i c k about
20 c m thick r e s t i n g on 10 c m thick b a l l a s t over a length t h r e e t i m e s y2. A
y2
c u r t a i n wall 35 c m thick and of depth equal to 2 , subject to a m i n i m u m of
0 . 5 m , and r e s t i n g on 15 c m thick concrete, m a y be provided a t the end of the
pitching.

F o r downstream side protection a f t e r the wing walls, the side slope:

of the channel a r e pitched with 10 c m brick, ( i . e . brick on edge) for a length
equal to 3 y2. The pitching should rest on a toe wall having the s a m e dimension^
a s the curtain wall.

6.10.2.3 Design formula

Under f r e e overfall conditions:

F o r drowned (submerged) falls:

-2

H(,) i s determined f r o m the formula,

H(crt) = (dr) + H( s )

6.10.2.4 Numerical example

Data given:

= 1.5 m
B1 B2
= 0.75m
y1 & y2
H = 0.90 m
(dr)
Maximum hydraulic gradient
-- 1 in 5

Then B(crt) = B1 + Y1 = 1.5+0.75 = 2.25m

Top width of c r e s t wall = 0.55 = 0.62 m

- 1. 29
Bottom width of c r e s t wall = 0.65m
2

I n c r e a s e i t to 0.80 m

Radius of u p s t r e a m wing walls should be 5H

(4to 6H(crt) o r 1.80 m to 2.16 m .

A s s u m e a radius of 2 m .

F o r calculating the length of the impervious floor, the maximum hydraulic gradient i s
1 i n 5.
F l o o r length = 5 .
1. 29 = 6.45 m say 6.5 m
F l o o r length required on downstream side
= 2(y1 + 1.2) + H
(dr)
= 2(0.75 + 1.2) + 0. 90

P r o v i d e a length of 5 m on the downstream side.

The remaining length to be provided on the u p s t r e a m side and under the c r e s t

= 6 . 5 - 5 = 1.5 m

The thickness of the floor - 0.3 m for the u p s t r e a m side and under the c r e s t and
0.45 m for the downstream side up to 2.5 m f r o m the toe of the c r e s t wall.
 Length of c i s t e r n = r 5 . H(dr) . (4

-
- 2.85 m
2
-
Depth of c i s t e r n - 0'25 LH(dr)
-2
. H(crt) I3
-
- 0.25 (0. 324)3

Adopt 0.15 m
. Length of downstream bed pitching = 3 . 0.75 = 2.25 m

~ e n ~ oft hdownstream side pitching = 2.25 m .

6.10.3 Rectangular Weir Drop with Raised Crest-1/

6. 10. 3.1 General characteristics

The rectangular weir d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t i s a simple s t r u c t u r e for

u s e on s m a l l channels which m a y be constructed in concrete o r b r i c k m a s o n r y o r
a combination of both. It does not m e a s u r e flow and does not s e r v e a s a check.
It r e q u i r e s little maintenance.

The design i s suitable for v e r t i c a l drops up to 7 m, for channel bed

widths of f r o m 0.2 to one m e t r e and f o r full supply depths f r o m 0. 1 to 0.7 m . It
c o n s i s t s of u p s t r e a m bed and side protection, a c r e s t wall, stilling basin and
downstream bed and side protection. (See F i g u r e 6- 38)

The width of the c r e s t ( a c r o s s the a x i s of flow) may be l e s s than the

width of the c i s t e r n by 0.10 m , but where t h e r e i s an offtake on the immediate
u p s t r e a m side of the d r o p the width of the c r e s t (in the c a s e of a rectangular
channel) m u s t be equal to the width of the channel.

'I Derived from SOGETHA (84)

 Bank Bonk

Section A A

Bank Bonk

I FAO-ICID

RECTANGULAR WEIR DROP

WITH RAISED CREST

Longiludinol section V

C Project, Region , Country

Developed by S O G E T A H (France)

Figure No. 6-38

6. 1 0 . 3 . 2 Design p r o c e d u r e

F o r a given discharge, Q, hydraulic drop, H(dr), u p s t r e a m bed

width, B , and full supply depth, y , proceed a s follows:

Volume of basin, V =
.
*(dr)
m
3
150

Length of basin, L = 1.5 . H(dr) m

Area.of c r o s s section
of the basin along the
2
a x i s of flow = A = L ( Y 2 + H m
(bas)
Width of basin

Depth of basin i s f r o m 0. 1 to 0. 3 m

In the c a s e of trapezoidal canal,

the width of c r e s t -
I B(t) = - O.lom
In the c a s e of a rectangular canal B (t) = B1

Discharge formula :
-3

where C = 0. 36 for a v e r t i c a l u p s t r e a m face of c r e s t wall and 0.40 for

an u p s t r e a m face rounded off by the quadrant of a c i r c l e of 5 to 10 c m r a d i u s .

C r e s t water depth,
H(crt), i s determined f r o m F i g u r e 6-39 f o r a
given discharge p e r m e t r e and value of C.

Height of c r e s t over u p s t r e a m
bed level, H(b-,) -
- Y 1 - H m
(4
Other dimensions of the s t r u c t u r e a r e a s given in F i g u r e 6-38.

6.10.3.3 Numerical example 1

Design a rectangular weir d r o p with the following data :

FIGURE 6- 39. - Rectangular weir drop - relationship between
H(,,.),d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width of c r e s t a n d c o e f f i c i e n t s 0. 32,
0.36 and 0.40.
 Volume of basin = v -- 200 . 0.80
= 1.07 m
3
150

Length of basin = L = 1.5H

( dr)
= 1.5 . 0.80

C r o s s sectional a r e a of
' t h e basin along the a x i s
of t h e floor = A = (0.50 + 0.10) . 1.20
2
= 0.72 m

Width of basin

Depth of basin = H(bas) = 0.10m

f

Width of c r e s t = B(t) = B - 0.10

(bas)

F r o m F i g u r e 6-39, for C = 0.40 and q = 143 l / s ,

H(crt) = 0.19 m

.. H(b- c ) = 0.50 - 0.19 = 0.51 m

The design of the d r o p i s shown in F i g u r e 6-38.

6.10.3.4 Numerical example 2

Design a d r o p in a rectangular channel with the following

data :
 Volume of basin =. v =
50 . 0.50
= 0.167m
3
150

Length of basin = L = 1.5 . 0.5 = 0.75 m

Depth of basin = 0.10 m

A r e a of the basin
alongtheaxisofflow = A = (0.30t0.10) 0.75

Width of basin

Width of c r e s t = 0.40m
= B(t)

F r o m F i g u r e 6.39 f o r q = 125 l / s , and m = 0.40

1/
6.10.4 Vertical Check-Drop (USBR) -

The s t r u c t u r e described h e r e i n i s used along canals having steep t e r r a i

where functions of both a check and a d r o p a r e r e q u i r e d . The maximum
allowable fall a t each d r o p i s 3 feet, ( s a y 90 c m ) .

The s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e s 6-40 and 6-41) consists of: an u p s t r e a m approach

of 1 . 5 t o 3 m (5 to 10 feet) e a r t h transition gradually widening f r o m the n o r m a l
waterway section t o the width of the check-drop ( a c r o s s the a x i s of flow) and a l s o
with the bed sloping down to the c r e s t of the check; u p s t r e a m bed gravel pro-
tection; check wall with guides for a gate f r a m e o r stop-logs and wing walls; a.
s t r u c t u r e with a p r e - c a s t concrete deck with a handrail on the downstream side;
and downstream reinforced concrete floor with cut-offs on either end; o r a
stilling basin and floor with cut-offs on either end, downstream wing walls and a
1 . 5 to 3 m transition converging f r o m the width of the check to the n o r m a l w a t e r -

"Based on information received through the US National Committee of the ICID.

 precast concrete deck

Place grouting mortor as

concrete as directed
directed on top of asbestos
sheets to provide ,firm bear-
ing surfoces for precast
concrete deck.
Section D-D

Section 8-8

bock seat and hondwheel

+"x 6"onchor bolts with square

heods, hex, nuts ond cut woshers.
Plan of precosi concrete deck
Project14.

flothead bolts
Normal water surfoce

4 dio. x 5 headed anchors,weld to angle.

Min. 3 onchors required

CONCRETE VERTICAL CHECK

WITH 1.5 FEET DROP
Gate frome guide details
Section A-A

Project, Region , Country

Notes: Outer face transverse bars to be continuous in walls ond floors. Thickness of concrete to vary
uniformly between dimensions shown. U S A
Ploce grouting mortar'on top of asbestos sheets to provide firm bearing surfoces for precast deck.
Gate frame height measured from centre line of gote opening.
I Figure No. 6-40
r

Precart concrete plonks, see &oils

$' oncha bdts a < project i

homftr on dl edger of & n & s

10 anchor Mi wiih s q w hcod,

hex. nut, ond cut ~ S h t r
Reintorcement not shown

Plan
required

Upstream eneqy level

Reinf. not shown

Stoplog guide details

( 2 required)

FA 0 - ICID

CONCRETE VERTICAL CHECK

Section B-B WITH 3.5 FEET DROP

Longitudinal section Project , Region, Country

U S A

Figure No. 6-41

way section with a bed sloping up f r o m the floor t o the n o r m a l bed of the
waterway downstream. The side slopes of the downstream transition a r e in e a r t h
but the bed h a s a c o a r s e g r a v e l protection.

Overflow i s provided f o r o v e r the check walls a t the inlet on the check with
a 0.45 m (1.5 f t ) drop; however, t h e r e i s no provision f o r overflow on the check
with a 0.9 m ( 3 ft) drop.

Tables 6- 6 and 6-7 give, for a given discharge, the e s s e n t i a l dimension of

the various elements of the check- d r o p s t r u c t u r e f o r 0.45 m (1.5 ft) and
0.90 m ( 3 ft) d r o p respectively.

F o r d r o p s u p to and including 0.45 m (1.5 ft) the s t r u c t u r e shown on F i g u r e

6-40 i s used. F o r d r o p s g r e a t e r than 0.45 m ( 1 . 5 ft) and through 0.9 m ( 3 ft),
the s t r u c t u r e shown on F i g u r e 6-41 i s used.

Numerical example 1 ,
3
Q = 25ft/s
El A = 861. 10 f t (elevation of u p s t r e a m canal invert)
= 2.00ft
1
v = 1 . 6 f t / s ( u p s t r e a m canal velocity)
1

El C = 860.00 ft (elevation of downstream canal i n v e r t )

v = 1 . 6 f t / s (downstream canal velocity)

2

H
The fall, i s equal to the difference between the u p s t r e a m and
(dr)'
the downstream energy l e v e l s .
2 -
h 1
= - - - 1. 6L
= 0. 04 ft;
V1 2g 2 (32. 2)

where g = acceleration due to gravity in feet p e r second p e r second

upstreamenergylevel = 861.10 + 2.00 + 0.04 = 863.14ft

downstream energy l e v e l = 860.00 + 2.00 + 0.04 = 862.04 f t

Note that u n l e s s the u p s t r e a m water depth and velocity a r e different f r o m the
downstream w a t e r depth and velocity, HDR can be solved by simply subtracting
the downstream canal i n v e r t f r o m the u p s t r e a m canal invert.

Since H(dr) i s l e s s than 1 . 5 ft, r e f e r to F i g u r e 6-40 and Table 6-6.

T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e for a Q of 25 f t 31 s . Consider s t r u c t u r e No. 4 with a
3 3
m a x i m u m Q of 26 f t / s o r s t r u c t u r e No. 6 with a maximum Q of 28 f t / s .
Select s t r u c t u r e No. 6 because i t h a s a "h(wk)" dimension which m o r e n e a r l y
s u i t s the canal section and i t h a s l e s s concrete than s t r u c t u r e No.4.

A s s u m e n o r m a l water surface = control water s u r f a c e

Control water surface = 861.10 + 2.00 = 863. 10 ft

Set E l B so that the top of the check wall i s a t

control water surface elevation

( E l B m u s t not be higher than E l C)

Other dimensions a r e given in Table 6-6 and Figur.e 6-40.

C

Numerical example 2 .

Q = 30 f t 3 / s

El A = 928. 60 ft ( u p s t r e a m canal invert)

El D = 926.00 f t (downstream canal invert)

= 2.20ft
y2
v = 1.7ft/s
2
 TABLE 6-6
Dimensions of Cencrete Vertical Check with a 1.5 f e e t Drop (USBR)

Slide Gate Standard Dimensions E s t i m a t e d Quantities

Max' h L B X L
Width x Frm Conc. Re. s t e e l Misc.
NO. 'CH (wk) (str) (str)top (vhr) wwl (T)- (T)ww2
height 11 ht 1 metal
in ft in in in Yd3 lb lb

L' When a gate of specific height i s not available, a gate with next g r e a t e r available
height shall b e u s e d with a p p r o p r i a t e f r a m e height.
3 1 cubic yard = 27 cubic f e e t

TABLE 6-7
Dimensions of Concrete Vertical Check with a 3 f e e t Drop (USBR)

Str . Max. H
(dr) H ~ ~ d~~
l
H
ww2
L
-1
H
(b-c)
L
(str) L~~
l'ws
or ( T ) ~ ZB T R ~ B~~ EI A EI B EI c EI D
No. Q
ft3/ s in (T)FR

- - - - -- -

E x a m p l e only
 Since y
1
= y2 and v
1
-- v2' Tdr)
= 928.60 - 926.00 = 2.60 ft.

Since Tdr) is g r e a t e r than 1 . 5 f t , r e f e r to F i g u r e 6-41 and Table 6-7.

Select s t r u c t u r e No. 6.

A s s u m e n o r m a l water s u r f a c e = control w a t e r s u r f a c e

Control water s u r f a c e = 928.60 + 2.20 = 930.80 ft

H~~ = 6. 00 ft, HSB = 0.67 f t

El C = 930.80 - 6.00 + 0.67 = 925.47 f t

( E l C m u s t not be higher than E l D)

See Table 6-7 for completed example.

1/
6. 10.5 YMGT Type D r o p (Japan)-

6.10.5.1 General

D r o p s of rectangular notch type built i n the p a s t in Japan had suffered

f r o m problems of flow turbulence on the downstream of the fall, abnormal waves
and overtopping a t the side walls and damage a t the bottom and side walls of the
canals .
In o r d e r to solve t h e s e problems the Yamagata P r e f e c t u r a l Govern-
m e n t evolved a new design of d r o p for i t s land consolidation p r o j e c t s for u s e in
flumed distribution s y s t e m s . The design i s b a s e d on the r e s u l t s of hydraulic
model studies c a r r i e d out a t the Agricultdral Engineering ~ e s e a r c hStation,
Ministry of Agriculture and F o r e s t r y , Hiratsuka.

The s t r u c t u r e , which h a s no provision for a check, i s suitable for

s m a l l canals, field channels, o r w a t e r c o u r s e s , and f o r d i s c h a r g e s of l e s s than
3
one m / s. F i g u r e 6-42 shows a d r o p s t r u c t u r e of s i m i l a r design in u s e in
Cyprus.

L/B a s e d on information supplied by the Japanese National Committee, ICID.

 S t r u c t u r a l design

The YMGT type s t r u c t u r e i s a rectangular notch d r o p o r fall. It

c o n s i s t s of a sill wall and downstream stilling basin with the n e c e s s a r y t r a n -
sitional bottom slope in the basin m e r g i n g with the n o r m a l bed of the canal on the
downstream side. The foundations of the sill wall and the stilling basin a r e of
cobble stones, 15 to 20 c m in depth, s e t in cement. The sill wall and the floor
of the stilling basin a r e of reinforced concrete laid over a 5 c m l a y e r of cement
over the cobble foundations. The fall i s connected to a prefabricated r e -
inforced concrete flume channel a s shown in F i g u r e 6-42.

FIGURE 6-42. - Drop s t r u c t u r e in s m a l l flume

channel (Cyprus).

The standard design i s intended f o r flumed channels, but if the channels

a r e unlined, i t i s e s s e n t i a l to have sufficient protection and suitable approach
walls both on the u p s t r e a m and downstream sides.
 Section A tn
Longitudinal 'section

Plan
FIGURE 6-43. - YMOT typo drop - s i l l - w e l l and a t i l l i n g baain.
 Design formulae

Brink depth, H(br) for a rectangular notch fall without s i l l

(elevated c r e s t )

where Hc

where H = brink depth at the end of the notch

(br)

Hc = critical depth of flow a t the notch

9 = discharge per unit width through the notch

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m / s 2

Dimension of the jet trajectory

The trajectory of the jet can be calculated by the following

equation :

Without sill

With sill
1
-

where L(bas)l = horizontal length from sill to the point where

the average of the upper and lower nappe meets
the downstream water surface line

": = specific energy corresponding to Hc

= height between the sill line and downstream

H(c-w12)
water surface line
 FIGURE 6-44. - YMGT type d r o p - symbols and notations
f o r sill height, t r a j e c t o r y of jet and dimensions of stilling basin.

Angle of the jet

Without s i l l
tan oc = 0.886

With sill

tan Ot

Velocity of the jet, V(jet)

where H(CEL-b) i s the height between the energy line a t the c r i t i c a l depth over
the notch and the floor of the stilling basin.

Height of the s i l l above the u p s t r e a m bed level

The standard values of the height of the s i l l above the u p s t r e a m bed

level a r e given in Table 6-8.
 TABLE 6-8

Stilling basin
I

Depth of stilling basin

c (dr)

Length of the stilling basin

where L(bas) = total length of the stilling basin

L = horizontal length f r o m the sill c r e s t to the point

(bas)
where the average of the upper and lower nappe
m e e t s the downstream water surface line

L(bas)2 = horizontal length from the point where the average

'
of the upper and lower nappe meets the downstream
water surface line and the point where the average
of the upper and lower nappe strikes the floor of
the stilling basin.
4
.

L (bas)3 = horizontal length of the stilling basin to dissipate

the energy of the jet

i s given by equation ( 3 ) or equation (4)

4b.4

L (bas) L(bas) + L
(bas)2
+ L
(bas)2,
 TABLE 6-9

Standard Design of Small - Size F a l l s (Dimensions and M a t e r i a l s ) in F l u m e d Canals

Dimensions (cm) Quantity

Type Dis- H Rein- Plain

No. charge (dr: H H L B forced ~~~t~~ con- Frame Cobble 11.011
(t-bflIl (c-b) (bas) '(t-bfll2 (TcW) L(baS) '(bas t) (OP) H(cw) (Tbas) B ( b a ~f) (bas) . crete works stones bars
m 3 ~ s rn m3 ,3 ,3 m2 m3 kg

) 0.021 7.05
350 ) 0.060 0.30 37 45 15 37 15 150 50 15 39.5 15 95 45 0.70 0.011 0.12 6.93 0.36 41.41
0.21 10.11
0.060 0.50 37 70 20 37 15 150 100 15 64.5 15 95 45 0.97 0.11 0.14 9.99 0.43 57.48
0.021 13.86
0.060 0.70 37 95 25 37 15 200 100 15 89.5 15 95 45 1.30 0.011 0.17 13.74 0.50 73.67

400 0.14 0.30 46 45 15 46 15 250 50 15 34 15 106 56 1.09 0.029 0.19 10.53 0.56 61.95
0. 1 4 0.50 46 70 20 46 15 250 100 15 59 15 106 56 1.44 0.029 0.21 14. 37 0.64 80.71
0.14 0.70 46 95 25 46 15 250 100 15 84 15 106 56 1. 62 0.029 0.21 16.80 0.64 91.25

1 0.043 13.41
500 ) 0.225 0.30 52 45 15 52 15 300 50 15 35.5 15 117 67 1.41 0.029 0.23 13.23 0.70 77.20
0.043 18.54
0.225 0.50. 52 75 25 52 15 300 100 15 65.5 15 117 67 1.86 0.029 0.26 18.35 0.79 98.57
0.043 20.52
0. 225 0.70 52 95 25 52 15 300 100 15 85.5 15 117 67 2.00 0.029 0.26 20.34 0.79 106.38

) 0.102 25.85
700 ) 0.417 0.50 68 75 25 68 20 350 100 20 64.5 20 151 91 3.32 0.029 0.39 25.37 1.16 161. 63
0.102 32.59
0.417 0.70 68 105 35 68 20 350 150 20 94.5 20 151 91 4.04 0.055 0.42 32.11 1.27 447.94
0.102 39.48
0.417 1.00 68 135 35 68 20 400 150 20 124.5 20 151 91 4.77 0.055 0.46 39.00 1. 38 510. 62

800 0.720 0.50 78 75 25 78 20 450 100 20 62 20 163 103 4.30 0.195 0.50 32.38 1.49 360.36
0.720 0.70 78 105 35 78 20 450 150 20 92 20 163 103 5.12 0.195 0.54 40.17 1.61 544.37
0.720 1.00 78 140 40 78 20 450 150 20 127 20 163 103 5.62 0.195 0.54 46.03 1.61 598.23

1 0.324 48.78
1000 ) 0.996 0.70 95 105 35 95 20 500 150 20 90 20 188 128 6.27 0.296 0.67 48.22 2.00 662.60
0.324 59.76
0.996 1.00 95 145 45 95 20 500 200 20 130 20 188 128 7.40 0.296 0.71 59.20 2.14 998.39
0.324 73.34
0.996 1.50 95 200 50 95 30 500 200 30 185 30 208 128 12.12 0.296 0.81 72.77 2.43 1362.83
 Connection of the stilling basin to the downstream bed of the canal

The downstream end of the stilling basin i s joined to the downstream

bed o r bottom of the canal by a slope of 1 : 4.

To avoid lengthy calculations, s e e Table 6-9 which h a s been p r e p a r e d

to give the various dimensions of the different types of rectangular notch f a l l s in
flumed canals a s well a s quantities of construction m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r e d for them.

6.10.5.4 Numerical example 1

Design a YMGT type rectangular notch fall f o r an unlined canal,

without r a i s e d sill and with the following data:

sideslopes, (ss) = 1: 1

Design
2
- 1
= 0.009 m
hvl 2g

Brink depth a t the notch, H(br) = 0.72 Hc

= 0.360m
 D e p t h of s t i l l i n g b a s i n

L e n g t h of b a s i n

0.567

L(ba s ) .
-

Angle of jet, oi

tan x = 0.886 [ 1
0.763

L = (Y, + H ) cot 6(
(bas)
= (0.873 + 0.433) cot 38'5~'

= 1.506. 1.230 - 1.606 m

.. T o t a l l e n g t h of b a s i n

= 2 . 5 (0.670 + 1.606)
= 5.690 m
Say 5.70 m

6.10.5.5 Numerical example 2

D e s i g n a YMGT t y p e r e c t a n g u l a r n o t c h f a l l with t h e following

data :
 Moteriols

Reinforced concrete 0.70 2

' "ortor UF 300 0.021 n?
UF 350 901t. n?
Plain concrete 0.12 4
UF 300 7.05 m3
Frome work UF 350 6 9 3 n?
,

~obble>l~nes 0.36 n?

Longitudinal section Reinforcement bor

NO, ~i~ lenpth
Unit N,. Total Unit Total
lenoth H~QM weight

1 I 3 2.27 8 18.16 1.04 18.89

@ dio. 9 L.105 n = 2

C87-I I ! !

Plon Dio. 13 28.79 kg

@ dio. L . 2 4 0 n . 3 Dio. 9 12.62 kg
L

k160--/-5
. (All dimensions are in cen+imetres,l

dio. 13 C/C 20
@
-
dia. 9 Lz83n.2

k 6 5 -4
F A 0 -ICID

dio. 9 C/C 25 YMGT FALL-TYPE 300

dio. 13 C/C 20
5
I5 project ,Region, Country
J opon

Section A Section B Figure No. 6-45

-
 H(dr) = 0.30 m

Canal is of flumed section

Height f r o m bottom to top of flume section = 31.5 c m

D i a m e t e r of flume section = 31.5 c m

Design

R e f e r to Table 6-9.

3
F o r a discharge of 0.060 m / s and a hydraulic d r o p of 0.30 m , the
type 300 o r 350 m a y be adopted. The dimensions of the fall a r e a s h e r e u n d e r :

qc-b) = 45 c m

H(bas) = 15cm

( Tcw) = 15cm

H( cw) = 39.5 c m

L(bas) = 150 c m

Thickness of basin floor = 15 c m

The design i s shown in F i g u r e 6-45.

6.11 INCLINED DROPS AND CHUTES

6.11. 1 General

The g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s and applications of d r o p s and chutes have been

mentioned in Chapter 2 and Section 6.9 of t h i s chapter. T h e r e i s no b a s i c
difference between an inclined d r o p and a chute. Small inclined d r o p s and chutes
 a r e usually rectangular in c r o s s section, but trapezoidal sections a r e also
occasionally used where the whole length of the structure happens to be located in
a cutting. The energy dissipation in inclined drops and chutes i s usually effected
by the creation of a hydraulic jump a t the toe of the structure, supplemented by
friction blocks and other energy dissipating devices. Inclined drops a r e often
designed to function a s flume measuring devices, notably the Indian Standing Wave
Flume.

F o r the design of an inclined drop to be effective i t m u s t be based on the

design discharge, depth a t the inlet, shape, slope, roughness and length of the
channel (or chute o r flume). The slope of the channel section i s usually steep so
the control section of the flow will be a t the inlet. The next, but most important,
step in designing inclined falls (and chutes) i s to compute the water surface profile
f r o m the inlet to the bottom of the structure and to design the energy dissipation
system.

A number of standard designs of such structures have been developed and

examples described in this Section include the Standing Wave Flume F a l l , the
Flume Type F a l l (both from India), the Rectangular Inclined Drop ( U . S. A. ), and
the Rubble Cascade Inclined Drop (India).

6.11.2 Standing Wave Flume F a l l (India)-1/

General

The standing wave flume fall described herein was developed a t the
Central Water and Power Research Station, Poona, India, based on the r e s u l t s of
experiments which had started a s long ago a s 1.926. L a t e r , the design of the
s t r u c t u r e was standardized by the Indian Standards Institution.

The structure i s used when an appreciable fall of water level i s n e c e s s a r y

due to the surrounding topography (i.e. relatively steep slopes). It dissipates
energy efficiently and i t can be designed to m e a s u r e the flow of water passing
through i t over a range from a few l i t r e s per second up to several hundred cubic
m e t r e s per second. Because of the inherent f r e e flow conditions the m e a s u r e -

L' Based on Indian Standard IS: 6062 - 1971

 ment of flow r e q u i r e s only one gauge observation on the upstream side, (whereas
venturi flumes require two). Another advantage i s that i t demonstrates
favourable modularity relationships even with the deposition of sediment on the
upstream side.

The design c r i t e r i a in respect of flow conditions in this type of fall

a r e confined to steady flows in open channels dependent only on the upstream head
and without consideration of submerged flows beyond modular limits.

In selecting the site for this flume particular attention should be paid
to the following points:

- straight channel long enough to accommodate the structure

- reasonably symmetrical and regular velocity distribution

- avoidance of super critical flow immediately upstream

- r i s e in upstream water levels due to the measuring structure

- absence of conditions downstream which may affect flow conditions

in the controlling section ( e . g. submergence by backwater effect
originated downstream f r o m a check, o r silting).

6.11.2.2 Structural characteristics

The standing wave flume fall consists of an approach channel, a flow

measuring device and a downstream channel.
. .
The flow in the approach channel should be f r e e f r o m disturbance and
i t s velocity should be distributed a s much a s possible over the cross-sectional
a r e a , (which can be verified by measurements).

The measuring structure consists of an approach transition, a throat

with o r without a hump, an exit transition, a baffle and a platform (between the
glacis and cistern) and for better dissipation of energy and exit i t may have either
parallel sides o r expanding sides ( s e e Figure 6-46). The entire measuring
structure should be rigid and watertight, for at l e a s t a length given by L(str), a s
shown in Figure 6-46. The structure should be s e t a t a right angle to the general
direction of flow.

The channel downstream of the measuring structure, i.e. of the con-

FIGURE 6-46. - Details of a Standing Wave Flume Fall.
 trolling section, i s usually of no importance a s r e g a r d s accuracy of m e a s u r e m e n t
provided that the fall h a s been s o designed that i t cannot become submerged when
i t i s operating. The effect of a r i s e in the water l e v e l on the downstream side due
t o the possibility of silting would not normally be m a t e r i a l , in so f a r a s rating i s
concerned.

6. 1 1 . 2 . 3 Measurement of head

The water level u p s t r e a m of the fall may be m e a s u r e d by any suitable

type of gauge installed in a stilling well.

The stilling well should be located s o a s to m e a s u r e the water level

u p s t r e a m of the sill, where t h e r e i s no curvature of flow. This could be ensured
1
by locating the stilling well intake pipe a t a distance of 4 H u p s t r e a m of the
(ma4
bell-mouth entrance where HI i s the maximum value of u p s t r e a m head over
(ma4
the sill c o r r e c t e d f o r the velocity of approach. The stilling well should normally
be vertical and have a minimum m a r g i n of a t l e a s t 15 c m over the maximum water
level estimated t o be recorded in the well. The well dimensions should be l a r g e
enough ( s a y 60 c m x 90 cm) to p e r m i t the bottom of the well to be cleaned. The
diameter of the intake should generally be 10 cm.

Z e r o setting

Means f o r checking the z e r o setting of the head measuring device

should be provided, and should consist of a pointer with its point s e t exactly level
with the s i l l of the standing wave flume and be fixed p e r p a n e n t l y in the approach
channel, o r alternatively in the stilling o r gauge well. The z e r o setting should be
periodically checked.

Head l o s s

The total head l o s s i s composed of l o s s e s in :

- approach transition

- exit transition

- friction in the s t r u c t u r e

- hydraulic jump.

The l o s s e s in the approach and exit transitions depend on the degree

 and gradualness of the fluming. They a r e e x p r e s s e d a s a fraction C of the
difference in velocity head of flow in the channel and the standing wave flume fall.
Accepted values a r e :

- 0.15 C f o r an approach t,ransition of cylinder quadrant type, and

- 0.3 C f o r an exit transition with a splay of 1 in 10, and

- 0.2 C f o r a hyperbolic type.

L o s s due to friction i s usually s m a l l , and may be of the o r d e r of 0.015

t o 0 . 0 3 m depending upon the s i z e and the c r i t i c a l velocity.

L o s s due to hydraulic jump, h i s given by :

(1,)j

where = depth of flow before jump, and

H(j)

H(j)2 = depth of flow a f t e r jump.

The e n t i r e m e a s u r i n g s t r u c t u r e m u s t be finished with smooth (neat

cement finish) and t r u e s u r f a c e s . The intersection of the u p s t r e a m curve and the
hump a s well a s the downstream slope m u s t f o r m two p a r a l l e l straight l i n e s a t a
right angle t o the direction of flow.

6. 11.2.4 Design procedure and formulae

Approach transition
The r a d i u s of the side walls of the bell-mouth entrance should be

rn, where H' i s the u p s t r e a m head above the sill level of the throat
( 4
c o r r e c t e d f o r the velocity of approach. But when H' i s l e s s than 0. 3 m , the

r a d i u s may be Z H ' f r o m the throat. The curvature should continue until i t

(crt)
subtends an angle of 60, f r o m where i t should be continued tangentially to m e e t
the side of the u p s t r e a m channel. F o r s m a l l e r head l o s s e s the r a d i u s of

c u r v a t u r e should b e i n c r e a s e d t o 4 . 5 H' m. This curvature should continue

(4
0
until it subtends a n angle of 37 30' beyond which the wall should be continued
straight to meet the sides of the approach channel. The bed convergence should
begin on the same c r o s s section a s the side convergence. The radius o f ,
curvature of the hump in the bed should be :

where R(hv) = the radius of curvature of the hump,

length between the junction of the side wall with the bed
L(app) =
of the upstream channel and upstream end of the throat
m e a s u r e d along the axis, and

H(hu) = height of hump above upstream bed of the channel.

Throat
The sides of the throat should be vertical and their length should be
1

'. ~{crt)'
where H
(4i s the upstream head above the sill level of the throat
corrected for the velocity of approach. The width of the throat may be calculated
f r o m the following formula :

where Q . = discharge, m3/s

g = acceleration due to gravity

= coefficient for friction having the following values:
9f) <

= 0.97 for Q from 0.05 to 0.30 m 3 / s ,

= 0.98 for Q f r o m 0.31 to 1.50 m 3 I s ,
'

= width of throat,
B(t) 2
v 1

It should be noted however that too much constriction causes too much
head l o s s . Therefore the throat width should not be l e s s than 1 . 5 ~ ; ~
and
~ ~ )
1/
fluming4should normally be restricted to 50 to 60%.

-11 ( Fluming = width of controlling section

. 100 )
bed width of upstream channel
 Hump

The stage discharge relation of a canal i s given b y :

Q = cly;

where Q = discharge,
C1 = coefficient,

y1 = depth of water in the channel, and

x = an index varying f r o m 1 . 5 to 2.0 a s given in

Table 6- 10.

TABLE 6-10

Values of x

Shape of channel Value of x

1. Rectangular 1.5
2. Trapezoidal variable and i n c r e a s e s
with the flatness of the
side slope
3 . Unlined canals with design
side slopes 0.5 to 1 1 . 6 to 1.7
4. Lined canals with side
slopes 0 . 5 to 1

As compared to equation (4), in the case of a broad weir, Q i s

proportional to HI 5. As the exponent of y
i s g r e a t e r than the exponent of H I ,
1
t h e r e will be draw-down a t low supply levels and ponding n e a r full supply levels,
provided the sill of the throat i s at the same level a s the channel bed. This can
be avoided by providing a hump in the throat. The height of the hump, H(hu),
required to give proportionality, that i s , the r a t e of change i n y equal to the r a t e
1
of change in H
(4a t a particular discharge, i s given by :
1 2
FIGURE 6-47. - Height of hump required to give
proportionality for variation in diecharge.
where,
H = depth upstream over the sill of the throat, and
(4
m = any particular fraction of discharge.

The height of hump required to give proportionality for a small

variation in discharge will thus vary according to the magnitude of the discharge.
Figure 6.47 gives the height of hump required for various values of m and x.

Where channels run with fluctuating discharge, proportionality i s not

obtainable for the whole range; i t i s then desirable to design the hump for
minimum e r r o r over the range of discharges chosen. This i s called the bulk
proportionality and in this case the height of hump, H(hu), required i s given by the
equation ':

Figure 6-48 gives the height of hump required to attain optimum

proportionality.

In the c a s e of canals which run either full o r closed, a standing wave

flume fall which gives proportionality a t a full supply discharge i s desirable. In
the case of channels in which the discharge v a r i e s considerably, optimum

~ r o ~ o r t i o n a l i ti y
s preferable.

Glacis

The glacis slope should be 2 : 1 and connected with the throat by a

curve of radius equal to 2 ~ ; tangential
~ ~ ~to the
) ~glacis and sill of the flume.
The downstream edge of the glacis should also be connected with a baffle platform
by a .curve of radius equal to HI ( s e e Figure 6-46), tangential to the glacis
(4
and the baffle platform. The axial length of the glacis, including the curved
portion, should be equal to :
0.1 Y l
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
X
VALUES OF X IN 0 C1 yl

FIGURE 6 - 4 8 . - Height of hump to attain bulk

proportionality.
 = the difference in levels of the c r e s t and baffle platform.
where H(c-bpt)

Baffle platform
The baffle platform should be fixed a t such a level that a standing wave
will form a t the toe of the glacis. If the platform i s too high then hurdling will
occur. On the other hand, i f the platform i s too lo.w, surging will take place. In
the case of a fall with parallel sides, the level of the baffle platform may be
estimated by the following procedure.

The depth of water, above the baffle platform in a parallel sided

yj ,
fall i s f i r s t calculated from the following equation:

where
= the supercritical flow depth at the toe of the glacis
H(j)l
immediately upstream of the jump,
= the discharge per unit width,

Cf = the coefficient of friction.

A level of the baffle platform i s assumed which will give y and

3
H Substituting the value of H in equation (8),
(c-bpt). (c-bpt) H(j)i i s
calculated. This in turn gives a value of y from equation (7). If the assumed
3
value does not tally with the one worked out a s above, m o r e t r i a l s a r e needed.
The level of the baffle platform i s then obtained by deducting y from the down-
3
s t r e a m water level.

In the case of a fall with expanding sides, the fall in water level,
A Z(exp), m u s t f i r s t be converted into A Z(par)' which i s the fall in water level
with parallel sides, by using the following equation:
where
(FR) = the flurning ratio : ( s e e Figure 6-46),
B1

y3 i s then estimated by t r i a l and e r r o r a s indicated above. With known A Z

(~ x P ) '
a Z(par), and y 3' the value of y which i s the depth of water above the baffle
4'
platform in the c a s e of a fall with expanding sides may be worked out by using the
equation:

To ensure that the standing wave will f o r m at the toe of the glacis, a
baffle should be provided a t the end of the baffle platform. The height of the
baffle, H(baf), i s given by :

where

Hc = the critical depth of flow above the sill of the flume a t the
controlling section,

that i s

The distance of the baffle f r o m the toe of the glacis should be equal to
If the baffle be fixed n e a r to the toe of the glacis then water would
5 ' 25 H(baf)'
hurdle over the baffle a t supercritical velocity without forming a p r i m a r y o r
secondary wave and the energy would not be dissipated efficiently. The upstream
face of the baffle should be curved with a radius equal to, and ending at, two-
thirds of the H(baf). (Figure 6-50)

Expansion
The sides downstream of the baffle platform should expand hyper-
bolically to ensure uniform distribution of the flow downstream. The hyperbola
equation i s :
where
B = width a t any distance y f r o m beginning of expansion
(Y) of the hyperbola,

Y = distance f r o m beginning of .expansion of hyperbola,

B(t) = width of throat,

B2 = bed width of downstream channel, and

= length of c i s t e r n ( s e e below).

Cistern
The depth of the c i s t e r n a t i t s sides below the downstream water level
should be 1 . 4 y2, and in the middle 1.75 y where y i s the depth of water in
2' 2
the channel downstream. The bed of the c i s t e r n a t the s i d e s should not be higher
than the bed of the channel downstream.

*
The recommended lengths of c i s t e r n for different soils follow the
following r u l e s :

in shingle bed,
y2
in good earth, 7.5 y
2
in coherent sand,
yz

The longitudinal profile of the c i s t e r n should be horizontal.

Deflectors
At the downstream end of the c i s t e r n deflectors of the following
dimensions should be constructed to ensure the formation of a positive bed
roller :
1
The height of each deflector should be equal to 12 of"the depth of water in

mid s t r e a m .

The gap between deflectors, X = H

(def) (def)
The length of each deflector, L = 4H
(Clef) (def)

The width of each deflector, B(def) = H(def)

F o r details see F i g u r e 6:49.

 SECTION L~(d,f)

HEIGHT: DEPTH OF WATER IN MID-CISTERN

LENGTH L(d.f)=4 H(d*f)

BRl3QU-l B[.,O
OAP BETWEEN BLOCKS X

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO ROWS :X ( d . ~ DEFLECTORS

FIGURE 6-49. - Details of deflectors.

6.11.2.5 Modular limit

F o r satisfactory functioning of the standing wave flume fall the ratio

of the depth upstream over the sill of the throat td the depth downstream over the
sill of the throat should not be l e s s than 0 . 5 .

6.11.2. 6 Maintenance

Adequate maintenance of %hemeasuring structure and the approach

channel i s important to ensure continual accurate measurements. The approach
channel, the gauge well and the connection to it must be kept clean and free from
sediment, and c a r e must be taken during the cleaning process to avoid damage to
the structure.

Design example

A standing wave flume fall should be designed to satisfy the following

conditions :
Lonqitudinol section
STANDING WAVE FLUME - FALL
 - bulk proportionality between full supply d i s c h a r g e (FSD) and
1 FSD, and
3
- hyperbolic expansion in the c i s t e r n .

Data given

Bed width of canal ( B and B2) -

Side slope of canal -
Bed slope of canal -
Manning IN' ( m e t r i c ) f o r canal --
F u l l supply depth in canal ( y l and y 2 ) =
F u l l supply discharge -
F a l l in water level = fall in bed level
-
= H(dr)
Bed level of canal on the u p s t r e a m
side -

On the b a s i s of the data given and the procedure s e t forth in 6.1 1. 2 . 4

the design i s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 6-50.

1/
6.11. 3 F l u m e Type F a l l (CDO-, Punjab, India)

6.11.3. 1 General

The flume type fall described h e r e i n i s widely used in Punjab,

Pakistan, and in Punjab, Haryana and other s t a t e s in India. It i s a m e t e r fall,
which i s simple and robust in construction and can con+eniently be built by local
labour in b r i c k m a s o n r y .

Up to 1 . 0 m e t r e drop, a glacis i s used on the downstream side and if

the d r o p exceeds 1 . 0 m e t r e , the c r e s t ends in a d r o p wall. The s t r u c t u r e i s
often combined with a bridge, an intake of a third-degree canal o r both.

6. 11.3.2 S t r u c t u r a l design

F i g u r e 6-51 i s a sketch of a flume type fall with a d r o p of up to

0.90 m.

" Central Design Office.

F.S.L.

Depth of floor below downstream bed = 7.5 cm

FIGURE 6-51. - Sketch of a flume type fall with a drop

of up to 0 . 9 0 m.
 U p s t r e a m approaches
1.5
The r a d i u s of the u p s t r e a m side wall i s equal to 3.62 H and i t
(crt) '
0
s t a r t s f r o m the c r e s t side, the curve subtending an angle of 60 and continues

tangentially to 0.60 m beyond the s u r f a c e width on e i t h e r side (B1 + yl) . The

channel discharge m u s t be l e s s than 2.8 m 3 1 s .

The horizontal length of the side curve, a s well a s the bed curve,
1.5
joining the c r e s t with the u p s t r e a m bed = = 3.74 H
L ( a ~ ~ ) (crt) '

L~
app
+ H~
(b- C )
The r a d i u s of the bed c u r v e - R. . -

Length of Throat

The length of the throat,

L(t) = H(crt)

Glacis

A 0. 60 m ( 2 ft) curve joins the c r e s t with the downstream glacis.

The glacis should have a slope of 2 . 5 to 1 for f a l l s l e s s than 90 c m ( 3 ft).

Cistern
The length of the c i s t e r n should be y2 + H(
dr)
The c i s t e r n floor should be 7 . 5 c m below the downstream designed bed
l e v e l of the channel for f a l l s up to 1 m (3.28 ft) and 30 c m (1 ft) f o r f a l l s above
1 m (3. 28 ft).

Downstream expansion

L(ex~)
= 3 r- BZ - B(t) o r length f r o m the downstream

edge of the c r e s t to the end of the c i s t e r n , whichever i s g r e a t e r . In the c a s e of

f a l l s up to 1 m (3.28 f t ) , the expansion should be in a curve with a r a d i u s of
expansion.

In the c a s e of f a l l s above one m e t r e (3.28 ft), the downstream expansion

will simply be diverged.
 U p s t r e a m protection
The u p s t r e a m end of the curved floor i n the approach should r e s t on a
m a s o n r y d r o p wall 35 c m thick and of depth equal to 0.33 y subject to a
1
minimum of 27 c m of deep m a s o n r y wall o v e r 15 c m thick concrete. No o t h e r
protection either i n the bed o r sides i s required.

P r o t e c t i o n downstream
The side protection below the downstream expansion should be equal to

L(bas) and should consist of dry b r i c k pitching 20 c m thick supported on a toe

wall of depth equal to 0. 5 y Z subject to a minimum of 27 c m of deep m a s o n r y wall
o v e r 15 c m thick concrete. It i s p r e f e r a b l e to lay roughened pitching. The bed
protection should consist of b r i c k - b a t s of thickness depending on discharge a s
given below :
Up to 700 l / s 15 c m
700 1/ s to 1,400 l / s 23 c m

This bed protection m u s t be laid horizontal (without d e p r e s s i o n s ) a t

bed level, and b e hand packed, and should extend up to a length equal to y
2
+ H
(dr)
beyond the downstream end of the side expansion.

Section of walls
Standard sections of wing walls and abutments a r e given in Chapter 3 .
The f r e e board on the walls u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t , without bridges, should be
15 cm, and with b r i d g e s they should be r a i s e d to the p a r a p e t level of the bridge.
The f r e e board on the downstream walls should be 30 % m approximately, the exact
dimensions depending on the b r i c k c o u r s e s .

Gauges
Where t h e r e a r e no b r i d g e s , the bottom of the concrete coping on the
wall u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t should be accurately fixed a t designed full supply level.
1
With b r i d g e s the full supply level should be shown in the side wall by a 8 inch
s t r i p of s t e e l embedded horizontally in the m a s o n r y joint for a distance of 60 cm,
s t a r t i n g f r o m the water s u r f a c e edge, ( a s i t would ultimately be with a 0.5 to 1
slope). NO gauge walls should be provided in addition.

B r i d g e s combined with falls

When a bridge i s required, the p a r a l l e l s i d e s of the flumes should be
 m a d e longer to s e r v e a s abutments. The bed of the channel up to the u p s t r e a m
end of the abutments should be i n m a s o n r y .

6. 11.3. 3 Design formula

Fluming r a t i o , (FR) -- = 0.60

B1

Depth of w a t e r over c r e s t
This i s worked out f r o m the formula

1.5
Q .= B(t) H(crt)

where Q = d i s c h a r g e in m 3I s ,
= width of t h r o a t in m ,
B(t)

qcrt)= height of u p s t r e a m full supply level over c r e s t in m .

F o r d i s c h a r g e s of 0.014 m 3/ s to 0.56 m 3/ s C = 1.66

F o r dischar;es of 0.57 m 3/ s to 1 . 4 m 3 / s C = 1.68.

Numerical examples

Example 1
Design a CDO type fall with the following d a t a :

= B2 = 2.25 m
B1
- = 0.56 m
1 - Yz

Fluming ratio, (FR) = 60 p e r cent

.. B(t) = 2.25 . -
60
100
= l.35m

With Q = B(t) H ( c r t )

Length of c r e s t = 2H = 0.8 m
(4
Slope of g l a c i s = 2.5:l
1.5
L
(~ P P )
= 3.74H
(crt)
= 3. 74 . 0.401.5 = 0.92 m

R a d i u s of u p s t r e a m side = 3. 62 H ~ . ~= 3. 62 . 0. 4 0 1 a 5
= 0.90 m

Depth of c i s t e r n below bed l e v e l = 7.5cm

Depth of c i s t e r n below c r e s t = 0.84m
Length of g l a c i s = 0.84 . 2.5 = 2.10 m
Length of c i s t e r n - Y 2 + H = 0.56 + 0. 60
(dr)
= 1.16 m
Length of expansion

R a d i u s of expansion

The design i s a s shown in F i g u r e 6-52.

Example 2

Design a CDO type f a l l with the following d a t a :

Fluming ratio = 60 p e r c e n t
 Hydraulic drop--------0 6 0 m
Plon
Discharge- ----- ----0-56 m3/s
/A// dimensions ore in metres /
Bank
Bank

m
Sections
No.3 No. 2 No. I

-
FAO- ICID

Longitudinal sect ion

I C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( PUNJAB) I
H Y D R A U L I C D R O P U P T O 1.00 m

Country , Region, Project

5m hand pocked lndio ond Pokiston

C Floor 0.12rn
Concrete 0.15 rn F i g u r e No. 6-52 I
 Hydrodic drop -------- 1.20 m
Plon Discharge------------.
0 5 6 n?/r

Section No. 4

Sect~onNos l ond 2

Lonqitudinol Section
.. - .-

F A 0 - ICID

C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( P U N J A B )
ncrete = 0.15 m HYDRAULIC DROP ABOVE 1 . 0 0 m

Country, Region, Project

/ A / / o'imensions ore in metres l lndio ond Pokiston

Figure No. 6-53

 Hydrodic drop -------- 1.20 m
Plon Discharge------------.
0 5 6 n?/r

Section No. 4

Sect~onNos l ond 2

Lonqitudinol Section
.. - .-

F A 0 - ICID

C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( P U N J A B )
ncrete = 0.15 m HYDRAULIC DROP ABOVE 1 . 0 0 m

Country, Region, Project

/ A / / o'imensions ore in metres l lndio ond Pokiston

Figure No. 6-53

 TABLE 6-10

Single L a y e r Reinforcement in P o o l F l o o r f o r USBR Inclined D r o p

2/
P o o l Reinf. - Quantities
Ybas
H(dr) Q T. T. U U + N0.0f
Max Max
Lcrt -(t-chb) -bas basw *hw
hVbas
h t t' weep
Transv
bars in
Longit. Reinf . Conc. Reinf. Misc.
walls & steel Metal
floors Floors Walls (CU. yd) 31 (lb) (lb)

4 @ 12" 4 @ 72" 4 @ 10"

4@12" 4@7+" 4 @ 10"
4@12" 4 @ 7 9 4@10W
4 @ 12" 4 @ 74" 4 @ 10"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 7+" 4 @ 10"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 7i" 4 @ 10"
4@12" 4@7f" 4@10M
4@1zV 4@7+11 4@10gt
4 @ 12" 4 @ 76" 4 @ 10"
4@12" 4@7f" 4@10"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 7+" 4 @ 10"
4@12" 4@7f" 4@1O1I
4@12" 4@7 " 4@1Ot1
4 @ 12'' 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 10"
4 @ 1 ~4 @~7 Q~" 4@10t1
4@12t1 4@7$ 4 @ 1 0 ~ ~
4@12" 4@7+" 4@10"
4@12" 4@7Zf' 4@10"
4@111' 4 @ 7 " 4@101'
4 @ 11" 4@7 " 4 @ 10"
4@101' 4 @ 7 " 4@10"
4 @ 1.2" 4 @ 76" 4 @ 10"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 7 9 4 @ 10"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 79' 4 @ 10"
4@10t' 4 @ 7 " 4@10t'
4 @ 9" 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 10"
4 @ 8" 4 @ 7 " 4@10f1
4 @ 8" 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 10"
4 @ 12" 4@7+" 4@10M
4 @ 11" 4 @ 7i" 4 @ 10"
4 @ 9" 4 @ 7%" 4 @ 10"
4 @ 8" 4 @ 7 " 4@101'
4 @ 8" 4 @ 7 " 4@101'
4@10t' 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 8"
4 @ 9" 4 @ 6f" 4 @ 8"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 7f" 4 @ 10"
4 @ lof1 4 @ 7ftf 4 @ lost
4 @ 9" 4.@ 7 " 4 @ 10"
4 @ 8" 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 10"
4@1Ott 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 8"
4 @ 9" 4 8 7 " 4 @ 8"
4 @ 8" 4@6+" 4 @ 8"

i f s t r u c t u r e No. 5 - 3 i n d i c a t e s Q = 5 f 3 / s . Hdr = 3 ft.

2'4 @ 7; i n d i c a t e s 0 . 4 i n . d i a m e t e r b a r s on 7f in spacing.

-3/1 cubic yard = 27 cubic f e e t

 = 2.25 .-
60
100
= 1.35 m

H(crt) a s in example 1 = 0.40m

Length of c r e s t = 2H(crt) = 0.80m

= 0.95 m ( a s in example 1)
L ( a ~ ~ )
= 2 - 9 0 rn ( a s in example 1)
R(b- c )
Radius of upstream side = 0.92 m ( a s in example 1)
Depth of cistern = 0.30m
Length of cistern = y2 + (Hdr) = 0.56 + 1.20

= 1.76 m .
The design i s shown in Figure 6-53.

1/
6.11.4 USBR Rectangular Inclined Drop-

6.11.4.1 General

The USBR h a s used standardized drop s t r u c t u r e s f o i many decades.

Figure 6-54 shows the m o s t recently published design, which was revised in 1970.
The structure i s built entirely in reinforced concrete. Capacities, dimensions
and material requirements a r e shown in Tables 6- 10 and 6- 11.

TABLE 6-11

USBR Rectangular Inclined Drop - Dimensions

I' Based bn USBR Standards (107)

 The rectangular inclined drop (Figure 6-54) coneists of: an upstream
10 ft e a r t h transition converting gradually the normal side slope of the channel to
1 . 5 : 1 a t the upstream end of the structure; an inlet; upstream headwalls;
control section; glacis and pool with chute blocks; expansion; downstream head-
walls; and an e a r t h o r concrete lined transition on the downstream side. The
inlet provides a plank walk-way to operate the gate. Overflow i s provided for by
overflow walls, 'or weirs, built into the sides of the inlet.

The design of the reinforcement steel i s based on working s t r e s s e s of

24.000 pounds per square inch (psi). Monolithic concrete design i s based on a
compressive strength of 3,750 psi a t 28 days.

The standard drop structure i s easily designed, built and operated.

There a r e normally no erosion problems downstream i f the stilling pool i s
properly set with regard to the downstream canal water surface. Rocks should
not be allowed to remain in the stilling pool for long periods because of their
rolling, erosive affect on the concrete floor.

6.11.4.2 Numerical example

Refer to Figures 6-54 and 6-55 and Tables 6-10 and 6-11; the
calculations apply to a 20-11 model structure.

FIGURE 6-55. - Design of USBR inclined drop.

 Top of s t r u c t u r e = El B + H = 1022.00 + 3.33
(F 1
= 1025.33ft
(The value of H i s taken f r o m Table 6-1 1 . )
(F)

Lower E l B by 0.20 ft. ( T h i s will reduce the amount the s t r u c t u r e

extends above the canal bank f r o m 0 . 4 3 ft to 0 . 2 3 f t . )

Refer to Table 6- 10

With H(dr) = 10 ft, s e l e c t S t r u c t u r e No. 20-11

El C = downstream energy level =

( Y(bas) + hv ( b a s ) )
= 1013.57 - 2.83 = 1010.74 ft

A s a factor of safety against the possibility of unreliable downstream

canal water depths, lower E l C another 0. 10 ft.

Standard dimensions, except for L and L(gla), which a r e

(str)
dependent on elevations B and C , a r e given on F i g u r e 6-55 and Tables 6-10 and
6-11 for d i s c h a r g e s f r o m 5 to 40 ft 3 / s .

To i l l u s t r a t e how to s e t elevations B and C , a s s u m e the

following :

v = 2. 1 f t / s ( u p s t r e a m canal velocity)
1
 H = 2 . 9 ft (height of canal bank)
(b- Cbk)

= 1.50 ft
Y2
= 2. 1 f t / s (downstream canal velocity)

Refer t o F i g u r e 6-55.

The fall, H(dr) i s equal to the difference between the u p s t r e a m and

downstream energy l e v e l s .

L
where g = acceleration due to gravity in f t / s

U p s t r e a m energy level = 1022.00 + 1.50 + 0.07

= 1023.57 ft
Downstream energy level = 1012.00 + 1.50 + 0.07

(Unless the u p s t r e a m canal water depth and velocity a r e different

f r o m downstream conditions, H can simply be solved by subtracting El D

(dr)
f r o m E l A. )

E l B can be s e t a s high a s E l A provided that the velocity through the

inlet does not exceed 3 f t / s , and provided f u r t h e r that the top of the s t r u c t u r e
walls do not extend objectionably above the top of the canal bank.

T r y a setting of E l B = El A = 1022.00 f t
 Q Q 20
Check v = - -- - - = 2.96 f t / s
4.5 (1.5)
A(x) by 1

and being l e s s than 3 f t / s i s satisfactory.

Check top of bank and top of s t r u c t u r e

Top of bank = E l A t H
(b- Cbk)
Top o f check s t r u c t u r e = El A + HF
On the other hand the length o f the s t r u c t u r e i s :
L
(str) = 2 (El B - E l C)

u s e 22 ft 4 in

See Table on F i g u r e 6-54 for completed example.

6.11.5 Rubble Cascade Inclined D r o p

6.11.5.1 General

The rubble c a s c a d e type fall i s cheap and can be constructed where

stone i s easily available. It i s u s e d for s m a l l d i s c h a r g e s up t o 560 l / s (20 ft3/ s )
o r s o and f o r f a l l s up to 1. 5 m (5 ft). It h a s been installed a t a number of places
in India. +

6. 11.5. 2 S t r u c t u r a l design

The fall c o n s i s t s of stone pitching u p s t r e a m , c r e s t , downstream

glacis, c i s t e r n , curtain wall, and downstream bed and side pitching.

The length of the u p s t r e a m glacis i s limited to 5.0 ft. The length of

2H
the c r e s t i s - The downstream glacis h a s a slope of 1 : 8. The
3 (crt)'

c i s t e r n i s 10.0 ft long and h a s i t s floor level 1 . 0 ft below the downstream bed

level.

The details a r e shown in F i g u r e 6-56.

 I
Spoil bank I
. . ,-a.r

L 7
fss/ = I.5 : I
Berm a t N. S. L. 5 4 5 . 7 0
I
8.0' .
I Y

_519~61_J I
:hing ! 1.0 thick downst

Long~tudinol section

F.S.O.
F S.L,
8 . 6 6 f?/s
542.62
8.66 ft3/s
543.1;
scale 5 2;5 O 5
10 feet

F. S. D. 1.5' 1.5
B.L. 545.12 541.65

Upstreom sectlon
Bed width
Free Boord
Bank width
Bonk level
4.5;
1.5
3'1 3'
548.12
4.5,
1.5
3'1 3'
5 44.62
I F A O - I C I D

N. S.L. 545-70

Spoil bonk . Spoil bonk Flume bed wdth to 3 5 '

Downstream sectton A - B
I Figure No. 6-56
o = 3.09 x L r N"' where o= 8.66 t t f r ~ = 3 - i
H : (B.66)'" :0.86
RUBBLE CASCADE TYPE FALL
3-09x 3.5
Length af crest 2/3H: 2/3 x 0.86'0.57 keep, j
Crest level :546.62- 0 86 :545.76
Cistern to be 1.0' below downstreom bed level
Cistern level ;540.62 , Project. Region, Country
Length of cistern = I 0 0
Upstream gloc!s 1 . 5 ond limited to 9.0 length India'
Downsheom glocis I - 8
Cistern to lift r o l l = 1: 3
 The fall i s flurned 75 to 80% of the u p s t r e a m bed width.

6. 1 1 . 5 . 3 Design formula
-3
Q = 3.09 33 H'
(t) ( 4

where Q = discharge in f t / s

= width of throat i n ft
B(t)

H = height over c r e s t
( crt)

Numerical example

Design a rubble cascade type fall f r o m the following d a t a :

3
Q " = 8.66ft/s

Bed width = 4 . 5 ft

Throat width to be 3 . 5 ft.

Then Q = 3.09 B H2
(t)

2 2
Length of c r e s t , L -- -H -- - 0.86
(4 3 (crt) 3 -

Adopt 1. 50 ft.

The design i s shown in F i g u r e 6- 56.

6.12 P I P E D DROPS

6. 12.1 General

A piped d r o p is usually the m o s t economical and p r a c t i c a l choice when a

necessity for a d r o p in the canal water level happens to coincide with a road o r
FIGURE 6-57. - Pipe end structures: (a) triangular type;
(b) extension wall; ( c ) p r e - c a s t type; (d) impact dissipator
(baffled outlet); ( e ) broken back; ( f ) subway; (g) diffuser., (52)
 similar crossing of the canal. A piped drop may also be the most suitable and
economical (even without such crossings) compared to an inclined drop for small
canals (i. e. for small discharges). A piped drop i s usually equipped with a check
gate at i t s upstream end. Sometimes a grid i s installed to prevent the choking of
the pipe by debris. There a r e two main types of these drops - the well drop and
the inclined pipe drop. The application of these i s governed by topography and
soil and, in the ultimate analysis, by cost. In the well drop most of the energy
i s dissipated in the bottom p a r t of the well, while in the inclined pipe the energy
dissipation takks place by the formation of the hydraulic jump, which f o r m s either
in the pipe itself o r downstream of the outlet, depending on the outlet design, the
velocity of the water and the relationship between discharge and the pipe
characteristics.

Piped drops require an outlet which i s designed to dissipate the remaining

surplus energy and to adjust the outflow to normal channel flow conditions. A few
*
designs a r e shown schematically in Figure 6-57. It should be noted that these
designs have been developed primarily for capacities between 1 and 10 m 3 1s.
Yet some of them ( a s , for example, the baffled pipe outlet in Figure 6-57 (d) )
have also been standardized for smaller discharges, down to 200 11s. In the
following paragraphs three designs of well drops and two designs of inclined drops
a r e described.

1/
6.12.2 Well Drop Regulator (U. S. S. R. ) -

6.12.2.1 General

The early U. S. S. R. well drop regulators were constructed of r e -

inforced concrete pipes, one m e t r e long, with smooth ends.

The well was built of concrete cast in sit.u. The pipes had metal
covers a t the joints. Shortcomings of these early structures were the numerous
pipe joints and the absence of an a i r discharge pipe. The l a t t e r resulted in a i r
getting into the downstream flow, which gave r i s e to turbulence that damaged the
slopes and pipe joints. The structures also tended to choke with debris.

L / ~ a s e don information supplied by A. T. Koshkina, E. P. Martin, A. V. Shatalova,

D. D. Aliev and B.V. Kazarinov (U. S. S. R. ).
 Longitudinal section
Grovel bed 10 crn Profile of the structure

(All dimensions are in cm) Country, Region, Project

USSR

I I Figure No. 6-58

 Carrying copocity

Section 1 - 1 Type of structure 85 90 95 I00

SHPR P R - 6 0 -250 250 1.12 1.20 1.32 1.43

Additional concreting Detoils P- 120 x 180
L i s t o f detoils
?

Type of detoil TR-60 TR-60 TP-80 SHVOO P- P- P- SH-

0 0-480 120x186 180-3001 80 I20
10
Details SH-120 (U

I volume , m3 0.54 027 1-03 1.05 0.13 0.30 0.371 0.04 0955
s
Weight, kg 1.350 675 2.575 2.630 325 750 928 100 138
a
I:
V) *:
Number 2 . 1 1 2 6 1 2 1 6

toil TR-80
Detoils P-120x 18
Volume of moin works

Type of
Nome Material
.-
C
structure
SHPR-60-250
ravel layer 10 cm Reinforced concrete
detoils
Concrete
Reinforcement
-- m3
kg
6.55
608.40
Detoil SHVOO-0- 4 8 0 Cast-in-ploce concrete Concrete M-200 m 1.2

Gravel- fhling Grovel m3 9.6

Metal construction kg 167.7

Concrete bed 10 cm Cost-in-situ concrete

FA0 -ICID
Cross section 4 - 4

DETAILS OF
WELL DROP - REGULATOR,
AS SHOWN IN F I G U R E I

Grovel layer 10 cm Country, Region, Project

USSR
! All dimensions are in cm ) Figure NO.6-59
 The new design provides for damping of energy in the downstream end
a s well a s discharge of a i r trapped in the pipe, and protection against choking
f r o m debris.

6.12.2.2 Structural design

The well drop regulator ( F i g u r e s 6-58 and 6-59) consists of a

rectangular well, a pipeline and a downstream apron. In the upper p a r t of the
well t h e r e is an opening fitted with t r a s h b a r s and a metal gate. The well i s
formed by two welded lengths of channel c r o s s section. The joints between the
various p a r t s a r e cement grouted and hydraulically sealed. There i s a
horizontal pipe at the lower part of the well. ' This pipe i s connected with the well
by means of concrete cast in situ, and a m a s t i c packing to provide some mobility.
The diameter of this pipe s t a r t s a t 60 cm and then expands to 80 cm.

An asbestos cement vertical pipe i s fitted in the 80 c m diameter p a r t

to discharge a i r trapped in the main pipe. At the end of the pipe t h e r e i s a
damper of cylindrical f o r m with a diaphragm a t the end.

The protecting walls of the well and the downstream p a r t s of the

structure a r e fixed by means of triangular slabs and concrete cast in situ.
A trapezoidal downstream apron i s made up of and protected by ribbed reinforced
concrete slabs, placed on a packed gravel bed. All the pipe joints a r e of bell
and spigot type and the joints a r e packed with tow and mineral wool impregnated
with bitumen and cement grouted. The height of the protecting s t r u c t u r e s above
the downstream and upstream water levels i s 40 cm.

6.12.2.3 Design formula

The hydraulic design of this structure has been a r r i v e d a t on the

b a s i s of the r e s u l t s of laboratory t e s t s on models. The design i s also based on
a hydraulic drop of 2.5 m e t r e s .

The discharge capacity of the drop, which v a r i e s f r o m 1. 10 to

3
1.40 m / s according to different values of H(crt)9 i s given in Figure 6- 59.

The length of the protected downstream apron i s defined by the

formula:
 where v = velocity a t the end p a r t of the pipeline, m / s
(PI,

= assumed scouring o r flushing velocity, 0.8 m / s

"(flu) (for medium loam)

D(p)2 = diameter of the end p a r t of the pipeline, m

2.4 = ' coefficient, determined f r o m laboratory t e s t results.

The length of the protected section of the apron obtained by the above
formula i s decreased by 20 to 30% due to the use of the pipe damper.

6. 12. 2.4 Numerical example

3
Assume a design discharge Q = 1.25 m / s , and a hydraulic drop,
H = 250 cm.
(dr)

It i s n e c e s s a r y to find the length of the protected section on the

downstream side.

The table of discharge capacity (Figure 6- 59) indicates that the

design discharge of the structure i s possible at a head, H(crt), of 92 cm.

The assumed .scouring velocity i s 0.8 m / s (for medium loam). The

length of the protected section i s defined by the formula.

v
"(P)
- 2.4 2 (P)2
L(prot) -
"(flu)
(PI, = 2.4 -
0.8
0:6
3
 The length of the protected section i s d e c r e a s e d by 2570 due to the u s e
of the pipe d a m p e r .

Adopted = 7.9-0.25. 7.9 = 5.9m

L(~rot)

F u l l details of the design with tables of discharge capacities a r e

given i n F i g u r e s 6-58 and 6-59.

6.12.3 Well Type D r o p (India)

6.12.3.1 General design f e a t u r e s

A cheap type of well d r o p consisting of two m a s o n r y wells connected

by -a rectangular b a r r e l o r an earthenware pipe h a s been evolved in India. The
d r o p ( F i g u r e 6- 60) c o n s i s t s of an u p s t r e a m bed and stone side protection, a d r o p
well with a single notch to p a s s the discharge, an earthenware pipe and down-
s t r e a m well, and bed and side protection of stone pitching.

F o r drops f r o m 4 to 6'ft the downstream well m a y be omitted.

Although this type of d r o p i s simple and cheap in construction i t i s

prone to choking by floating rubbish and r e q u i r e s r e g u l a r supervision and removal
of the rubbish without delay. It i s widely used in s m a l l channels in some p a r t s of
India.

6.12.3.2 Design formula

F o r d i s c h a r g e s f r o m 10 to 20 f t 3 / s (280 to 560 l / s ) , the d i a m e t e r of

the wells (both u p s t r e a m and downstream) i s 4 . 0 ft (1.20 m ) .

One notch i s provided for these s m a l l d i s c h a r g e s and the formula for

f r e e flow u s e d i s :

-3
Q = 3.645 y; (L(No) + 0.4 . C yl )

= 3
where Q discharge of the canal in f t / s
= full supply depth u p s t r e a m in ft
1

L = length of notch in f t
(NO)
 Plan

Detail of qote

Woter level

(All dimensions ore in cm unless otherwise specified)

1 r
Upstream water level Section A-A

FA0 - ICID
Earthen bund

PIPE DROP SPILLWAY

Clay rawer w concrete pipe length =3m : 4, = 30 cm

Project , Region , Country
India

Longitudinal section
Figure No. 6-60
 C = 2 tan cx where 6 i s the angle made by the sides of the
notch with the vertical.

In this equation there a r e two unknown parameters, L(NO) and C,

and i t can be solved i f values of Q, say, Q l and Q2 for any two values of y 1'
i. e. Y1. 1 and y 1.2 a r e known.

Substituting and solving for C

Q2
and L - - 0.4CYls2
(NO) - * -
3
2
3.745 y
1.2

The head required between two wells to pass the required discharge
may be calculated from the following formula :

Numerical example

-
Data

Q
Full supply level upstream
Full supply level downstream
Hydraulic drop
Full supply depth, upstream, y l

Full supply depth, downstream, y2

Bed width upstream, B1

Bed width downstream, B2

 F r e e Board, (FB) = 20ft
3
for Q = 10 ft / s , Y1. 1 ' = l.lft
Well diameter = 4 ft
U s e 2. 0 ft diameter pipe, length -
Area of pipe A, -
(P)

., Water level in the upstream well -

Sill of drop = 496.10 - 1.65 -

-

= 1. 65 ft; -
y1. 1 y2

. 2tane = 0.93 or tan = 0.465, say'0.50

 say 2.00 ft

Top width of notch = L + ( 2 y tan& )

(NO)

Invert level of pipe = 482.45

Invert level of upstream well = 482.45 - 1.00

= 481.45

Invert level of downstream well = 485.95 f t

F o r other details see Figure 6-60.

6. 1 2 . 4 Pipe Drop (Indta)

6. 12.4.1 General design features

The pipe drop described herein, which i s provided with a check, i s

a very simple and economical structure to u s e when a small t e r t i a r y channel, a
field channel o r a field watercourse h a s to negotiate an embankment. The
structure (Figure 6-61) consists of a masonry o r concrete apron around the inlet
of the pipe to prevent seepage, a pipe gate f o r checking purposes, an earthen-
ware o r cement pipe, a stilling basin in concrete, o r brick o r stone masonry and
downstream side protection of the embankment in r i p rap, and bed protection of
the channel. The corner o r bend in the pipeline i s of l a r g e radius. The pipe
joints a r e made good with cement m o r t a r . The stilling basin i s 1.2 to 1.5 m
long.

Table 6-12 gives the diameter of concrete pipes for discharges for
different hydraulic drops, H(dr). F o r high hydraulic drops, the length of the
stilling basin m a y be 3 m and for small ones 1.2 to 1.5 m . Its depth should be
equal to (0.10 m + D
(P)
+ 0.10 to 0.15 ) m.
 8045
Cement concrete 1:s: I emnt conuete I:S:IQ
k e m e n t concrete ;in I: 3 :s
Longitudinal section

Half pkn ot top and half plan at bottom

Section of pipe Section through joint

WELL TYPE DROP

Elevation of notch Project, Region, Country

India
Detoil of notch

Figure No.6-61
 TABLE 6-12

Discharge Capacities of P i p e Drops

using Different S i z e t of Concrete P i p e s

Diameter of pipe, c e n t i m e t r e s
H
(dr)
cm 7.5'10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0
Discharge Q (11s)
30.0 5.6 10.7 17.5 26.0 36.4 48.5 62.4 78.0 '95.5 114.8

Numerical example

Design a pipe d r o p with the following data:

Q = 200 l / s
= 100cm
H(dr)
B1l B2 = 0.7m
= 0.5m
YIS Y2
(as) = 0.5:l

F r o m Table 6- 12, f o r Q = 200 l / s and H(dr) = 100 c m , the d i a m e t e r

of the c o n c r e t e pipe, i s o v e r 29 cm. Adopt D(p) = 30 cm.
D(~),

Make the stilling basin 3 m long, 65 c m deep and 0 . 7 m wide. Other

dimensions a r e a s shown in F i g u r e 6- 61.

6.12.5 . Inclined P i p e D r o p (U. S. A. 1-11

11 B a s e d on information supplied by G. N. Thorsky, (USBR. U. S. A. )

6. 12.5. 1 General design f e a t u r e s

The pipe drop described h e r e (made of reinforced concrete) i s used up

t o a maximum hydraulic d r o p of 4 . 5 m (15 ft) and i s of non-meter type. The inlet
of the s t r u c t u r e i s equipped with a check gate.

F r o m F i g u r e s 6-62 to 6-65 i t will be seen that the s t r u c t u r e consists

of a 10 ft ( 3 m ) transition f r o m the n o r m a l canal section at the u p s t r e a m end
gradually changing to 1. 5 : 1 a t the u p s t r e a m end of the inlet s t r u c t u r e . The inlet
s t r u c t u r e i s fitted with a gate and a plank walk. The p r e - c a s t concrete pipe f i r s t
inclines sharply downward, then only slightly and then slopes upwards. There i s
a concrete outlet transition and e a r t h transition (10 ft long) with side and bed
protection equal to 2 . 5 y 2 o r 5 feet ( 1 . 5 m ) minimum. In the absence of a
concrete outlet transition, each transition m u s t have c o a r s e ' g r a v e l protection on
both the bed and the sides a s shown in F i g u r e 6-63. The inlet and outlet can be
accommodated to either an e a r t h canal o r a lined canal.

Dimensions of standard designs of the inlet p a r t including the gate

s i z e s and pipe s i z e s a r e given in Table 6-13 and those of the outlet concrete
transition in Table 6-14.

Tables 6-15, 6-16, 6-17 and 6-18 show values of H2, H3, H4, L2,
3
L3, L4 for different hydraulic drops for 10 f t 3 / s , 17 ft / s , 25 f t 3 / s , and
34 f t 3 / s . Tables for other values of Q a r e apailable but a r e not included h e r e .
I

6. 12.5. 2 Design procedure

Tables 6-13 to 6-18 may be used for design purposes for discharges
up to 36 f t 3 / s f o r any given conditions. Pipe drops without a concrete outlet
transition a r e used for a maximum discharge of 22 f t 3 / s . F o r discharges
exceeding 22 ft3/ s , a concrete outlet transition i s required.

6.12.5. 3 Numerical example

Q = 10ft3/s
 Solve f o r H
( dr)

899.98
1.00
0.06
901.04 u p s t r e a m energy elevation
C

891.00
1.00
0.06
892.06 downstr earn energy elevation

901.04
892.06
8 . 9 8 feet =
H( d r )

Design check and pipe i n l e t and solve f o r elevations of pipe i n v e r t .

3
Refer to Table 6- 15 f o r Q = 10ft/s, H = 3. 25 ft,
(IN)
and d i a m e t e r of pipe = 24 inches.

Refer to Table 6- 13. T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e for a Q bf 10 f t 3/ s and

D(p) = 24 inches, s o s e l e c t the next highest, Q = 17 ft 3 I s , which i s S t r u c t u r e
NO. 24-1.

900.98 = n o r m a l water s u r f a c e
= control w,ater s u r f a c e
-3.25' =

897.73 = El D ( F i g u r e 6-63)

F o r the computed H of 8 . 9 8 ft, go the the next highest H(dr)

(dr)
of 9.00 f t (Table 6-15) and obtain H2, Hg, Hq, L 2 , Lg, L4.
 L o n q i t u d i n o l section
Original ground surface
Normal water surface
E E l e v a t i o n of energy r s t r u c t u r e length r Precast concrete pipe

Normal water surface

---

Check and pipe inlet

b i t e r e d pipe bendsJ

~ o t h s.
The pipe slopes used will allow the substitution of 7 3 6 precast
concrete elbows for the mitered pipe bends.
The length of the earth outlet transition equals 3 pipe diameters
(jminimum).
Precast concrete pipe shown. Other materials may be substituted
provided joints are rubber gasketed.
I OUTLET. TRANSITIONS

Country , Region, Project

F i g u r e No. 6-62
 Longitudinal sect ion
,-Org
in
i al ground surface
Normal water surface Precast concrete pipe
rElevation of energy

Earth transition .L+ ~ - - - i , + - ~ ~ ~ , - ~ l Normal water rElev~ti~n

Check and pipe

LMitered pipe bends

"i 5minimum)
12 coarse gravel protection
Concrete transition

For outlet tmnsition details refer to Figure 4. I

Notes
The pipe slopes used will allow the substitution of 7 O 30' FA 0- I C I D
precast concrete elbows for the mitered pipe bends.
Precast .concrete pipe shown. Other materials may be substituted PIPE DROP WITH CONCRETE
provided joints are rubber gasketed.
I OUTLET TRANSITION
Country, R e g i o n , Project
U S A

I F i g u r e No. 6-63 I
 Plan Typical slide Section B-B
gate assembly
ly qote puides .

#4 0 8. Bend into hcodroll

4 0 12, Both w y s

or horizontolly with

obout rnid-Ienqth

Section A-A
& 16 bolts's f with squore heods, hex,'nuts
ond cut woshers; project 4"

F A o - IC'ID

CHECK AND PIPE INLET

oround corners

Country , Region, Project

continuous in ,walls ond floor US A
Figure No. 6-64
 Plan Section A-A

woll thickness to be some

. .

einforcement not shown

~onqitudinal section

into sidewalls
Section C-C

Reinforcemenl not shown

-
4~)
3
-
3 Lt4 tronsv. 12

Tronsversc bars continuous in wolb ond floor,

rpoced horizontally on structure C. L.

FrGURE 6- 65. - Concrete outlet transition

(supplement t o F i g u r e 6- 63).
 TABLE 6-13

Standard Dimensions E s t i m a t e d Quantities

Struc- No.of
ture T( sw) (FB) L walk Con- Reinf. Misc. Slide Gate 1.1
No.
Q D B H L H (hw) /
(P) (IN) (IN) (IN) (IN) Or ( =hw' planks Crete steel Metal Width x Ht. Frame
ft3/s (Tft)
(cu.yd) (lb) (lb) B(ga) H(ga) H(frrn)
12-1 5 12" 24" 21 6" 3' 6" 15" 6" 6" 12" 4' 0" 3
15-1 7 15" 24" 2'61, 316,~ 15" 6" 6" 12" 4' 0" 3 1.6 160 110
18-1 10 18" 2' 6" 2' 61, 31 68, 15" 6" 12" 4' 0" 4 1.7 170 110
18-2 6" 12" 4' 0" 4
15 180 21 69, 39 69, 4tov 21" 6"
6" 12" 4' 0" 5
18-3 21 18" 3' 0" 51 001 41 6" 3' 0" 6" 6"
21-1 13 21" 3'0" 3, 0,) 4 1 0" 15" 6" 6" 12" 4' 0" 5 2.1 220 130
21-2 28 21" 3' 6" 5 ' 3" 51 0" 3' 0 8 , 6" 6" 12" 4' 0" 6
24- 1 17 24" 3' 0" 3' 3" 4' o w 15" 6" 6'1 , 12" 4' 0" 5 2.2 230 140
24- 2 37 24" 410" 5 1 6" 51 61, 3to1t 6" 6" 12" 4' 0" 7
27- 1 21 2719 39 608 31 6" 4'6" 15" 6" 6" 15" 4'4" * 6 2.6 270 150
30- 1 26 30" 31 6" 31 qt? 4 1 61, 15" 6" 6" 15" 4' 4" 6 2.9 300 160
33-1 31 334, 41 0" 4, 0" 41 6" 15" 6" 6" 18" 4' 9" 7
36- 1 36 36" 4 , or! 4' 3" 58 0" 15" 6" 6" 18" 4' 9" 7 3.4 340 180

!' 1f a gate wlth a speclfled height IS not available, an available gate with the next g r e a t e r helght should b e u s e d wlth a p p r o p r i a t e f r a m e h e ~ g h t .

TABLE 6-14

Struc- H B
ture Q D (P) B (OUT)l L (OUT) H5 (WW)~ H6 (Tft) L(ww) (Ttw)
No.

12-1 5 12" 6" 6"

15-1 7 15" 6" 6"
18-1 10 18" 6" 6"
18-2 15 18" 6" 61-
18-3 21 18" 6" 6"
21-1 13 21" 6" 6"
21-2 28 21" 6" 6"
24- 1 17 24" 6" 6"
24-2 37 24" 6" 6"
27-1 21 27" 6" 6"
30- 1 26 30" 9" 7 ' 6" 4' 9" 31 0" 3' 0" 12" 6" 24" 6"
33- 1 31 33" 6" 6"
36- 1 36 36" 11" 9 ' 6" 5 ' 3" 31 3" 3' 6" 15" 6" 246!? 6"
 TABLE 6-15

Pipe Drops with Metre Bends Without Concrete Outlet Transition

3
Q = 10 ft / s Diameter of pipe = 24 inches H
(IN) = 3.25 feet
Dimensions given in the Table are in feet
 TABLE 6-16

P i p e D r o p s with M e t r e Bends Without Concrete Outlet Transition

Q = 17 f t 3 / s D i a m e t e r of pipe = 30 inches H(IN) = 3 . 75 feet
Dimensions given in the Table a r e in feet
 TABLE 6-17

Pipe Drops with Metre Benda with Concrete Outlet Transition

3
Q = 25 ft / s Diameter of pipe = 30 inches H = 3.75 feet
(IN)
Dimensions given in the Table are in feet
 TABLE 6-18

P i p e Drops with M e t r e Bends with Concrete Outlet Transition

3
Q = 34 ft / s D i a m e t e r of pipe = 36 inches H(IN) = 4.25 f e e t
Dimensions given in the Table a r e i n feet
 3
F o r pipe drops with discharges exceeding 22 ft / s , a concrete outlet
transition i s required.

Refer to F i g u r e s 6- 64 and 6: 65 and Tables 6- 17 and 6- 18.

F o r the concrete outlet transition, s e e F i g u r e 6-65.

Design procedure for the check and pipe inlet and the pipe d r o p i s the
s a m e a s that given above f o r the pipe drop without concrete outlet transition.
,

6.12. 6 1/
Inclined P i p e Drop (U. S. S. R. ) -

6. 12. 6. 1 General

E a r l y pipe drop regulators used in the U. S. S. R. were built of a

number of one m e t r e diameter reinforced concrete pipes with m e t a l covered pipe
joints. Sudden water level fluctuations in the channels resulted in joint m i s -
alignment and downstream scour.

The revised construction now used i s simple and reliable in operation,

and provides dissipation of energy downstream. This pipe drop regulator i s both
a d r o p and a check s t r u c t u r e .

6. 1 2 . 6 . 2 Structural desipn

The s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e 6-66) consists of an inlet siil, an i n c l h e d pipe,

a stilling basin and a downstream apron.

The inlet sill i s designed in the f o r m of an inclined wall. A concrete

L' Based on information supplied by A . T. Koshkina, E. P. Martin, A. V. Shatalova,

D. D. Aliev and B. V. Kazarinov.
I Threshold l c o n c r e t e ) ~ Road Section 1-1

Section 2 - 2 Prefab. concrete slabs

/-

Reinforced concrete I
Reinforced concrete
Concrete, type 100, layer 6 cm
. . Stilling basin--/ I/ . 1
L c o s t -in- dace. p ecost -in - place,

I concrete, iype ioo ~ock-fillin~-q- '(E~o?) 4 L ~ ~ 100,

concrete loyer 6 crn

Concrete slobs

Cross section 4 - 4

PIPE DROP - REGULATOR

Type 100, cost-in-place
concrete layer 10 cm
(All dimensions are in cm
 threshold (the height of which i s equal to the difference between the water depth in
the channel and i t s critical depth a t threshold) i s provided to prevent a drop of the
upstream water level.

The inclined pipe, consisting of bell and spigot jointed pipes, 5 m long,
60 cm o r 80 cm in diameter, and the stilling basin, a r e constructed of reinforced
concrete. A small length of pipe with bevelled edges i s inserted where the pipe
levels off to the horizontal. The pipe joints a r e packed with tow and mineral wool,
impregnated with bitumen and cement grouted.

A cylindrical stilling basin with a ring diaphragm a t the end i s provided

a t the end of the pipeline. Reinforced concrete slabs set on a gravel bed secure
the inlet and downstream p a r t s of the structure in place. A rock-filled support i s
provided'at the inlet and a t the end of the protected section.

These s t r t c t u r e s a r e equipped with slide gates and screw jacks and the
gate f r a m e s a r e secured to the inlets with bolts and rubber packing.

6. 12. 6. 3 Design formula

Maximum discharge capacity i s given by the formula:

where D = diameter of the pipe.

( P)

This formula has been deduced on the basis of laboratory t e s t s a t the

Central Asia Scientific and Research Institute of Irrigation.

The head, Hc, with a f r e e opening, according to laboratory t e s t

data, i s assumed a s follows :

where C1 = 0.'8
and H' = specific u p s t r e a m energy relative to the floor of the
(bas)l stilling basin; equal to the height between the u p s t r e a m
energy line and the floor of the stilling basin
= the depth of flow with n o r m a l discharge a t the beginning
H(j)l
of the hydraulic jump, and

q = the discharge downstream p e r m e t r e m e a n width of the

channel,

where s s = side slope.

Reciprocal depths downstream a r e calculated f r o m Table 6- 19 using

formulas:-11

and

where = reciprocal depth of flow with a discharge, considered

H(rec)l
a s controlling, a t the beginning of the hydraulic jump

and H(rec)2 '= r e c i p r o c a l depths of flow corresponding to discharge,

considered a s controlling, a t the end of the hydraulic
jump

H '
(bas)
= specific u p s t r e a m energy relative to floor of the
stilling basin; equal to the height between the
u p s t r e a m energy line and the'floor of the stilling basin.

C' and C" a r e coefficients whose values a r e given in Table 6- 19.

TABLE 6-19

-1/ according to Agroskin

 It i s a s s u m e d that t h e velocity coefficient i s 0.8; the coefficient of
hydraulic jump submergence C(js) = 1.1.

The length of the downstream protected section i s calculated according

to the following formula, (deduced a t the l a b o r a t o r y ) :
-1

where q =
B2 + (ss) YZ

6. 12. 6 . 4 Standard designs

The s t r u c t u r e s a r e designed f o r maximum d i s c h a r g e s of 0 . 4 and

3
0 . 8 5 m / s for d r o p s of 100 and 200 cm. Channel depths a r e a s s u m e d a t 60 and
80 c m according to pipe d i a m e t e r s 60 and 80 c m .

The height of the embankment above the u p s t r e a m and downstream

w a t e r l e v e l s i s 30 cm.

6.12. 6. 5 Numerical example (for type TPR-80- 100)

Data given

Pipe diameter,
D(~) = 0.60m
Hydraulic drop, H = 1.Om
(dr)
Downstream bed width, B2 = 1.2m
Downstream canal depth, = 0.6m
y2
(ss) = 1.5
Coefficient of hydraulic jump
submergence, C = 1.1.
(js)

It i s n e c e s s a r y to calculate the discharge capacity and the length of

the protected section
L(~rot)

According t o the formula

 The head a t the threshold of the s t r u c t u r e

Hc
= 0.86 D
(P)
= 0.86 . 0. 60 = 0.52 m

The depth a t the beginning of the hydraulic jump:

= 0.8
1

A f i r s t approximation :

F r o m Table 6-19; f o r H ( ~ ) = 0.15 and for interpolation:

Taking into consideration the coefficient of hydraulic jump

submergence

= 1.1
'(j s )
 The length of the protected section

= 8 . 0.436. 1.1
= 3.85 m, Say 4.00 m.

6.13 FARM DROP STRUCTURES

General

Drops in f a r m channels a r e basically of the same type and function

similarly to those in distribution canals, the only differences being that the f a r m
drops a r e smaller and their construction and equipment a r e simpler. They a r e
m o r e often than not provided with a check gate, which may be a simple slide gate
o r a wooden shutter. Vertical drops a r e the most frequently used. F a r m drops
should comprise: a cut-off wall, long and deep enough to prevent leakage and by-
passing of the water a t the flanks; an opening with slots for a check gate; and a
stilling pool with some f o r m of end sill.

In 1971 the USDA Soil and Water Conservation Service published r e s u l t s of

field t e s t s of 16 different types of f a r m irrigation drop- check structures (60).
Out of the conclusions drawn, the following five m e r i t quotation h e r e .

"(1) Although there did not appear to be a consistent relationship between the
amount of scour and the end-sill height, visual observation indicated that t h e r e
was a greater degree of turbulence with the high sills.

( 2 ) Structures having relatively wide basins performed better than those

with narrow basins. The narrow basins contracted and accelerated the flow,
resulting in higher exit velocities; the wide basins provided a l a r g e r flow a r e a
and thus a lower velocity.

(3) With adequate tailwater depth, a trapezoidal stilling basin gave good
hydraulic performance: without sufficient tailwater, the performance was poor
and high velocity caused excessive downstream erosion.
 (4) F o r relatively s m a l l s t r u c t u r e s and water depths, a n o n - a e r a t e d nappe
contributed to good stilling within the s t r u c t u r e .

(5) With adequate cut-off depth and head wall length, head wall s t r u c t u r e s
with a gravel-lined b a s i n o r plunge pool w e r e the m o s t economical and the m o s t
effective s t r u c t u r e s t e s t e d . "

6. 13. 2 Head Wall D r o p with G r a v e l B a s i n

The s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d in conclusion ( 5 ) quoted above i s p e r h a p s the m o s t

economical type of f a r m d r o p under a l l conditions. The head wall o r cut-off wall
m a y be m a d e of c o n c r e t e o r m a s o n r y . The wall should be m a d e considerably
s t r o n g e r than i n the s t r u c t u r e s having supporting walls in the direction of flow.
- T h u s , for a m a s o n r y wall the thickness should be a t l e a s t 30 cm, for unreinforced
c o n c r e t e 20 c m and for r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e 10 c m . The width of opening r e q u i r e d
m a y b e calculated f r o m the f o r m u l a given in Section 6. 2. The length of the g r a v e l
b a s i n m a y be taken a s approximately 3 to 4 t i m e s the difference between the
u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m bed l e v e l s . The width should be about 1.5 t i m e s the
c r e s t length of the opening. Figure 6-67 shows t h i s type of d r o p with a
h e a d wall m a d e of p r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e .

FIGURE 6-67. - P r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e head wall d r o p (60).

 Cement Block Check and Drop

Figure 6-68 shows a design of a cement block check and drop a s developed
and used successfully in Canada. The length of the stilling pool i s about twice
the c r e s t height above the pool. This relatively short .distance i s compensated
for by the downstream gravel protection.

Wooden door

-
Flow Concrete
8 x b i 16 block8

Wooden doo

6 x 8 x 16 blocks

Directions
I. Dig down os shown by survey.
. 2 . Stock blocks t o desired shope for correct
locotion of 'woll ond h e i ~ h tof sill.
3. Pour concrete in cores of blocks-eoch
row seporotely.
4 . Pour remoining concrete for splosh ond
floor. .
5. Any steel (spud links,etc.) in cores will
( A l l dimensions i n inches ) greotly strengthen the structure.

FIGURE 6-68. - Cement block check and drop structure

(Canada).

Concrete Check Drop

The structure shown in Figure 6-69 i s widely used in the U. S. A. where i t

i s usually made in p r e - c a s t reinforced concrete with a wall thickness of 7.5 to
to 10 cm. The main dimensions are shown in the figure and in the tables below:

FIGURE 6-69. - Concrete check drop ( U . S. A. ).

Capacity of Width of
H C A
ditch in opening W
11 s cm cm * cm cm

60 30 30 15 60
170 60 30 15 60
230 75 38 15 60
280 90 46 20 75
400 105 46 ' 20 90

Drop (D) Length of Apron (L)

-
rn
30 75
45 90
60 120
90 180
6. 13.5 Wooden D r o p

F i g u r e s 6-70 and 6-71 show designs of wooden d r o p s for d i s c h a r g e

capacities of 100 l / s t o 250 l / s . These designs w e r e introduced some 30 y e a r s
ago by the USDA Soil Conservation Service and they have proved suitable and
economical. The wood u s e d for the s t r u c t u r e should b e thoroughly impregnated
before assembly.

6. 1 3 . 6 Piped ~ r o ~ s

A simple pipe d r o p s t r u c t u r e recommended by the USDA Soil Conservation

Service f o r f a r m i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s i s shown in F i g u r e 6-72. The figure a l s o
3
provides the n e c e s s a r y data f o r design capacities f r o m 45 11s ( 1 . 6 f t / s ) to
105 11s ( 3 . 7 f t 3 / s ) . Protection by r i p - r a p , g r a v e l o r concrete lining m a y be
r e q u i r e d on e r o s i v e s o i l s . The corrugated m e t a l pipe m a y be substituted by a
concrete pipe. 1

The s t e e l b a r r e l d r o p shown in F i g u r e 6-73 i s a simple and cheap pipe d r o p

recommended by the Alberta Department of Agriculture, Canada.

The following formula and table m a y be used for design purposes :

where Q = discharge in f 3 / s

2
A = pipe a r e a f t
X

head differential

L = pipe length

C = head l o s s coefficient.
 lide. See
below

g-ODMin. I B
I-

PLAN

subst~tutedhere

Pressure treat oll lumber w ~ t hcreosote and use cement

c o o t ~ dn o ~ l s Corr~ogebolts moy be substl -
tuted for n o ~ l swhere ~ndlcoted,~f deslred Upstreom
jolnts moy be covered w ~ t hloth bottens to moke
DETAIL OF GATE GUIDE structure more water-t~ght WOODEN DROP STRUCTURE
Use when drop serves FOR CHANNEL DEPTH
Bs Bottom w~dthof openlng
as a check
b = Bose width of dltch 20 cm ( 8 inches )
d =Depth of water In d~tch
H =He~ghtof fall In woter surfaces
L = Lengf h of opron
Q= Cublc feet per second
 OMETRIC VIEW

SECTION X- X

cooted nolls Corr~ogebolts may be substituted

for nolls where lnd~cated~f deslred Upstream joints
DETAIL OF GATE GUIDE moy be covered w ~ t hloth battens to make structure
Use when drop serves
as a check

water surfaces
 PLAN
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
water Surfoc* CONCRETE SLAB
(See no* No. (I)

r
Top of Ditch Bonk -,
water Surfac*>

SECTIONAL ELEVATION ON CENTER LlNE

- -..
NOTES
I SELECT A PIPE S I Z E THAT W I L L PROVIDE A GREATER CAPACITV THAN I S REQUIRED TO DISCHARGE
THE NORMAL STREAM USE0 W E N IRRIGATING. TRY TO KEEP THE VELOCITY I I THE P l P E B E L W
3 FPS BASE0 ON I O R W L I R R l G A T l I G STREAM.
1. W E R THE CMlRUGATEO METAL P I P E OROP I S U S I D AT A D I T C H CROSSIIG. INCREASE WIDTH OF
TOP OF DAY AND DIMENSIOI L2 BY 8'-0'
3. THE OROP (H) FOR ANY SPECIFIC STRUCTURE C A I BE IICREASED 3 IICHES BY PLAClIGrTHE TOP
OF THE RISER PIPE 3 l n c n c s BELW THE TOP OF THE CONCRETE FLOOR OF THE INLET THE
THICKIESS OF THE FLOOR SLAB ~OJICEIT TO THE PIPE s n o u L o BE INCREASED 3 INCHES TO MAKE
A WATERTIGW CMlNECTlOI WITH THE PIPE. THE I N L E T TO THE P l P E SHOULD BE ROUNDED TO A
3 I I C H RADIUS TO SAVE FORMING AN0 IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE INLET
U. THE DROP STRUCTURE I S FORMED BY CUTTING A STANDARD LEIGTH OF CORRUGATED WETAC P l P E
w n l c n IS M~IUFACTUREO II MULTIPLES OF 2 FT. IX LEIGTH. 01 A u 5 O &#OLE AND WELDING THE
C U i JOINTS TOGETHER TO F M l M A 90 BEN0 P l P E TO BE 1 6 GA CORRUGATED MET L JOINT
BETWEEN HORIZONTAL A I D VERTIC&L PIECES OF P l P E TO BE BUTT WELOEO AND WATE!TlGIIT
5. cowrf
SIX l N c n n r n o PLACEO RIP-RAP w r r BE s u s s r l r u r r o F ~ R SLAB.

NOMENCLATURE FAO-ICID
-
d
F
0
--
o E n n OF WATER IN o l i c n
FREEBOARD I I DITCH
DIAMETER OF P l P E
R -
LEIGTH OF VERTICAL P I P E ALONG CEMTER L l N E
CORRUGATED METAL PIPE
V -
--
VELOCITY OF PIPE FPS-
12-LENGTHOFHORIZONTALPIPEALMGCENTERLIRE

V O I S C L R G E THROiJCH PIPE C.F.S.-

II DROP OF WATER SURFACE DROP
T A B L E OF
CONCRETE Q U A N T I T I E S
O=IO' 0.15 CU.VDS.
0-12" 0 . 2 6 CU VOS
D=15. 029CUYOS Project, Region, Country
US A
Figure No. 6-72
 FIGURE 6-7.3. - Steel b a r r e l drop.

P i p e diameter Values of C
inches Concrete pipe Corrugated metal pipe

10 0.053 0.134
12 0.042 0.107
14 0.034 0.087
16 0.028 0.073
-6.13.7 Sloping Rock Drop

Another cheap drop design f r o m Canada i s shown in Figure 6-74. It i s

suitable where greater falls, say 1. 5 to 3 m, a r e encountered, and where suitable
rock o r stone i s available locally. Gravel-fill between the rocks, o r grouting,
improves greatly the durability of the structure.

."
to
N- - - , under 12
-Ditch bed line

bc- l+or more I

Note:
I.Grovel (if ovoiloble) should be
used to fill between rocks.
2.Rocks con be grouted.
Ditch crosa section

FIGURE 6-74. - Sloping rock drop structure (Canada).

 . 7. STRUCTURES AND DEVICES FOR WATER MEASUREMENT

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.1.1 Scope of this Chapter

The scope of this chapter i s restricted to the measurement of water in

irrigation systems and to methods of measurement which need only inexpensive,
but reliable and easily operated equipment. Almost any kind of obstacle that
partially r e s t r i c t s the flow of water in an irrigation channel can be used a s a
measuring device, provided that i t can be calibrated. However, the calibration
t e s t s n e c e s s a r y to detelop accurate ratings can be r a t h e r costly and time
consuming and justifiable only where the calibrated device i s to be utilized for
a number of different purposes, o r in the case of l a r g e structures outside the
scope of this Handbook. F o r measuring small flows (say below 1000 11s) i t i s
nearly always preferable to use one of the numerous standard measuring devices
o r ratings already d e ~ e l o p e d . In this chapter emphasis i s placed on standard
devices, which a r e defined a s those which have been fully described, accurately
calibrated, correctly installed and have proved to be consistently successful in
operation. Before proceeding to the descriptions of these various measuring
devices i t i s appropriate to r e c a l l a t this stage the reasons for the measurement
of irrigation water and where in the system such measurement should take place.

Why Measure ?

F o r efficient water distribution

Increased demand on available water r e s o u r c e s and ever increasing

irrigation development costs require that water be used economically and without
waste, and experience shows that this cannot be accomplished without water
measurement. Measurements s e r v e to ensure the maintenance of proper delivery
schedules, t o determine the amounts of water delivered, to single out anomalies,
and t o estimate and detect the origin of conveyance l o s s e s .
 F o r efficient water use at the f a r m level

More advanced knowledge of soil properties and soil m o i s t u r e / plant

relationships permits irrigation systems to be designed so that water can be
applied in the right amount and at the right time in relation to the soil moisture
status thereby obtaining maximum efficiency of water use and minimum damage
to the land. This knowledge can be utilized m o s t effectively only by reasonably
accurate meagurement of the water applied.

F o r applied r e s e a r c h

To establish c r i t e r i a for efficient water use and management,field

t r i a l s and evaluation of existing irrigation a r e required f o r a number of i e a s o n s
such a s the evaluation of the efficiency of existing irrigation and to determine
intake r a t e s , s t r e a m sizes required, length of furrows and border runs, w a t e r
l o s s e s , etc. Accurate water measuring devices a r e indispensable for such
t r i a l s and evaluations.

F o r socio-economic factors

Whether water be public o r private property, water m e a s u r e m e n t '

i s an important means f o r implementing a distribution pattern to meet actual
requirements o r legal rights o r both, and for providing a reasonable b a s i s for
estimating water charges. If the charge to the u s e r i s based on the r a t e of
flow, then rate-of-flow measurements and adequate r e c o r d s a r e required.
Charges on the b a s i s of volume necessitate a volumetric measuring device,
o r a rate-of-flow device combined with a time recording device. Ideally,
water flow should be measured at intakes from storage r e s e r v o i r s , canal
headworks, at strategic points in canals and l a t e r a l s and a t delivery points to
water u s e r s .

7.1.3 Where to Measure

In the terminal distribution system facilities for water measurement may

be required, o r be desirable at intakes to l a t e r a l canals (distributaries, e t c . )
o r at other bifurcation points. Clearly the m o s t important point for m e a s u r e -
ment i s the f a r m outlet ( o r turnout) which i s the meeting point between the
management and the water u s e r s .
 The degree of need for a measuring device at the outlet v a r i e s according to
the delivery system employed. Delivery on demand usually r e l i e s upon the
measurement of water a s a basis for equitable distribution a s well a s for
computing possible water charges. Where water i s distributed by rotation
among f a r m e r s along a l a t e r a l ( o r distributary o r "minor" canal) and where the
amount of water supplied to each f a r m e r m a y be different, a measuring device at
the turnout i s required. On @e other hand, i f f a r m e r s along a l a t e r a l receive
water on the b a s i s of a r e a of land o r crops irrigated measurement i s not entirely
necessary, but may still be desirable for other purposes, such a s improvement
of irrigation efficiency. Similarly, in all systems based on constant flow,
measurement i s not entirely n e c e s s a r y but may be advantageous.

Where s e v e r a l f a r m e r s s h a r e the water of each outlet and the flow in the

canal fluctuates considerably, each such outlet should be equipped with a
measuring device, ,even i f equitable distribution among outlets i s practised, so
that each group of f a r m e r s will know the flow available at any one time f r o m their
respective outlet.

It follows that i f all the irrigation water f r o m an outlet i s to be delivered

to one field ( o r f a r m ) a t a time, the measuring device on the outlet may be the
only one needed. But, i f the supply i s divided between two o r m o r e ditches i t
m a y be desirable to install some kind of simple measuring device a t each offtake.
( F o r a comprehensive description of f a r m outlets s e e Chapter 5. )

7. 1 . 4 Limitations

Water measurement i s a difficult problem in many irrigated a r e a s : the

head available in the irrigation system may be too small to allow accurate
measurement; the varying water requirements on the f a r m s and supply
variations cause fluctuations in the levels of the water in canals o r variations in
velocity, o r both; the presence of weeds and silt, the difficulty of maintaining
close tolerances during construction and many other factors may reduce the
accuracy of water measurement.

Considering that there may be a l a r g e number of outlets on an irrigation

scheme, the introduction of a delivery system based on water measurement a t
turnouts may require a l a r g e and costly operating organization which may involve
 problems of personnel, recruitment, training, etc.

The cost factor i s particularly important where f a r m units a r e small o r

economic r e t u r n s low. In such c a s e s , simple devices with l e s s accuracy should
be selected ( e . g. calibrated shut-off gates a s discussed in Section 7. 8).

7.1.5 Methods, Structures and Devices Available

The weir i s the most practical and economical device for water m e a s u r e -
ment, provided t h e r e i s sufficient head available. The three most commonly
used sharp-crested weirs a r e discussed in Section 7 . 2 .

Measuring flumes a r e extensively used in irrigation networks, where they

ape applicable to almost any flow condition. Their m o s t significant advantages
a r e small head l o s s e s , reasonable accuracy over a l a r g e flow range, insensitivity
to velocity of approach, and little affected by sediment and debris transport. Of
this category of measuring structure the P a r s h a l l flume i s treated in detail in
Section 7.4, and the Standing Wave Flume (India) in Chapter 6 because of i t s
other main application a s a drop. Because of i t s future potential the Cut-throat
Flume, (on which experimental work has almost been completed) may become a
strong competitor to the P a r s h a l l and other flumes, and i s described for f r e e fall
conditions in Section 7 . 6 . The cast-in-place Trapezoidal Flume i s also quoted
(7. 7), being a cheap and easily constructed device.

The use of the submerged orifice for the measyrement of water i s not
discussed h e r e since i t does not offer any advantage over the use of weirs (when
sufficient head i s available) o r flumes (for small head l o s s e s ) . It i s however
discussed in reference (81).

Propeller m e t e r s a r e commercial flow measuring devices which have been

in use for a number of y e a r s and their advantages and limitations a r e discussed
in Section 7 . 9 . They a r e particularly suited to systems where no head l o s s e s
can be permitted for water measurement and where water i s sold on a volumetric
basis.

F o r water measurement in small s t r e a m s , particularly in field ditches and

furrows and where head l o s s e s must be very small, the Deflection o r Vane Meter
h a s proved to be a useful device. Two types of such m e t e r s a r e presented in
Section 7 . 10.

As pointed out e a r l i e r , the m o s t important point of flow restriction in the

terminal portion of an irrigation system i s the f a r m outlet ( o r turnout). Many
outlets have been designed and calibrated to enable water measurement besides
the basic function of regulating the flow. Some of the m o r e common ones a r e
the Flume Type Outlet, the Double Orifice Turnout, the Neyrpic Distributor, the
Meter Gate for culvert-type outlets, the Weir Box Turnout and the Dethridge
Meter Outlet. The e r r o r of these devices under operational conditions i s
usually within the 5 5 % range but may exceed + 107'. (A comprehensive
discussion of these outlets appears in Chapter 5. )

There a r e however a number of other outlets which have either not been
calibrated o r a r e not suitable for water measurement. Where such s t r u c t u r e s
a r e used the installation of a separate standard type measuring device, located
some distance dowhstream of the outlet may be the best solution to obtain
sufficient accuracy in measurement without incurring further development o r
construction costs.

Trends

The evolution of water measurement techniques and devices h a s pro-

g r e s s e d independently in many p a r t s of the world, the result being an abundance
of types and designs, each one developed to suit certain local conditions.
However, many such devices could serve a s well in other a r e a s . There i s
also scope for certain desirable features of one device to be integrated with
those of another device to improve overall performance. Refinement in
accuracy may be achieved by better calibration and by building structures m o r e
exactly to standard dimensions. Structures may be further modified so a s to
become cheaper and e a s i e r to construct, such a s the Cut-throat Flume. F u r t h e r
standardization and calibration of distribution and control structures could add
to economies in water measurement, such a s for example the use of culverts a s
measuring devices.
7.2 SHARP CRESTED MEASURING WEIRS-i /

7.2.1 Synopsis

Weirs a r e probably the most extensively used devices for the measurement
of the r a t e of flow of water in open channels. Weirs may be divided into: sharp
crested weirs, and broad crested weirs. In this section only s h a r p c r e s t e d weirs
a r e discussed, Broad crested weirs a r e commonly incorporated in irrigation
structures but a r e not usually used to determine flow, with the exception of the
broad crested weir often known a s the "Romijn Gate", described in Section 7-3.

The types of sharp c r e s t e d weirs commonly used for measuring irrigation

water a r e the :

- s h a r p crested contracted rectangular w e i r s

- II I' suppressed 11

- I. 1 " and sharp sided trapezoidal (Cipolletti) weirs

- s h a r p sided 90 V-notch weirs.

Each of these weirs h a s characteristics appropriate to particular operating

and site conditions. The Cipolletti i s perhaps the most frequently used type,
(Figure 7- 1). However, a considerable number of rectangular weirs may be
found in irrigation systems, notably at the f a r m level since they a r e simple in
construction and operation. The 90' V-notch weir gives the most accurate
r e s u l t s when measuring small discharges and i s particularly adapted t o the
measurement of fluctuating flows. Measuring w e i r s require comparatively high
heads, considerable maintenance of the weir o r stilling pool and protection of the
channel downstream of the c r e s t . The accuracy of measurement i s comparatively
good. The selection of type and dimensions of the weir should in the f i r s t
instance be based on the expected r a t e of flow, o r the limits of the r a t e s in the
case of fluctuating s t r e a m s . Consideration should be given to the following.

(i) The head should be no l e s s than 6 cm (0.2.ft) for the expected r a t e of flow
and should not exceed 60 cm ( 2 ft).

L / ~ h einformation presented i s based largely on the US Bureau of Reclamation

Standards (81).
(ii) F o r rectangular and trapezoidal weirs, the head should not exceed one-third
of the weir length.

(iii) ,The weir length should be selected.so that the head for design discharge will
be n e a r the maximum subject to the limitations in (i) and (ii).

(iv) The c r e s t s should be placed high enough so that the water flowing over them
will fall freely, leaving an,airspace under and around the jets.

A weir, together with a turnout gate, operated with a f r e e falling nappe and
without submergence, may be considered a s a semi-module. Any change in
upstream level results in a change of discF-rrge.

Calibration curves and tables have been developed for the standard type
weirs mentioned above and discharge through the weirs can be estimated readily
by reading the head recordedon a staff gauge against the table to obtain the
actual r a t e of flow.

FIGURE 7 - 1 . - Standard trapezoidal (Cipolletti) measuring

weir of 61 cm ( 2 ft) c r e s t length installed at a f a r m outlet.
 Hydraulic Properties

When the water surface downstream from the bulkhead i s far enough below
the crest so that a i r moves freely to the area below the nappe, the weir i s said to
have free discharge, when the rate of flow can be determined from only the .
upstream gauge stick and a knowledge of the weir size and shape. (Figure 7-2).

Point t o rneosure depth H

Shorp- crested weir

Elevation of

--A

FIGURE 7-2. - Diagram of f r e e discharge contracted

weir showing position of staff gauge upstream.

If the water surface in the downstream channel does not permit free
aeration around the nappe the discharge may increaseddue to low pressure. When
the water level r i s e s above the elevation of the c r e s t the flow i s considered to be
submerged; this may o r may not affect the discharge rate to a measurable
degree, but dependable measurements under these conditions cannot be expected.

-
However, when the downstream water level r i s e s above the weir c r e s t a distance
of about 66 per cent o r more of the head on the crest, the degree of submergence
will appreciably affect the rate of flow through the weir notch. The rate of flow
can be determined under these submerged conditions provided that both the
upstream and downstream heads be measured and reference be made to sub-
merged flow tables. Submerged and non-ventilated flows a r e not desirable for
standard conditions and, except in unusual cases, should be avoided. In most
c a s e s therefore weirs should be placed so a s to obtain ventilated and free-flow
discharge conditions.

If the weir notch be made of a relatively thin plate with a sharp upstream
edge and it be mounted on the supporting wall so that the water does not contact
the wall a s i t p a s s e s (i.e. i t "springs" past it), the weir i s called a s h a r p crested
weir. If the weir notch be mounted in a wall too thick for the water to "spring"
past it, the weir i s classed a s broad crested. Discharge coefficients and
discharge tables a r e usually obtained for broad crested weirs by calibrating the
weir in place. Most measuring weirs a r e constructed a s sharp crested weirs.

When the distances from the ends o r sides of the weir notch to the sides of
the weir pool a r e great enough t o allow the sheet of water a f r e e and unconstrained
approach to the c r e s t , the water will flow uniformly and relatively slowly toward
the weir ends. As the water from the sides of the channel n e a r s the notch, it
accelerates and turns to pass through the notch opening. This turning effect
cannot occur instantaneously and a curved flow path o r contraction r e s u l t s with
the water "springing1' f r e e to form a jet narrower than the weir opening. When
approach conditions allow contraction a t both the ends and a t the bottom of the jet
the weir i s called a contracted weir. F o r contracted conditions, the ends of the
weir should not be closer to the sides of the channel than twice the head on the
weir. F o r complete bottom contraction the weir c r e s t should be placed no closer
than 2H from the bottom of the channel (Figure 7-2).

Setting of Weirs

The setting of weirs according to accepted standards i s a s important a s the

use of standard dimensions and shapes. Only then can the available rating tables
and graphs be applicable and individual calibrations be avoided.

Standard contracted rectangular weirs

The conditions and settings recommended for standard contracted

rectangular w e i r s a r e set forth below.

(i) The upstream face of the bulkhead should be smooth and perpendicular
to the axis of the channel.
(ii) The upstream face of the weir plate should be smooth, straight and
flush with the upstream face of the bulkhead.

(iii) The entire c r e s t should be a level, plane surface with a sharp,

right-angled edge facing upstream. The thickness of the c r e s t should
be between 1 and 2 m m (about 0.04 to 0.08 inches). Both ends of
rectangular weirs should be. truly vertical and of the same thickness a s
the c r e s t .

(iv) The upstream c o r n e r s of the notch m u s t be sharp. They should

be machined o r filed perpendicular to the upstream face, and f r e e of
b u r r s o r scratches. Knife edges should be avoided because they a r e
difficult to maintain.

(v) The downstream edges of the notch should be chamfered i f the

plate i s thicker than the prescribed c r e s t width (iii). This chamfer
0
should be a t an an angle of 45 o r more.

(4 The distance of the c r e s t f r o m the bottom of the approach channel

should preferably be not l e s s than twice the depth of water above the
c r e s t and in no case l e s s than 30 cm.

( vii) The distance f r o m the sides of the weir to the sides of the
approach channel should preferably be no l e s s than twice the depth of
water above the c r e s t and never l e s s than 30 c m .

(viii) The overflow sheet (nappe) should touch only the upstream edges
of the c r e s t and i t s sides.

(ix) Air should circulate freely both under and at the sides of the
nappe .
(x) The measurement of head of the weir should be taken a s the
difference in elevation between the c r e s t and the water surface at that
point upstream f r o m the weir which i s at a distance of four t i m e s the
maximum head on the c r e s t . (A staff gauge i s usually installed h e r e
having a graduated scale with zero placed at the same elevation a s
the weir c r e s t . )
\
The cross-sectional a r e a of the approach channel should be a t
(xi)
l e a s t eight t i m e s that of the overflow sheet a t the c r e s t for a distance
 upstream from 15 to 20 times the depth of the sheet,. (If the weir pool
i s ernaller than defined by these criteria, the velocity of approach may
. be too high and the staff gauge too low. )

7.2.3.2 Standard suppressed rectangular weirs

The standard suppre seed rectangular weir requires the same con-
ditions for accuracy of measurement a s the contracted rectangular weir, except
for the conditions relating to side contraction. In the suppressed weir the sides of
the approach channel should be coincident with the sides of the weir, and should
extend downstream beyond the c r e s t to prevent horizontal expansion of the nappe.

7.2.3. 3 Standard trapezoidal (Gipolletti) weirs

The standard trapezoidal weir, for which the discharge tables given
herein a r e applicable, has a trapezoidal shape (see Figure 7-3) with the sides in-
clining at a slope of 1 (horizontal) to 4 (vertical). All conditions for accuracy
listed'in 7.2.3.1 for the contracted rectangular weir apl)iy to the trapezoidal weir.

FIGURE 7-3. - Permanent'trapezoidal weir discharging

under free flow conditions.
7.2.3.4 Standard 90 V-notch w e i r s

The c r e s t of the standard 90 V-notch weir consists of a thin plate,

the sides of the notch being inclined 45O f r o m the vertical. This weir o p e r a t e s a s
a contracted weir and all conditions for a c c u r a c y stated f o r the standard contracted
rectangular weir apply again. The minimum distances of the s i d e s of the weir
f r o m the channel banks should be a t l e a s t twice the head on the weir, and should be
m e a s u r e d f r o m the intersection points of the maximum water surface with the
edges of the weir. The minimum distance f r o m the notch to the pool bottom
should be a t l e a s t twice the head on the w e i r , m e a s u r e d f r o m the point (apex) of
the notch t o the channel floor.

Because of the shape of this weir the head required f o r a s m a l l flow

through i t i s g r e a t e r than that required with the other types of w e i r s with a long
horizontal c r e s t . This m a k e s i t particularly suited to m e a s u r e s m a l l flows with
high accuracy.

7.2.4 Hydraulic F o r m u l a e and Discharge Measurement

7.2.4.1 Standard contracted rectangular w e i r s

Numerous formulae have been developed for computing the discharge

of rectangular, s h a r p c r e s t e d w e i r s with complete contraction. The m o s t popular
and generally accepted one i s the F r a n c i s f o r m u l a :

where Q = discharge in m 3 p e r second

L = length of c r e s t in m
H = head in m o r the vertical difference between the
elevation of the weir c r e s t and the elevation of the
water surface in the weir pool.

Equivalent in English units :

3

where Q = discharge in ft 3 p e r second

L = length of c r e s t in ft
H = head in ft
 TABLE 7-1

Discharge of Standard Contracted Rectangular Weirs' (in m 3 per s e c ) -11

Head Length of Weir L (cm)

H(cm) 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 *150.00 175.00 200.00

.50 .0001 .0002 .0003 .0005 .0006 .0008 .0009 .0011 .0013
1.00 .0003 .0005 .0009 .0014 .0018 .0022 .0027 .0032 .0036
1.50 .0005 .0008 .0017 .0025 .0033 .0042 .0050 .0059 .0067
2.00 .0008 .0013 .0026 .0039 .0051 .0064 .0077 .0090 .0103
2. 50 .0011 .0018 .0036 .0054 .0072 .0090 .0108 .0126 .0145
3.00 .0014 .0023 .0047 .0071 .0095 .0 118 .0142 .0166 .0190
3.50 .0017 .0029 .0059 .0089 .0119 .0149 .0179 .0209 .0239
4.00 .0021 .0036 .0072 .0109 .0145 .0182 .0219 .0256 .0293
4. 50 .0025 .0042 .0086 .0130 .0173 .0217 .0261- -0305 .0349
5.00 .0029 .0049 .0101 .0152 .0203 .0254 .0306 .0357 .0409
 TABLE 7- 1 (Cont'd.)

Head Length of Weir L ( c m )

H( c m ) 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00
 TABLE 7-1 ( C o n t t d . )

Head Lkngth of Weir L ( c m )

H( c m ) 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00

42.00 .4583 .5834 .7085 .8336 .9587

42.50 ,4660 .5934 .7207 .8481 .9754
43.00 .4738 .6034 .7330 .8626 .9921
43.50 .4815 .6134 .7452 .8771 1.0090
44.00 .4893 .6235 .7576 .8917 1.0259
44.50 .4971 .6336 .7700 .9064 1.0429
45.00 .5050 .6437 .7825 .9212 1.0599
45.50 .5129 .6539 .7950 .9360 1.0771
46.00 .5208 .6642 .8075 .9509 1.0943
46.50 .5287 .6744 .8202 .9659 1.1116
47.00 .5366 .6847 .8328 .9809 1.1290
47.50 .5446 .6951 .8456 .9960 1.1465
48.00 .5526 .7055 .8583 1.0112 1.1640
48.50 .5607 .7159 .8712 1.0264 1.1816
49.00 .5687 .7264 .8840 1.0417 1.1993
49.50 .5768 .7369 .8970 1.0570 1.2171
50.00 .5849 .7474 .9099 1.0724 1.2349

-1/
Values determined partly experimentally, partly f r o m the formula

Q = 3. 33 (L - 0.2H) H' and convertbd to m e t r i c unit? (81)

 Table 7 - 1 gives the discharges of standard contracted rectangular
weirs for 9 different lengths and for heads ranging f r o m 0 . 5 to 50 cm. The table
i s intended to be used for discharge measurements of standard rectangular weirs
but may serve a s well for their design. The discharge data may be interpolated
for other lengths of weir if their corresponding heads do not exceed one-third of
the c r e s t length.

An improved. method for computing r a t e s of flow through rectangular

thin-plated .weirs h a s been developed by Kindsvater and C a r t e r . In their formula
they have introduced the effective coefficient of discharge, the effective weir
length and the effective weir head in o r d e r to take account of effects of relative
depth and width of approach channel and of velocity of approach. Since the
formula i s hardly ever used in the measurement of irrigation water with small
s t r u c t u r e s i t i s not elaborated on h e r e , but reference may be made to (61) and (81).

7.2.4. 2 Standard suppressed rectangular weirs

F o r computation of discharge of the standard suppressed rectangular

weir the Rehbock formula and the F r a n c i s formula a r e commonly used. The
diagram shown in Figure 7-4 i s based on the Rehbock formula:

where
Q = d i s c h a r g e i n m 3 per second
u
, = discharge coefficient
L = length of weir c r e s t in m
H = headinm

The discharge coefficient u

, i s determined from:

where

D = distance from the c r e s t to the bottom of the approach

channel in millimetr e s
H = head in m i l l i m e t r e s
 Somplc calculation
Given: D =60
L = 80
Measured: H= 38
Wanted: 9 = 7
P = 4 6 0 x 0.80
0 = 3 6 8 1/r

1 I I I I I I I I l l
0 ' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
@ 10 20 30 40 60
loo per m crest length
@ I00 200 400 600 8 0 0 1000

- Discharge over a suppressed rectangular

FIGURE 7 - 4 .
weir per metre of creet length.
 According to Swiss standard (SIA No. 109)
H
D should not be s m a l l e r than H, (- 6 1 ),
D

Dmin = 300mm

Hmin = 25 m m

Hm, = 800 m m

The US B u r e a u of Reclamation (81) recommends that D should be a t l e a s t

2 t i m e s H, (D 2 Z H ) ,

Hmin = 60 m m (below this the nappe may not spring f r e e of the c r e s t )

The US Bureau of Reclamation u s e s the F r a n c i s formula

where
Q = discharge in f t 3 p e r second
L = length of weir c r e s t in ft
H = headinft

F o r discharge t a b l e s in English units r e f e r e n c e m a y be made to (81).

Standard trapezoidal (Cipolletti) w e i r s

Taking the F r a n c i s formula a s a b a s i s , Cipolletti h a s developed the

following formula f o r t h i s type of weir :

where
3
Q = d i s c h a r g e in ft p e r second
L = length of the c r e s t in ft
H = head in ft o r the v e r t i c a l difference between the elevation
of the weir c r e s t and the elevation of the water surface in
the weir pool
 TABLE 7-2

Discharge of Standard Trapezoidal Weir e (CIPOLLETTI)

1/
(in m 3 per sec) -

Head Length of Weir L (cm)

H( cm) 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00
 TABLE 7 - 2 (Contld.)

Length of Weir L ( c m )
Head
H(cm) 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00
 TABLE .7-2 (Conttd.)

Length of Weir L (cmf

Head
H (4 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00

-1 /
Values determined partly experimentally, partly from the formula

P = 3. 367 LH and converted to metric units (81)

 Metric equivalent :

where
3
Q = discharge in m per second
L = length of c r e s t in m
H = headinm

Table 7-2 computed f r o m this formula and partly f r o m experiments

gives discharges over standard trapezoidal weirs of nine different c r e s t lengths
and for heads f r o m 0.5 cm to 50 cm.

Discharge measurements using the Cipolletti weir and the above

formula a r e not a s accurate a s those obtained from rectangular weirs using the
F r a n c i s formula, but accuracy i s sufficient for general irrigation use.

The discharge figures m a y be interpolated for other lengths of weir

if corresponding heads do not exceed one-third of the c r e s t length.

7.2.4.4 Standard 90 V-notch weirs

Of the several well known formulae used to compute the discharge

over 90 V-notch weirs the formula recommended by the WMO (Ref. 61) i s
quoted h e r e :

<

where
3
Q = discharge in m per second
2
g = acceleration due to gravity in m / s e c
Cd = coefficient of discharge

H = headinm

Cd i s a function of H and fluid property.

3
Table 7 - 3 gives discharges in m / s multiplied by 10 for heads from 5 to
38 cm.
 TABLE 7-3
3
Discharge of 90 V-notch Weirs (in m / s x 10)
-5
Computed from the Formula Q = BJG~
15
H (61)

Head Discharge Head Discharge Head Discharge

m m 3 / s x 10 m m 31 s x 10 m' m 3 / s x 10

F o r the English system of units the Cone formula, recommended by

the USBR, i s quoted :

where
Q = discharge in second-feet
H = head in feet o r the vertical distance between the elevation of the
vertex o r lowest p a r t of the.notch and the elevation of the water
surface in the weir pond.
 Table 7-4 i e computed f r o m the Cone formula f o r heads f r o m 0.20 t o
1.25 f t ( 6 1 t o 380 mm).

TABLE 7-4

Discharge of 90' V-notch Weirs (in second-feet)

2.48
Computed f r o m the F o r m u l a Q = 2.49 H (81)

Head in Discharge Head in Discharge Head in Discharge

feet in second- feet in second- feet in second-
feet feet feet
FIGURE 7 - 5 (a) and (b). - Small temporary V-notch
w e i r s made of sheet metal, (being used for studies on
irrigation efficiency and water l o s s e s ) .
7.2;5 Construction of Measuring Weirs
Measuring w e i r s m a y be t e m p o r a r y o r permanent. Temporary w e i r s may
be portable. F o r e a r t h channels portable w e i r s m a y be made f r o m sheet steel
cut approximately t o the shape of the c r o s s section of the channel but r a t h e r
larger., The weir opening in the sheet m u s t be cut carefully ( s e e 7. 2. 3 on setting
of weirs). F i g u r e 7-5 (a) and (b) shows portable 90 V-notch w e i r s m a d e of
3 m m and 5 mm sheet m e t a l respectively and F i g u r e 7-6 gives an example of a
suitable design.

FIGURE 7-6. - Example of a design f o r a 90 V-notch

w e i r plate.
 In lined channels temporary measuring w e i r s may be installed in a bulkhead
made of wood o r other m a t e r i a l that has been sealed in place. Another possibility
i s to use existing structures, such a s division boxes o r checks for measurements
by temporarily substituting the gate with a weir plate.

Permanent measuring weirs may be constructed in almost the same way a s

check o r drop s t r u c t u r e s (Chapter 6) and by applying standard proportions between
weir opening, bulkhead and weir pool a s indicated above. Again for accuracy the
weir c r e s t should always be formed of a thin plate of strong m a t e r i a l such a s
sheet steel. Measuring weirs a r e sometimes built a s an integral p a r t of f a r m
outlets, (an example of a design for this type i s given in Chapter 5).

Maintenance of weirs i s very important i f dependable measurements a r e to

be obtained over a long period of time. Maintenance involves :

- keeping the pool f r e e f r o m excessive deposits and weeds

,
- preventing leakage through and around the weir structure
- checking the elevation of the gauge in relation to the c r e s t
- checking the condition of the c r e s t and r e - d r e s s i n g i t if required.

7.3 THE ROMIJN BROAD CRESTED WEIR-1/

7.3.1 General

The Romijn weir was developed by the irrigation service in Indonesia a s a

regulating and measuring device for use in relatively flat irrigated regions
where the water demand i s variable because of different requirements during the
growing season.

A description of the weir was published for the f i r s t time in 1932 by D. G.

Romijn (134), after whom the structure has been named.

The Romijn weir consists of two sliding blades and a movable weir, c r e s t
which a r e mounted in one steel guide frame, (Figure 7-7). The bottom blade,

" Based on information provided by M. G. Bos, Irrigation Design Engineer,

Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, The Netherlands.
which i s locked in place under operational conditions acts a s the bottom
terminal for the movable weir. The upper blade, which i s connectdd to the
bottom blade by means of two ateel s t r i p s placed in the frame grooves, acts a s
the top terminal for the movable weir. The movable weir i s connected by two
steel strips to a horizontal lifting beam. The horizontal weir c r e s t i s
perpendicular to the water flow and slopes 1 : 25 upward in the direction of flow.
Its upetream nose i s rounded off in such a way that flow separation does not
occur.

The operating range of the weir equals the maximum upstream head

(Hcrt) which hae been selected for the dimensioning of the regulating structure.

Upper slide

Grooves

y Lcr? = 0.78 Hlcrtl'lmox

------
Zero level
of crest .

Movoble weir crest

Stobilizinp console

.-

FIGURE 7-7. - Romijn broad crested weir, sliding

blades and movable weir crest.
 Weir Abutments

The weir abutments a r e vertical and a r e rounded in such a way that flow
separation does not occur. There i s a rectangular approach channel to ensure
regular velocity distribution. The total upstream head over the weir (Hcrt) i s
measured in this approach channel a t a distance of between two and three t i m e s
upstream of the weir.
Hicrt)max

The dimensions of the abutments should comply with those indicated in

Figure 7-8.

Aeration groove-

Diverted flow

Side s l o v
of c o n a l

FIGURE 7-8. -
Romijn broad crested welr,
hydraulic dimensions of weir abutments.

Undet certa* circumstances the radius ( r ) of the rounding-off of the

bbiutriients may be reduced, so that r >, Hot. This will happen, for
instance, if :
(a) the average flow velocity, v, in the undivided main canal i s low
so that t h e r e i s little danger of flow separation; in other words,
-1
i f the Froude Number, F r = v ( %)', i s equal to o r l e s s than

0.10, where g i s the acceleration due to gravity, A i s the c r o s s -

sectional a r e a of flow, and B i s the channel width at the f r e e
water surface;

(b) the centreline of the weir structure i s parallel to o r coincides

with the centreline of the undivided supply canal (in-line
structure);

(c) the water i s drawn directly from a storage basin.

'If several movable weirs a r e combined in a single structure, intermediate

p i e r s should be provided so that two-dimensional flow i s preserved over each
weir unit, allowing the upstream head over the weir to be measured independently
p e r unit. The parallel section of the pier should therefore commence at a.point
1
located at a distance of H(crt) max upstream of the head measurement station and
extend to the downstream edge of the weir c r e s t . P i e r s should have streamlined
noses, i. e. of semi-circular o r semi-elliptical profile ( 1 to 3 axes). To avoid
s h a r p curvatures at the cut-waters, the thickness of the intermediate p i e r s
should be equal to o r m o r e than 0 . 6 5 HI with a minimum of 0. 30 m .
( crt)max

Measurement of Head
.
I

To limit the effects of draw-down and to ensure that the energy l o s s between
the section of measurement and the upstream edge of the weir c r e s t i s negligible,
the total upstream head over the weir ( H ~ , ~ must
) be measured at a point located
at a distance of between two and three times the total maximum energy head over
the weir upstream of the (imaginary) weir face. Since.the weir c r e s t moves up
and down, a fixed staff gauge cannot be used to obtain a value for the upstream
head over the c r e s t .

A variety of devices for measuring head requiring two readings for the
calculation of the upstream head have been developed, but these a r e l e s s accurate
and m o r e liable to lead to e r r o r s in the determination of Hcrt than a device that
r e q u i r e s one reading only. Of the latter type, the most simple and reliable i s a
staff gauge that t r a v e l s up and down with the weir c r e s t . Zero level of this gauge
coincides with the downstream edge over the weir c r e s t (control section), s o that
the upstream head over the c r e s t equals the degree of immersion of the gauge.

Depending on circumstances, t h e r e a r e two ways in which the gauge can be

fixed to the movable weir :

(i) Where the water surface in the approach channel i s smooth (no waves),
where n a r r o w intermediate p i e r s a r e to be used, o r where no g r e a t
accuracy of gauge readings i s required, the gauge may be located in the
approach channel a s n e a r a s possible to one of the abutments. A steel
beam i s then welded o r bolted perpendicular to the lifting beam and
extended to the head measurement section. A second beam i s welded o r
bolted to the movable weir 0. 15 m below c r e s t level, and this i s also
extended to the head measurement section. The ends of the beams a r e
connected via a steel o r hardwood support to which the gauge i s mounted.

(ii) Where wave action in the approach channel makes i t difficult to make
gauge readings; o r where t h e r e i s a r i s k of the gauge o r i t s support being
damaged by floating debris, the gauge should be located in a rectangular
stilling o r gauge well. In such circumstances the lifting beam should be
extended on either the left o r right hand side of the guide f r a m e to just
above the well. Attached to the end of the extended beam i s a vertical
support to which the gauge i s mounted. To ensure accurate gauge readings,
the length of this rectangular well a s measured f r o m the face of the gauge
should be equal to o r g r e a t e r than two times the maximum depth to the
water surface in the well; i t s width should not be l e s s than 0. 20 m .

If desired, the m e t r e scale on the vertical staff can be replaced by a scale

3
in m /s o r l i t r e s / s so that the immersion of the scale equals the weir discharge;
(i.e. any changes in the upstream head over the c r e s t , and thus any changes in
the weir discharge caused by the vertical movement of the weir and/or a change
in water level in the approach channel, can be read direct without a time l a g . )

Since the f i r s t gauge arrangement (i) i s liable to damage by floating debris

and to some extent by vandalism, i t i s advisable to use the latter arrangement
(ii) a s a standard solution.
 If the rectangular gauge well i s used a s a stilling well t o prevent
oscillations of the water s u r f a c e caused by surging water and wave action, the
d i a m e t e r of the inlet pipe o r slot width (D ) i s limited by the minimum c r o s s -
P
sectional a r e a of flow a t the head m e a s u r e m e n t station (A,~,) a s follows :

The pipe o r slot should have i t s opening a t l e a s t 0 . 5 m below the lowest

c r e s t level and i t should t e r m i n a t e flush with and perpendicular to the boundary
of the approach channel.

7.3.4 Provision for F r e e Flow Conditions

The flow over the weir i s independent of variations in the tailwater head
over the weir c r e s t ( H ~ provided
~ ~ ) this downstream head does not r i s e above a
c e r t a i n amount of the u p s t r e a m head over the weir (Hcrt). If we a s s u m e sub-
c r i t i c a l flow in the tailwater channel, the ratio Hdwl should not exceed 0. 66 to
Hcrt
provide f r e e flow (modular flow).

7.3.5 Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s

The shape of the weir c r e s t a s introduced by Vlugter ( 1 3 6 ) in 1940 h a s the

following advantages over a truly flat and horizontal round-nosed weir :

a. the length of the weir in the direction of flow ( L ~ , ~required

) to
produce a m o r e o r l e s s constant value of the d i s c h a r g e coefficient
(Cd) can be reduced, so that the r a t i o H { ~ ~ :~ L c) r t~ i~s l e, s s
than 0.78, which c o r r e s p o n d s with a reduction of L c r t by about 40%;

b. the l o s s of head due t o friction above the weir c r e s t i s reduced,

resulting in a 4% higher discharge coefficient;

c. the movable p a r t of the s t r u c t u r e i s s m a l l e r and thus m o r e rigid;

d. both the s t e e l s t r u c t u r e and the weir abutments a r e m o r e economical.

The general stage discharge equation for a b r o a d - c r e s t e d weir with

rectangular control section r e a d s
where Cd i s the discharge coefficient, C;, i s the approach velocity coefficient,
g i s the acceleration due t o gravity, and Bt i s the width ( o r breadth) of the weir
a c r o s s the direction of flow.

The value of the discharge coefficient, Cd , h a s been determined in

laboratory t e s t s , (Vlugter. Cohen, Groot). Variation of Cd values a s a function
of the r a t i o H' i s illustrated i n e ~ i g u r 7-9.
e
crt . Lcrt

ope rot in^ ronge of the movoble ROMIJN rneor~ring/re~ulotingweir 1

e l.06 - I
1.05 -
.-U
+I
.- 0 0
.-u
"- -
1-04 *,-
u 1.03 -
'C

8 1.02 -
U
g 1.01 - Averoge Cd reduction
due to friction/
I
5
.- 1.00 - W q t I 1
1 I

0-99 i
101 . .
0'2 Heft/ Lcrt
Rotio
0.4
0'3 (dimensionlesr)
0.3 0.6

o Doto offer d a Groot (19721, = 0-60 m

Doto of ter Cohen (19531, Lcrt = 0-30m

FIGURE 7-9. - Values of Cd a s a function of the

r a t i o Hcrt : Lcrt f o r the Romijn weir.

F o r field s t r u c t u r e s with concrete abutments, i t i s advisable to u s e an

a v e r a g e value f o r Cd, equal to unity.

The maximum percentage e r r o r in Cd can be expected to be l e s s than 3%

if an average value Cd = 1.00 i s used.

Values f o r the approach velocity (Cv) a r e shown in F i g u r e 7- 10 a s a

function of the r a t i o Cd Hcrt : (Hcrt Hb-c ) where H +
(b- c)
i s the height

of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the rectangular approach channel.

 FIGURE 7- 10. - Approach velocity coefficient, Cv,
for rectangular approach channels.

Limits of Application

The practical lower limit of Hcrt i s related to the roughness of the sloping
'
weir blade, to the fluid properties, and to the accuracy a t which gauge readings
can be made. The recommended lower limit i s 0.05 m or 0.12 Lcrt whichever
i s greater.

The width (or breadth) of the weir c r e s t (Bt) should not be l e s s than
0. 30 m , nor l e s s than the maximum value of the total energy head ~ i ~
over the weir c r e s t .

The height of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the approach channel
H(b-c) should not be l e s s than 0.15 m , nor l e s s than 0.33 HI
(crt)max '
whichever i s g r e a t e r .

In o r d e r to obtain a reasonably constant discharge coefficient, Cd, the

 r a t i o Hcrt : Lcrt should not exceed 0.78.

7.3.7 Commonly Used Weir Dimensions

It will be noted that a l l dimensions given h e r e of both the weir and i t s

abutments a r e r e l a t e d to the maximum value selected for the total energy head
over the weir c r e s t (HI
( c r t ) m a x)

The l o s s of head (hc) r e q u i r e d f o r modular flow i s a l s o r e l a t e d to the total

energy head a s h c > 0.33 H'
(crt)max '

Since a limiting factor in m o s t relatively flat i r r i g a t i o n a r e a s i s the

available head for open canal and weir flow, the maximum value of Hcrt i s limited
to a p r a c t i c a l value of approximately 0.47 m . The length of the weir c r e s t (in
the direction of flow), L(crt), consequently equals 0.60 m , of which 0.50 m i s
s t r a i g h t and sloping 1 : 25 upward in the direction of flow, while the remaining
0. 10 m f o r m s the rounded nose, i t s r a d i u s being a l s o 0. 10 m .

Theoretically, the width ( o r breadth) of the weir, Bt, which m a y be used i s

flexible over a relatively wide range ( s e e l i m i t s of application), but differences
in t h i s dimension should be limited in the i n t e r e s t of standardization of the
s t r u c t u r e s of an i r r i g a t i o n project. It i s often p r e f e r a b l e for Bt not to exceed
1 . 50 m so that a c e n t r a l hand wheel can be mounted to move the weir in a simple
n a r r o w (0.01 m ) groove a r r a n g e m e n t . Drawings of constructional details a r e
given in F i g u r e 7- 1 1.

7. 3 . 8 Rating Tables f o r Standard W e i r s

F o r the standard weir shown in F i g u r e 7- 11 the following values f o r C

d'
Hcrt and Hb-c apply :

Cd = 1.00

0.05 m ,( Hcrt 0.45 m

0 . 5 5 4 Hb-, ( 0.95 m
t

0.60m
/
+ (Hcrt + H b - c ) < l.00m

Due t o the regulating function of the movable w e i r , both the u p s t r e a m head (H,,~)
 Ring

Welr toMe and

L o c k ~ n g handle Deto~l top corner frome Detoils cross sectlon A-6

L50x100x8
Strip 100x8 @

Cond~tlons e q u ~ r e d from dellvery ex- workshop

F A O - ICID
I Surface of plates to be perfectly fiat
2 Bottom of scourlnq qote to joln onqle Iron @ correctly
3 Holes for bolts and locklnq wedges to be sufftciently overd~menstoned
THE ROMIJN MOVABLE
(even ~f "red - ieoded*)
4 All metol work l o be twlce red - leaded MEASURING / REGULATING WEIR

5 Eoch qote (measurement + scourtnq) to be provlded wtth 2 sets of

padlocks (copper and steel, 2 inches)

Project. Reg~on,C o u n t r y
The Netherlonds / lndones~o

F~gureNo 7-11
 FIGURE 7- 11 SUPPLEMENT. - L i s t of Materials.
B = breadth of approach canal
W = design freeboard

Dimensions o r Breadth
Mark on ~e~uired Remarks
Drawing Amount
Profile Thickness Length

1 2 L50xlOOx8 W + 1950
1a 2 L50xlOOx8 W t 1850
2 1 L50xlOOx8 B t 600
3 1 L50xlOOx8 B t 550
4 2 L50x100~10 B - 20
t

5 1 L80x12OxlO B - 10
6 2 128x10 150
7 2 100x8 925
8 4 45x1 0 925
9 2 38x6 W - 100 Welded t o f r a m e
10 1 482 8 B + 100
11 1 665 8 B - 10
12 1 492 8 B + 100
13 1 W - 132 8 B + 180
14 1 50x10 B - 10
15 2 50x8 W + 476
16 2 50x8 W t 308
17 1 100x8 100
18 1 L50xlOOx8 150
19 1 Stem f3 32 c r 38 1
20 1 Steel housing with bronze nut )
21 1 Hand wheel 1
22 1 Wedge 1 See drawing
23 1 Blocking wedge
and the height of the weir above the bottom of the approach channel (Hb-c) a r e
variable. Consequently, the Cv values range between the broken l i n e s shown
in F i g u r e 7-12.

In i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e i t i s confusing to work with s e v e r a l Cv values f o r the

s a m e u p s t r e a m head. Therefore, the u s e of an average Cv value, a s a function
of the u p s t r e a m head only, i s advised. By using this a v e r a g e value, an e r r o r of
l e s s than 0.57'0 i s introduced in the r a t e of flow, with a maximum when
Hcrt = 0. 29 m .

3
This d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width (breadth) of weir c r e s t , ( q in m / s / m ) can
be calculated with the aid of F i g u r e 7- 1 2 .

Values of q for each 0.01 m of Hcrt a r e presented in Table 7-5.

If no bottom slide i s used and the movable weir i s lowered behind a d r o p in

the channel bottom, the height of the weir c r e s t above the approach channel
bottom (Hb-c) i s l e s s than in the previous (standard) c a s e . Consequently, the
approach velocity and thus the approach velocity coefficient (Cv) a r e significantly
higher.

F o r the standard weir with a length of weir c r e s t Lcrt, in the direction of

flow, of 0.60 m the values of Cd, Hcrt and Hb-c range between the following
value s :

Values of the ratio Cd Hcrt : (Hcrt t Hb- c ) thus range m o r e widely than

before, a s do Cv values a s a function of Hcrt. Minimum and maximum possible

Cv values a r e shown again. By using the average Cv value, an e r r o r of 3.3%

i s introduced in the discharge.

In t h i s context i t should be noted that the a v e r a g e accuracy of the discharge

m e a s u r e m e n t i s l e s s if the height of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the
 b

Note:
I I I 7

T h e totol upstreom head over t h e welrfHcrt) should b e meosurtd

- between 0 . 9 0 m ond 1.35m upstreom of t h e foce of t h e weir
in o rectongulor opprooch chonnel whose the width equols t h e
width of t h e weir fq)ond t h e woter depth equols
- f&t + be,).
The flowwise length of t h e weir crest is Lot - 0 . 6 .

1.00
0 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.45 0.50
Upstream t'otal head over the weir crest /HCrt)

- Approach
FIGURE 7 - 1 2 . -- velocity coefficient, C, , a s a function of the total head over the
movable weir crest (HCrt) in the stage discharge equation
2 2 0.5 1.5
- C C
= 3 d v (7') BtHcrt
 TABLE 7-5

Discharge p e r Metre Width (Breadth) of Weir C r e s t

for the Romijn MeasuringfRegulating Weir
L~~~ = 0.60 m and. 0.60 m ,< (Hcrt + H ~ - ,
~( ) 1 - 0 0 m.

Head Hcrt Discharge q Head Hcrt Discharge q Head Hcrt Discharge q

m m3/ s / m m m3/s/m m m3/s/m

NOTE : The width (breadtkS of the weir (Bt) should be equal to o r g r e a t e r

than 0.30 m and g r e a t e r than the total maxi'mum energy head over
the weir ( H : ~). ~

The total upstream head over the weir (HCrt) should be m e a s u r e d

between 0.90 m and 1.35 m upstream of the weir face in a
rectangular approach channel, the width of which equals the width
of the weir ( B ~ and
) whose water depth equals (Hcrt Hb-c).+
The number of significant figures given in the column for the dis-
charge should not be taken to imply a corresponding accuracy of
the values given, but only to a s s i s t in the interpolatioti'dnd rounding
off for various values of Bt.
a p p r o a c h channel (Hb-c) and t h e w a t e r depth in the approach channel
( H + ~ ~ v a~r y in such a way t h a t the r a t i o
Hb-c) Hcrt : ( H , , ~ + Hb-=) moves

in a wider r a n g e of v a l u e s while Hcrt r e m a i n s constant.

The d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width ( o r breadth) of t h e w e i r c r e s t (q) can b e

calculated with t h e aid of F i g u r e 7- 12. Values of q, in m 3 / s / m , f o r
e a c h 0 . 0 1 m of Hcrt a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table 7-6.

TABLE 7 - 6

) Weir C r e s t (q)
D i s c h a r g e p e r M e t r e Width ( ~ r e a d t h of
f o r the Romijn MeasuringlRegulating ~ e k :

Lcrt = 0. 60 m and 0.20 m (Hcrt + Hb-c) 0.60 m.

Head Hcrt Discharge q Head Hcrt Discharge q Head Hcrt Discharge q

m m3/?/m m m 3 / s/ m m m3/s/m

S e e Footnote Table 7- 5.
7.4 THE PARSHALL FLUME-11

7.4.1 General Description

The P a r s h a l l flume i s a critical depth measuring device which may be

installed in a canal, ditch o r furrow to m e a s u r e the r a t e of flow of water. It i s a
particular f o r m of venturi flume and i s named after i t s principal developer, the
late R. L . P a r s h a l l . The flume ( F i g u r e 7-13) has been standardized and
calibrated f o r a wide range of capacities in the United States.

FIGURE 7-13. - Small standard P a r s h a l l flume in operation.

The flume consists of three principal sections: a converging o r contracting

section at i t s upstream end; leading to a constricted section o r throat; and a
diverging o r expanding section downstream (Figure 7-14). ' The l a r g e r sized
flumes have an approach floor and wing walls a t the upstream end. The floor of
the converging section i s level, both longitudinally and transversely. The floor
of the throat inclines downward, and the floor of the diverging section slopes
upward.

L'Based on information in USBR Water Measurement Manual and USDA National

Engineering Handbook Chapter 9 - Measurement of Irrigation Water,(81 and 82).
 SEC n O N N-N

SECTION L-L

FIGURE 7 - 14. - Plan and elevation of a concrete Parshall

measuring flume showing component parts ( 8 2).
 TABLE 7-7

S t a n d a r d D i m e n s i o n s a n d C a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e P a r s h a l l F l u m e
f o r V a r i o u s T h r o a t Widths (W) f o r F r e e F l o w

I I
Throat I
l Free-Flow Capacity
Width W A B I C D E F G K N X Y
I Minimum Maximum
1. E n g l i s h u n i t s ft in ft in ft in ft in f t i n f t in f t i n in ft in in in
1. ft3/, 1. f t 3 / s
2. M e t r i c u n i t s cm c m I cm cm c m c m . cm)cm cm cm cm 2. 2. 11s
1 5 1
6 in 1 2 - 0 1-32 1-35 2 - 0 1 - 0 ' 2 - 0 1 3 0 - 4 ~2 3 0.05 3.9
15.2 c m 4 . 5 63.0 50.8 44.3 61.0 3 0 . 5 6 1 . 0 7.6 11.4 5.1 7.6 1.42 110.4

9 in 2-10 i 1 - 3 I I - l $ z - 6 1 - 0 ~ 2 . 6 1 3
1
0-42 2 3 0.09 8.9
I
22.9 c m 86.4 / 38.1 57.5 76.3 3 0 . 5 1 76.2; 7.6 11.4 5.1 7.6 2.55 251.8
I I I
1 ft 3 - 0 ' 7
4-43
1
2 - 0 2 - Q
1
3 - 0 2 - 0 1 3 - 0 )I 3 0 - 9 2 3 0.11 16. 1
30.5 c m 91.5 1 134.4 61.0 1 84.5 91.5 5.1i 91.51 7 . 6 ' 2 2 . 9 5.1 7.6 3.11 455.6
1 7 I
1 2 ft 3 - 2 4-75 2 - 6 3 - 0 1-01 3 - 0 3 0 - 9 21 3 0.15 24.6
45.8 c m 96.6 1 142.3 76.2 91.5 5 . 1 91.5 7.6 22.9 5.11 7 . 6 4. 29 696.2
7 1I
2 ft 3 - 4 / 4-1% 3 - 0 13-11-3-0 12-01 3 - 0 3 0 - 9 2 3 0.42 33.1
5 . 1 ,I
I
61 c m 101.7 1
I
149.6 9 1 . 5 1 120.711 9 1 . 5 1 91.5 I
7.6 22.9 5.1 7.6 11.89 936.7-
3 ft 3 - 8 1
I
3
5 - 4 ~4 - 0 5 - 3 0 - 9 2 3 0. 61 50.4
91.5 c m 111.8 / 164.6 122.0 7.6, 22.9 5.1 7.6 17.26 1426
4 ft 1.3 67.9
36.79 1922
1 5
5 ft 4 - 4 6 - 471 6 - 0 17-$ 3 - 0 2 - 0 3 - 0 3 0 - 9 2 3 1. 6 85.6
I
152.5crn 132.2 194.4 1183.0 / 230.3 91.5 5.1 91.5j 7 . 6 22.9 5.1 7.6 45.28 2422

6 ft 4 - 8 3 - 0 2 - 0 3-01 3 / 0 - 9 2 3 2. 6 103.5
183.0 c m 142.3 91.5 5.1 91.5 7.6 22.9 5.1 7. 6 73.58 2929
I I
-
 The flume has a number of significant advantages. It can operate with
relatively small head l o s s . This ability permits i t s use in relatively shallow
channels with flat grades. F o r a given discharge, the l o s s in head through a
P a r s h a l l flume i s only about one fourth that required by a weir under similar f r e e
flow'conditions. The flume i s relatively insensitive to velocity of approach. It
also enables good measurements with no submergence, moderate submergence
o r even with considerable submergence downstream. Properly constructed and
maintained accuracies within f 270 for f r e e flow and + 5% for submerged flow may
be obtained. The velocity of fiow i s sufficiently high to virtually eliminate
sediment deposition within the structure during operation. Another advantage i s
that there i s no easy way to alter the dimensions of flumes already constructed or
to change the device o r channel in any way to obtain an unfair proportion of water.

A disadvantage of the flume i s that standard dimensions must be followed

within close tolerances in o r d e r to obtain reasonable accuracy of measurement.
This requires accurate construction and a high standard of workman ship which
makes the device relatively expensive. A further drawback i s that flumes cannot
be used in close-coupled combination structures consisting of turnout, control and
measuring devices.

The P a r s h a l l flume can be constructed in a wide range of sizes to m e a s u r e

discharges from a l i t r e per second to m o r e than 100 m 3 per second. The width .
of the throat (W in Figure 7-14) i s used to designate the size of the flume. The
sizes discussed in this Handbook a r e limited to throat widths of from 15 cm ( 6
inches) to 183 cm (6 ft). This i s the size range especially suited to the measure-
ment of f a r m deliveries and the flow in relatively small s t r e a m s and their
capacity range i s 11 11s (3.9 f t 3 / s ) to 2.9 m 3 / s (103.5 ft 31s). The selection of
size of flume depends on the range of discharges to be measured. The ranges of
discharges and appropriate standard dimensions for various throat widths a r e
shown in m e t r i c and English units in Table 7-7. Care must be taken to construct
the devices according to the structural dimensions given for each one, because the
flumes a r e not geometrically similar. F o r example, i t cannot be assumed that a
dimension in the 6-ft flume will be three times the corresponding dimension in the
2-ft flume.

Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s

Discharge through the P a r s h a l l flume can occur under either f r e e flow o r

submerged flow conditions. To determine the r a t e of discharge, two depth gauges,
(Ha and Hb) a r e provided ( F i g u r e 7-14). Both gauges a r e s e t with z e r o points a t
the mean elevation of the c r e s t of the flume.

When the c o r r e c t relation between throat width and discharge i s chosen, the
velocity of approach i s automatically controlled. This control i s accomplished by
selecting a throat wide enough t o accommodate the maximum flow to be m e a s u r e d
yet n a r r o w enough to cause an i n c r e a s e in the depth of flow upstream. The r e s u l t
i s a l a r g e r cross-sectional a r e a of the approaching s t r e a m and hence a reduction
in velocity.

F r e e flow

Under f r e e flow conditions, the r a t e of discharge i s dependent solely on the

length of c r e s t , W, and the depth of water at the gauge point,Ha, in the converging
section, this being s i m i l a r to a weir where only the length of c r e s t and head a r e
involved in computing the discharge. One of the important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
P a r s h a l l flume i s i t s ability t o withstand a relatively high degree of submergence,
over a wide range of backwater conditions downstream f r o m the structure, without
/
reduction in the indicated r a t e of f r e e flow. The s t r e a m passing through the
t h r o a t and diverging sections of the flume can flow a t two different stages:
(i) when the water a t high velocity moves in a thin sheet conforming closely to
the dip a t the lower end of the throat (indicated by Q in F i g u r e 7-14), and
(ii) when the backwater r a i s e s the water surface to elevation S , causing a ripple
o r wave to f o r m a t o r just downstream f r o m the end of the throat.

The relationship between gauge reading Ha , throat width W and discharge

Q a r e shown in Table 7- 8 in m e t r i c units. The equation which e x p r e s s e s this
relationship in English units for W f r o m 1 to 8 feet i s :

where Q i s in cubic feet p e r second, and W and Ha in feet.

The equation for the 9 inch (22.9 cm) P a r s h a l l flume (Table 7-8) r e a d s :
1.53
Q = 3.07Ha

The equation for the 6 inch (15.25 cm) P a r s h a l l flume (Table 7- 8) r e a d s :

1.58
Q = 2.06 Ha
 TABLE 7-8

F r e e Flow D i s c h a r g e Values f o r P a r s h a l l M e a s u r i n g F l u m e

Disch ge, Q, f o r t h r o a t widths, W , of -

2 2 . 8 6 c m 30.48 cn 45.72cm 0 0 . 9 6 c m 91.44cm 121.92cm
(0. 75 ft) (1. 00 ft ' ( 1 . 5 0 ft) (2. 00 ft) (3.00 f t ) ( 4 . 00 ft) (5. 00 ft) ( 6 . 0 0 ft)

.0025 .0033 .0048

.0032 .0042 .0060 -
.0039 .0052 .0074
.0047 .0062 .0089 .0116 .0169
.0072 .0105 .0137 .0200
I
1 .0063 .0084 .0122 .0159 .0232
,0072 .0096 .0139 .0182 .0266 .0348
.0082 .0108 .0157 .0206 .0302 .0395
,0092 .0121 .0176 .0231 .0339 .0444
.0102 .0134 .0196 .0257 .0378 .0495 1 .0726
.0112 .0148 .0217 .0285 .0418 .0549 .0805
,0123 .0162 .0238 .0313 .0459 .0604 .0887
.0135 .0177 .0260 .0342 .0503 .0661 .0971
.0146 .0192 .0282 .0372 .0547 .0720 . 1059
.0158 .0208 .0306 .0402 .0593 .0780 .1149
.0170 .0224 .0329 .0434 .0640 .0843 . 1242
.0183 .0240 .0354 .0466 .0688 .0907 . 1338
.0196 .0254 .0379 .0500 .0738 .0973 . 1436
,0209 .0274 .0405 .0534 .0789 . 1040 .1537
.0222 .0292 .0431 .0569 .0841 .I110 .1640
.0236 .0310 .0458 .0604 .0894 . 1181 . 1746
.0250 .0328 .0485 .0641 .0949 . 1253 . 1854
.0264 .0347 .0513 .0678 . 1004 .. 1327 .1965
.0279 .0360 .054I .0716 .lo61 .I403 .2078
,0294 .0385 .0570 .0755 . 1119 . 1480 .2194
.0309 .0405 .Ob00 .0794 . 1178 . 1558 .2311
.0324 .0425 .0630 .0834 . 1238 . 1638 .2431
.0340 .0445 .0661 .0875 . 1299 . 1720 .2554
.0356 .0466 .0692 .0916 .I361 . 1803 .2678
.0372 .0487 .0723 .0958 . 1425 . 1887 .2805
.0388 .0508 .0755 . 1001 . 1489 . 1973 .2934
.0405 ,0530 .0788 . 1045 .I554 .2060 .3065
.0422 .0552 .0821 . 1089 .I620 .2149 .3198
.0439 .0574 .0854 . 1133 . 1688 .2239 .3333
.0456 .0597 .0888 . 1179 . 1756 .2330 .3471
.0474 .0619 .0923 . 1225 . 1825 .2423 .3610
.0492 .0643 .0957 .I271 .I896 .2516 .3752
.0509 .0666 .0993 . 1319 . 1967 .2612 .3895
.0528 .0690 . 1029 . 1366 .2039 .2708 .4040
.0546 .0714 . 1065 . 1415 .2112 .2806 .4188
.0565 .0738 . 1101 . 1464 .2186 .2905 .4337
.0584 .0762 . 1138 . 1513 .2261 .3005 .4489
.0603 ,0787 . 1176 . 1564 .2337 .3107 .4642
.0622 .0812 .I214 . 1614 .2413 .3210 .4797
.0642 .0838 .I252 . 1666 .2491 .3314 .4954
Cont'd.
 T a b l e 7-8 ( C o n t t d . )

. D i s c h a r g e , Q, for t h r o a t widths, W , of -
Head
Ha 15.24cm 22.86cm 30.48 45.72 c m 60.96 c m 9 1 . 4 4 c m 121.92 c m 152.40 c m 182.88 c m
(cm) ( 0 . 5 0 ft) ( 0 . 75 f t ) ( 1 . 0 0 f t ) ( 1 . 5 0 ft) ( 2 . 0 0 ft) ( 3 . 0 0 f t ) ( 4 . 0 0 ft) ( 5 . 00 ft) ( 6 . 00 ft)

25.50 .0440 .0661 .0863 .I291 . 1718 .2569 .3419 .4267 .5113
26.00 .0454 .0681 .0889 .I330 . 1770 .2649 .3525 .4400 .5274
26.50 .0468 .0701 .0915 '.I370 . 1823 .2729 .3633 .4535 .5436
27.00 .0482 .0722 .0942 . 1410 . 1877 .2810 .3741 .4672 .5601
27.50 .0496 .0742 .0968 . 1450 . 1931 .2892 .3851 .4810 .5767
28.00 .0510 .0763 .0995 .I491 . 1986 .2975 .3962 .4949 .5935
28.50 .0525 .0784 .lo23 . 1532 ,2041 .3058 .4075 .5090 .6105
29.00 .0539 .0805 .1050 .1573 .2097 .3143 .4188 .5233 .6277
29.50 .0554 -0826 .1078 . 1615 .2153 .3228 .4303 .5377 .6451
30.00 .0569 .0848 .I106 .I658 .2210 .3314 .4418 .5522 .6626
30.50 .0583 .0870 .I134 .I700 .2267 .3401 .4535 -5669 .6803
31.00 .0599 .0892 .I162 . 1743 .2325 .3489 .4653 .5817 .6981
31.50 .0614 .0914 .I191 . 1787 .2383 .3577 .4772 .5967 .7162
32.00 .0629 .0936 . 1219 .I831 .2442 .3667 .4892 .6118 .7344
32.50 .0645 .0959 . 1248 .I875 .2502 .3757 .5013 .6270 .7528
33.00 .0661 .0981 .I278 . 1919 . 2 5 62 . 3848 .5135 .6424 .7713
33.50 .0677 . 1004 .I307 . 1964 .2622 .3939 .5259 . 6579 .7901
34.00 .0693 . 1027 .I337 .2010 .2683 .4032 .5383 .6736 .8089
34.50 .0709 .lo50 . 1367 .2055 . 27.44 .4125 .5508 .6893 .8280
35.00 .0725 .lo74 . 1398 .2101 .2806 .4219 .5635 .7053 .8472
35.50 .0742 .lo97 .I428 .2148 .2869 .4314 .5762 .7213 .8666
36.00 .0758 .I121 . 1459 .2194 .2932 .4410 .5891 -7375 .8861
36.50 .0775 .I145 . 1490 .2241 .2995 .4506 . 6021 .7538 .9058
37:OO .0792 .I169 . 1521 .2289 .3059 .4603 .6151 .7703 .9257
37.50 .0809 .I193 . 1552 .2337 .3123 .4701 .6283 .7869 .9457
38.00 .0826 . 1218 . 1584 .2385 .3188 .4799 . 6416 .8036 .9659
38.50 .0843 . 1242 . 1616 .2433 .3253 .4898 . . 6549 .8204 .9863
39.00 .0861 . 1267 .I648 .2482 .3319 .4998 .6684 -8374 1.007
39.50 .0878 .I292 .I680 .2531 .3385 .5099 . 6820 .8545 1.027
40.00 .0896 . 1317 . 1713 .2580 .3452 .5201 .6957 .8718 1.048
40.50 .0914 . 1342 .I745 .2630 .3519 .5303 .7094 .8891 1.069
41.00 .0932 .I368 .I778 .2680 .3586 .5406 .7233 .9066 1.090
41.50 .0950 .I394 . 1811 .2731 .3654 .5509 .7373 .9242 1.112
42.00 ,0968 .I419 .I845 .2782 .3723 .5614 .7513 .9419 1.133
42.50 .0986 .I445 .I878 .2833 .3792 .5719 ,7655 .9598 1.155
43.00 .lo04 .1471 .I912 .2884 .3861 .5824 .7798 .9778 1.176
43.50 . 1023 . 1498 .I946 .2936 ,3931 .5931 .7941 .9959 1.198
44.00 . 1042 . 1524 . 1980 .2988 .4001 .6038 .8086 1.014 1.220
44.50 . 1060 .1551 .2014 .3040 .4072 .6146 .8231 1.033 1.243
45.00 ,1079 .I577 .2049 .3093 .4143 .6254 .8377 1.051 1.265
45.50 .I604 .2084 .3146 .4214 .6363 .8525 1.070 1.287
46.00 .I631 .2119 .3199 .4286 .6473 .8673 1.088 1.310
46.50 .I659 .2154 .3253 .4359 .6584 .8822 1.107 1.333
47.00 .I686 .2189 .3307 .4432 .6695 .8972 1.126 1.356
47.50 . 1713 .2225 .3361 .4505 .6807 .9124 1.145 1.379
48.00 .I741 .2260 .3416 .4579 .6919 .9276 1.164 1.402
48.50 . 1769 .2296 .3471 .4653 .7033 .9428 1.184 1.425
49.00 .I797 .2333 .3526 .4727 .7147 .9582 1.203 1.449
49.50 .I825 .2369 .3581 .4802 -7261 .9737 1.223 1.473
50.00 . 1853 .2405 .3637 .4878 .7376 .9893 1.242 1.496

Cont'd.
 T a b l e 7- 8 (Cont'd. )

Head D i s c h a r g e , Q, f o r t h r o a t widths, W , of -
H 1 5 . 2 4 c m 22.86 c m 30.48 c m 45.72 c m 6 0 . 9 6 c m 91.44 c m 121.92cm 1 5 2 4 0 c m 1 8 2 8 8 c m
( c a (0.50 ft) (0. 75 ft) (1. 00 ft) (1.50 ft) ( 2 . 0 0 f t ) (3. 00 ft) ( 4 . 0 0 ft) (5.00 f t ) (6. 00 ft)
50.50 . 1882 .2442 .3693 .4953 .7492 1.005 1.262 1.520
51.00 .I910 .2479 .3750 .5030 .7609 1.021 1.282 1.544
51.50 .I939 .2516 .3806 .5106 .7726 1.037 1.302 1.569
52.00 .I968 .2553 .3863 .5183 .7844 1.052 1.322 1.593
52.50 .I997 .2591 .3921 .5261 .7962 1.068 1.342 1.617
53.00 .2026 .2628 .3978 .5339 .a081 1.085 1.363 1.642
53.50 .2056 .2666 .4036 ,5417 .a201 1.101 1.383 1.667
54.00 .2085 .2704 .4094 .5495 .a321 1.117 1.404 1.692
54.50 .21.15 .2743 .4153 .5575 ,8442 1.133 1.424 1.717
55.00 .2144 .2781 .4212 .5654 .a564 1.150 1.445 1.742
55.50 .2174 ,2820 .4271 ,5734 .a686 1.166 1.466 1.767
56.00 .2204 .2858 .4330 .5814 .a809 1.183 1.487 1.793
56.50 .2235 .2897 .4390 .5895 .a932 1.200 1.508 1.818
57.00 ' ,2265 .2936 .4449 .5976 .9057 1.217 1.529 1.844
57.50 .2295 .2976 .4510 .6057 .9181 1.233 1.551 1.870
58.00 .2326 .3015 .4570 .6139 ,9307 1.250 1.572 1.896
58.50 .2357 .3055 .4631 .6221 .9433 1.267 1.594 1.922
59.00 .2388 .3095 .4692 .6304 ,9559 1.285 1.615 1.948
59.50 .2419 .3135 .4753 .6387 .9686 1.302 1.637 1.975
60.00 .2450 t 3175 .4815 .6470 .9814 1.319 1.659 2.001
60.50 .2481 .3215 .4877 .6554 ,9943 1.336 1.681 2.028
61.00 .2513 .3256 .4939 .6638 1.007 1.354 1.703 2.055
61.50 .3296 .5001 .6723 1.020 1.371 1.725 2.082
62.00 .3337 .5064 .6808 1.033 1.389 1.748 2.109
62.50 .3378 .5127 .6893 1.046 1.407 1.770 2.136
63.00 ,3420 .5190 .6978 1.059 1.425 1.793 2.163
63.50 .3461 .5254 .7064 1.073 1.443 1.815 2.191
64.00 .3503 .5317 .7151 1.086 -1.460 1.838 2.218
64.50 .3544 .5381 .7238 1.099 1.479 1.861 2.246
65.00 .3586 ,5446 .7325 1.113 1.497 1.884 2.274
65.50 .3628 .5510 .7412 1.126 1.515 1.907 2.302
66.00 .3671 .5575 .7500 1.139 1.533 1.930 2.330
66.50 ,3713 .5640 .7588 1.153 1.552 1.953 2.358
67.00 .3755 .5706 .7677 1.167 1.570 1.977 2.386
67.50 .3798 .5771 .7766 1.180 1.588 2.000 2.415
68.00 .3841 .5837 .7855 1.194 1.607 2.024 2.443
68.50 .3884 .5903 .7945 1.208 1.626 2.047 2.472
69.00 .3927 .5970 .a035 1.222 1.645 2.071 2.501
69.50 .3971 .6036 .a125 1.236 1.663 2.095 2.530
70.00 .4014 .6103 .a216 1.249 1.682 2.119 2.559
70.50 .4058 .6170 .a307 1.263 1.701 2.143 2.588
71.00
71.50
72.00
,4102
.4146
.4190
j: 6238
6306
.6373
.a399
.8491
.a583
1.278
1.292
1.306
1.720
1.759
2.167 .
192
2.216
2.617
2. 647
2.676
72.50
73.00
.4235
.4279
1/ .6442
.6510
.a675
.a768
1.320
1.334
1.778
1.797
2.240
2.265
2.706
2.736
73.50 .4324 .6579 .8862 1.817 2.766
74.00
74.50
.4369
.4414
1, .6648
,6717
.8955
.9049
1.349
1.363
1.378
1.836
1.856
2.290
2.314
2.339
2.796
2.826
,75.00 .4459 / .6787 .9143 1.392 1.876 2.364 2.856

-
Note: 1 . ' T a b l e taken a n d c o n v e r t e d i n t o m e t r i c v a l u e s f r o m P a r s h a l l , R. L . , M e a s u r i n g
w a t e r i n i r r i g a t i o n ' c h a n n e l s , U. S.Dept.Agr., C i r . 843, p. 62, 1950 (out of print).
2. F o r Ha a n d W s e e F i g u r e 7-14
3. T o c o n v e r t m3/ s i n t o c u s e c s multiply above f i g u r e s By 35.3
Submerged flow

In m o s t installations, when the discharge i s increased above a critical value

the resistance to flow in the downstream channel becomes sufficient to reduce the
velocity, i n c r e a s e the flow depth, and cause a backwater effect at the P a r s h a l l
flume. It might be expected that the discharge would begin to be reduced a s soon
a s the backwater level Hb exceeded the elevation of the flume c r e s t ; however,
t h i s i s n o t t h e case. C a l i b r a t i o n t e s t s s h o w t h a t t h e d i s c h a r g e i s n o t reduced
until the submergence ratio Hb : Ha , expressed a s a percentage, exceeds the
following values :

Hb
Width of throat (W) F r e e flow limit of -
Ha

15.2 to 23 cm ( 6 to 9 inches) 60 %

30. 5 to 244cm (1 to 8 feet ) 70 %

The upper limit of the submergence ratio i s 95%. At this point the flume
c e a s e s to be an effective measuring device because the head differential between

Ha and Hb becomes so small that any slight inaccuracy in either head reading
r e s u l t s in a l a r g e e r r o r in flow measurement.

Approach flow conditions

Experience h a s shown that P a r s h a l l flumes should not be placed at right

angles to flowing s t r e a m s , such a s in turnouts, unless the flow i s effectively
straightened and uniformly redistributed before i t entefrs the flumes. Surges and
waves of any appreciable size should be eliminated. The water should enter the
converging section reasonably well distributed a c r o s s the entrance width, and the
flow lines should be essentially parallel to the flume centreline. Also, the flow
at the flume entrance should be f r e e of "white" water and f r e e f r o m turbulence in
the f o r m of visible surface "boils" such a s might occur below a control gate.
Only then can the flume m e a s u r e water a s intended.

Experience h a s also shown that i t i s better to provide standard conditions of

approach and exit than to t r y to estimate the effects of non-standard conditions;
such flow conditions cannot be described and evaluated in t e r m s of measurement
accuracy. Non- standard approach flow conditions should therefore be eliminated'
by deepening, widening, o r straightening the flow channel, o r by resetting o r r e -
 arranging the m e a s u r i n g station.

In locations where approach flow conditions have resulted in m e a s u r e m e n t

difficulties, and no u p s t r e a m wing walls have been included in the original con-
struction, the curved wing walls shown in F i g u r e 7- 14 should be considered.
Curved wing walls a r e p r e f e r r e d over straight 45O walls, although any
a r r a n g e m e n t of walls, channel banks, o r other shapes that achieve uniformity
and smoothness in the approaching flow i s acceptable.

7.4.3 Discharge Measurement

F r e e flow conditions
When the flow i s f r e e , o r when the submergence i s below the l i m i t s quoted
in 7.4.2, the discharge m a y be r e a d directly f r o m Table 7-8, using the u p s t r e a m
head Ha and the throat width, W, of the flume.

To i l l u s t r a t e the determination of the degree of submergence and r a t e of d i s -

charge, i t i s assumed that f o r a 2 f t flume the m e a s u f e d heads (Ha and Hb) a r e
1

67 c m (2.2 ft) and 40 c m ( 1 . 3 ft) respectively. The r a t i o of Hb to Ha i s 40 divided

by 67, o r 0. 6, o r 60%. Since this value i s l e s s than 70% ( p a r a . 7.4.2), f r e e flow
conditions exist, and to find the discharge i t i s only n e c e s s a r y to u s e the one
m e a s u r e d head Ha = 67 cm. Referring to Table 7-8 f o r a 2 ft flume gives a
discharge of 768 11s.

Submerged conditions

When the ratio of the two heads Hb and Ha exceeds the l i m i t for f r e e flow
conditions, i t becomes n e c e s s a r y to apply a negative correction to the f r e e flow
discharge in o r d e r to determine the r a t e of submerged flow.

F o r throat widths of 15.2 cm (6 inches) and 23 cm (9 inches) the submerged

r a t e of flow can be r e a d directly f r o m F i g u r e s 7- 15 o r 7- 16 respectively.

Example:
Given 15.2 cm ( 6 inch) flume
m e a s u r e d Ha = 36.6 cm (1.20 ft)
m e a s u r e d Hb = 32.9 c m (1.08 ft)

Calculate percentage of submergence :

R e f e r to F i g u r e 7- 15. The submerged flow i s 50.9 l / s o r 1.80 ft 3 p e r s e c .

 $ e 8 8
~
E
~
n t o i n ! C
E E
v
E
v u
9
-
cu
E
o v P
cv
h

C,

c\r
0

C,

n3
t
C,

rr)
E
C,

3
C,
0
v
8
0

Q
C,

S
60

0 0.4 0.8 1-2 1-6 2.0 2.4 2.8' 32 3.6 4-0

Discharge in f t /s
1 I I I I I I I I
0 10
k
20
I I
30 40 . 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
ma/ s

F I G U R E 7- 15. - Diagram showing the r a t e of submerged flow, in

11 s and in ft3/ s, through a 1 5 . 2 crn ( 6 inch) P a r shall m e a s u r i n g flume
 E
E F & e e
E
0
E
o g
E
o
2
E
o
5
o
9
E
-
15
o
cu
o

v
c\r
o
h
nl
0
0
rr)
o
v
rr,
2
rr,
0t,
P 2
0 C,
<o
P

0 05 1.0 1.5 2.0 2-5 30 35 40 4.5 5.0 5.5 60

Discharge in f t /s

FIGURE 7- 16. - Diagram showing the rate of submerged flow.

in l / s and f t 3 / s , through a 23 crn (9 inch) Parshall flume.
 F o r flumes with throat widths between 1 and 8 ft, the submerged discharge
i s determined by using a correction diagram (Figure 7- 17). This diagram i s
for a 1 ft throat width and is made applicable to the l a r g e r fliunes by multiplying
the correction for a 1 f t flume by the factor (M) for the size of flume in use.
Thiebcorrectioni s then subtracted from the f r e e flow discharge f6r the measured
head (Ha), a s obtained from ~ a b l d7-8. The factor M for various throat widths
i s tabulated below.

Throat width Multiplying factor (M)

ft cm

0.06 0.10 0.20 050 , 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.5 4 5 6 810

Correction in f i l s

FIGURE 7- 17. -
Diagram fox computing the r a t e of
submerged flow through a 30.5 cm (1 ft) P a r shall
flume (82).
Example:

Find the submerged discharge through a 3 f t P a r s h a l l flume:

Given W = 91.5cm (3ft)

measured Ha = 64 c m ( 2 . 1 ft)
measured Hb = 61 c m (2.0 ft)

Percentage of submergence:

2.0
-
2.1
= 0.95 o r 95%

F r o m the correction diagram, Figure 7- 17:

Correction for a 1 f t throat width = 163 I / s (5.75 ft 3/ s )

Since this correction m u s t be made applicable to a 3 ft throat width,

multiply i t by the applicable value of M f r o m the above tabulation -

Correction for a 3 ft throat width:

165 x 2 . 4 = 391 11s (13.8 f t 3 / s )

F r o m Table 7-8 find the f r e e flow for W = 91.5 c m and Ha = 64 c m

Q f r e e flow = 1086 I / s (38.4 f t 3 / s )

Q submerged flow = 1086 - '391 = 695 l / s (24.6 ft 31s). .

Approximate determination of submerged discharges

Figure 7- 18 illustrates the effect of submergence on the discharge r a t e s of

various flume sizes. F o r example a t 70% submergence only the .6 inch to 1 ft
flumes would be affected. The 6 inch flume would discharge 94% of the f r e e
discharge rate. At a submergence of 80% the discharge f r o m all flumes will be
affected to some extent. The f r e e discharge values can be obtained f r o m Table
7-8 a s shown before.

The graph may be useful in determining approximately the size of flume

required and the beet setting in the channel. The curves represent data obtained
 during calibration tests and have a maximum deviation of + 7%.

50 60 70 80 90 100
Hb
Submergence , , in per cent

FIGURE 7- 18. Effect of submergence on Parshall

-
flume free discharge (81).

Siting of Flumes

Generally i t i s advantageous to have the measuring flume conveniently near

the of diversion o r regulating gate i f conditions bf operation require frequent
recording of discharge. On the other hand the flume should not be placed too
near the head gate, a s *e disturbed water just downstream from the outlet may
cause surging and unbalanced flow; i t should best be located in a straight section
of the channel.

7.4.5 Selection of Flume Size

Following the selection of the site, information should be obtained on the

maximum and minimum flows to be measured, the corresponding flow depths,
the maximum velocity and the dimensions of the channel at the site. These
dimensions should include width, side slopes and depth, and the height of the
upstream banks with special reference to their ability to contain the increased
depth caused by the flume installation. With this information and the use of
discharge tables for standard flume dimensions the size and proper elevation of
the c r e s t can be obtained. Examples a r e given below to a s s i s t in the problem of
size and setting of the measuring flume a s covered by general field conditions
usually found in irrigation practice.
Example:

Given - A discharge of up to 566 l / s (20 second ft) i s to be m e a s u r e d in

a channel of moderate grade where the water depth i s 77 c m
( 2 . 5 ft) and the channel banks a r e about 3 m (10 ft) apart.

Solution - This quantity of flow can be measured through several s i z e s of

flume, but for the sake of economy the smallest practical size
should be selected.

F i r s t l e t i t be assumed that a submergence of 70% m u s t not be exceeded in

o r d e r that the flow may be determined by the single gauge reading of Ha.

As a rule of thumb, the most economical flume size, W , i s from one-third

to one-half the width of the channel. Considering the 3 m (10 ft) channel width
the 4 ft (122 cm) flume s e e m s to be the most practical, but the 3 ft and 2 ft
flumes should be investigated a s well.

4 ft (122 cm) flume

F o r this size and the given maximum discharge of 566 l / s (20 s e c ft) the
head Ha i s found to be 35 cm (1.15 ft) f r o m Table 7- 8.

FIGURE 7-19. -
Section of a P a r s h a l l measuring flume illustrating
the determination of the proper c r e s t elevation (82).
 F o r a submergence of 70% the r a t i o of Hb gauge to Ha gauge i s 0 . 7 ; hence,
Hb for t h i s condition of flow is 25 c m (0.81 ft). At 70% submergence, .the w a t e r
surface in the throat a t the Hb gauge is essentially level with that a t the lower
end of the flume. Under t h i s condition of flow, the water depth just below the
s t r u c t u r e will be approximately the s a m e a s before the flume was installed, that
i s 77 c m ( 2 . 5 f t ) . InFigure 7-19thedimension D representsthisdepthof
77 cm. By subtracting Hb, o r 25 c m , f r o m 77 c m , the value of X, o r 52 c m
(1.69 ft) i s obtained. This i s the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the
channel. F o r t h i s s i z e of flume, s e t with the c r e s t a t 52 c m (1. 69 ft), the flow
of 566 11s (20 sec-ft) will be a t 7070 submergence, and the actual l o s s of head (L)
o r difference in elevation between the u p s t r e a m and downstream water s u r f a c e s
will.be 13 c m ( 0 . 4 2 ft) a s determined by F i g u r e 7-20.

2+4 Cm
zr3 5 cm
183cm
1525 crn
122 cm
91 5cm

61cm

30 5cm

93 90 85 80 70 6050 OM5002 003004 0.06QO8OlO 015020 0.30040 06008010

Psrcento~eof submergence Loss of heod L ~n feet

FIGURE 7-20. - Diagram for determining the head l o s s through

the P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume (82).

The depth of water upstream f r o m the s t r u c t u r e a t a flow of 566 11s (20 sec-ft)
will t h e r e f o r e be 90 c m (2.92 ft). It will b e n e c e s s a r y t o examine the f r e e b o a r d
of the channel, a s well a s the effect of the r i s e of the water surface upon the flow
through the head gate, in deciding which s i z e of flume i s the m o s t practical.

3 f t (91.5 c m ) flume

F o r t h i s s i z e and the given maximum d i s c h a r g e of 566 l / s (20 second-ft)

the head Ha i s found to be approx. 43 c m (1.39 ft) f r o m Table 7-8. Again for
a submergence of 70% the r a t i o of Hb to Ha i s 0.7; hence the Hb for this
condition of flow i s 30 c m (0.97 ft). By r e f e r e n c e to F i g u r e 7- 19, the value of X,
o r the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the channel, i s found to be 47 c m
( 1 . 5 3 ft), and the actual l o s s of head through the flume ( F i g u r e 7-20) i s found to
be 16 c m (0.52 ft). The depth of water u p s t r e a m for t h i s s i z e of flume will now
be 92 c m ( 3 . 0 2 ft).

2 f t (61 cm) flume

As before, find the Ha head in Table 7-8 for a f r e e flow of 566 11s
,
(20 second-ft). F o r the 2 ft flume t h i s head i s 55 c m (1.81 ft). At a sub-
m e r g e n c e of 70% the value of Hb i s 39 c m (1.27 ft). By again r e f e r r i n g to
F i g u r e 7-19 the value of X o r the elevation of the c r e s t above the bed of the
channel i s found to be 77 - 39 o r 38 c m (1. 23 ft). F o r t h i s s i z e of flume d i s -
charging 566 l / s (20 second-ft) a t a submergence of 70%, the actual l o s s of head
( F i g u r e 7-20) i s 21 c m (0. 70 ft) and the depth of water u p s t r e a m i s 97 c m
( 3 . 20 ft).

If i t i s found that the banks of the channel and entrance conditions through
the head gates a r e satisfactory, the 2 f t flume will be m o s t economical because of
i t s s m a l l dimensions; however, when the width of the channel i s considered the
final selection m a y favour the 3 o r 4 f t flume because m o d e r a t e to long wing walls
m a y be r e q u i r e d .

In the above analysis of the t h r e e s i z e s of f l u m e s investigated, the actual

i n c r e a s e o r r i s e in the depth of water u p s t r e a m f r o m the s t r u c t u r e i s
considerably l e s s than the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the channel
(X). F o r the 4 f t flume the c r e s t i s 52 c m (1.69 ft) above the channel bed, and
the r i s e in water u p s t r e a m will be only 12 c m (0.42 ft).

This analysis shows f u r t h e r that a s the s i z e of flume i s d e c r e a s e d , the

 elevation of the c r e s t becomes l e s s , and the depth of water upstream f r o m the
s t r u c t u r e becomes g r e a t e r for similar r a t e s of discharge and like d e g r e e s of
submergence. It i s usually better to s e t the flume high rather than low, to
provide a margin of safety f o r variations of the water surface downstream. In
irrigation channels, especially those with e a r t h banks and bottom, deposits of
sand o r silt may change the downstream flow conditions, and weeds o r other .
debris may likewise affect the degree of submergence.

Although the above analysis of the f r e e flow data for the 4 ft flume shows
that i t would be n e c e s s a r y o r desirable to lower the upstream water surface
elevation a s much a s possible, the effect of operating the flume a t 95% sub-
mergence ( o r any other value between 70 and 95%) a t the maximum discharge
might be investigated. F o r example, a submergence above 70% would lower the
entire structure in the channel and because of reduced headloss could provide
m o r e bank freeboard upstream.

Using the data from the above example, suppose that the maximum
discharge of 566 11s (20 second-ft) i s to be passed with a depth of 77 cm (2. 5 ft)
but with 95% submergence (instead of 70% a s previously).

F r o m Table 7-8, Ha i s found to be 35 cm (1.15 ft) .

F o r 95% submergence,

In Figure 7-19, X = D - Hb = 77 - 33 = 44 cm (1.41 ft)

Therefore, for 95% submergence the c r e s t of the 4 ft flume should be set

a t 44 cmabove the bottom of the channel, a s compared with 52 cm for 7070
submergence. F r o m Figure 7-20 the head l o s s i s found to be N 2 cm (0.077 ft),
a s compared with 13 cm (0.42 ft) for 70% submergence.

7.4.6 Deviation f r o m Standard Dimensions

In principle, i f standard measuring procedures, tables and graphs a r e to

be applicable under all flow conditions, the P a r s h a l l flume h a s to be constructed
exactly according to standard dimensions a s given in Table 7-7. However, if
the flume i s never to be operated above the 7070 (60% for 6 to 9 inch flumes)
submergence limit (i. e . where enough head i s available and no backwater f r o m
down s t r e a m i s anticipated in the future) modifications of the standard design
downstream f r o m the dip (e. g. different floor shape, stilling basin, wing walls)
should have no effect upon .discharge. With this submergence limit i t i s not
necessary to construct the portion of the flume downstream from the end of the
c r e s t , shown a s station 1 in Figure 7-19.

When only the upstream portion of the flume i s constructed, the flume i s
sometimes r e f e r r e d to a s the Montana flume. The c r e s t of the Montana flume
should be s e t above the channel bottom in the same manner a s worked out in the
above examples. This will ensure that the flow profile over the c r e s t section
i s not modified by backwater from the downstream channel. Erosion protection
t

downstream f r o m the flume may need to be considered.

In the case of submergence above the 70% ( o r 60%) limit, the effect of
modifications may cause measurements to be inaccurate when using standard
discharge tables. In such a case i t i s necessary to specially calibrate the
modified flume by the current m e t e r o r some other suitable method.

Construction

The P a r s h a l l measuring flume may be constructed of sheet metal, timber

o r reinforced concrete. Sheet metal flumes (Figures 7-21, 7-22) have proved
very satisfactory, but since the cost usually exceeds that of either wood o r
concrete, their use has been restricted to the smaller sizes. The most
common and practical sizes a r e those of l e s s than 6 1 c m ( 2 ft).

Sheet metal flumes have the advantage of being portable, and they
can readily be r e s e t and readjusted a s needed. They have a relatively
long life and a r e immune to f i r e hazards such a s those caused by ditch
cleaning.
 FIGURE 7- 21. - P a r shall flume of 152 cm (5 ft) throat width
assembled f r o m prefabricated sheet metal p a r t s .

FIGURE 7-22. - P a r s h a l l flume of 183 cm ( 6 ft) throat width

at full discharge.

Commercially made flumes of this type (Figure 7-23) a r e available in a

wide range of capacities.
 FIGURE 7- 23. - Commercially available P a r shall
measuring flume.

Monolithic reinforced concrete flumes constructed in any of the previously

discussed sizes have proved satisfactory. Such flumes have the distinct
advantage of permanence and a r e little subject to expansion o r contraction, thus
ensuring uniformity of operation. They a r e not subject to f i r e and other hazards
a s a r e timber structures. Their principal disadvantage i s their relatively high
initial cost,

Standard designs, a s used in the U . S. A . , a r e shown in Figures 7 - 2 4 and

7-25.

Where a number of flumes of the same size a r e to be built of concrete,

i t will be found economical and practicable to built portable knock-down f o r m s ,
preferably in sheet iron o r plywood. It i s advantageous to construct the sides
of the flume f i r s t and after the concrete is set, to remove the f o r m s and place
the floor. The floor i s screeded to proper grade by iron angles installed
a t the changes in grade along the floor.
 Ha gauge i f gauge H b gouge well
.
Dimensions,. co~ocitiesand ouantities for vorious throat widths
Notes :
Free- Flow
well not prwided Dimensions Quantities The dimensions X x D depend upon the setting

7 gauge well
(optional- if need*7 cawcitv
of the crest of the flume with reference to the
bed of the channel and will be determined for each
setting.
To obtain accurate discharge measurements,the flum
must be constructed exactly to dimensions listed in
table ond given on plans.
=i and X = d d

-
Quontities given in table are for D
All reinforcing steel to beg&. rods placed ot centre
Flow
of sections.
gouge not required unless Hb gouge reoding will
be over 70 % of the Ha gauge reading.
The use of an Ha gouge well is optional. If an
gouge well is not used, install the Ha gouge on
the side woll of the flume,
For discharge tables, loss of head and setting
.ords, ' set
icrete of crest of flume with reference t o the bed .
C/C
of the chonnel. see Engineering Handbook and
Plon U.S.D.A. Farmers Bulletin No. 1683.
gauge i f gauge well die. bolt set
6 tn concrete
is not pravided-1

Concrete morto
Bottom
Flow
of chonnel-)
- of flume
m of chonnel
Crest elevotion
Provide suitable rip-rop or
) stirrups 12C / C A concrete opron to protect
i d i a . galvonized pipe : 1 long rods l i c / c chonnel from scour ot flume Ll*common woshers. Top of washers to be ot
i f gauge well provided outlet exact crest elevation
Sectionol elevotion A-A
Sectionol elevotion 8 - 6
Showing We gauge well (optional)

~f a fixed gouge is used, install 1 8 din. or lorger vitrified FA0 -ICID

cloypipe, j long. If removable gouge is used, d dio. pipe
may be instolled
elbow. Set end of pipe STANDARD CONCRETE PARSHALL
with inside face of conc
MEASURING FLUME
Crest elevotion
Throot width I foot to 8 feet
-
2-6, i-i concrete base , Project, Regi0.n , Country
U S A
Sectional elevation C-C
Showing Hb gouge well Figure No. 7 - 24
 FIGURE 7 - 2 5 . - Standard concrete P a r s h a l l flume.
The water depth i s r e a d on the staff gauge in the stilling
well and i s converted to r a t e of flow by r e f e r e n c e to a
rating table.

7.4.8 Maintenance

After a P a r s h a l l flume h a s been properly installed, periodic maintenance i s

r e q u i r e d to e n s u r e satisfactory operation. Moss m a y collect on the walls of the
entrance section and in certain channels d e b r i s may collect on the floor of the
entrance section and they should be removed. Walls of steel flumes may become
encrusted and the encrustation should be removed with a steel wire b r u s h . Once
the walls have been s c r a p e d clean, applying asphaltic paint will add to the life of
the flume.

Commonly, P a r s h a l l flumes, o r any other type of flow m e a s u r i n g flumes,

placed in unlined channels will "settle" after being in operation f o r a period of
time. The levelness of the entrance floor should be checked a f t e r a few months
of operation, and again at the end of the season o r y e a r .

E i t h e r settling o r i m p r o p e r installation can cause a flume to tilt sideways.

If the settling i s m i n o r , the discharge can still be estimated with f a i r accuracy
by m e a s u r i n g the flow depths on both sides of the flume. By employing the
a v e r a g e of the two readings when using the d i s c h a r g e equations o r rating tables.
the d i s c h a r g e can be determined.
 Settlement occurs m o s t commonly n e a r the exit section because of channel
erosion immediately downstream from the flume caused by the jetting action of
the water. Use of the flow depths Ha o r Ha and Hb to obtain the discharge f r o m
standard discharge tables will yield values l e s s than the t r u e discharge. Satis-
factory solutions to this problem include raising the lower end of the flume so
that i t i s level again o r placing a new level floor in the flume. Correction values
for settled "Cut throat flumest1of a few sizes have been determined
experimentally and further r e s e a r c h i s being c a r r i e d out (83).

7.5 THE STANDING WAVE MEASURING FLUME

The standing wave measuring flume developed in India i s essentially a drop

which has been standardized and calibrated to s e r v e for the measurement of flow.
It i s described in detail in Chapter 6, sub- section 6.1 1.2.

7.6 THE CUT-THROAT FLUME-1/

7. 6. 1 General

. The Cut-throat Flume h a s been developed recently to overcome some of the

shortcomings of other types of flumes already in existence. Figure 7-26 shows
the standard shape of this flume which was derived eGperirnentally. The flume
has a flat bottom and vertical walls, a s seen in Figure 7- 27. It can be operated
( a s the P a r s h a l l flume) under both f r e e flow and submerged flow conditions.
Since the flume h a s no longitudinal throat section the flume was given the name
"Cut-throat" by i t s developers (Skogerboe, Hyatt, Anderson and Eggleston).
Figure 7-28 shows a 1 f t flume in operation. Advantages of the flume a s com-
pared with the P a r s h a l l flume a r e a s follows.

Construction of the flume i s facilitated by the horizontal floor and removal

of the throat section.

Since the angles of convergence and divergence remain the' same for all

L' The description i s based mainly on reference (85).

flumes, the s i z e of the flume can be changed by merely moving the walls in o r out.
Therefore, ratings for intermediate sized flumes can be developed from the
ratings available. This i s extremely helpful when sizes other than those with a
rating a r e required o r a miatake i s made in the throat width during construction.

FIGURE 7-26. - Sketch of Cut-throat flume. (85)

If circumstances allow, i t i s preferable to have the cut-throat flume operate

under f r e e flow conditions. This facilitates measurement and ensures a high
degree of accuracy. The following description i s limited to the f r e e flow con-
dition. F o r corresponding information on the submerged flow condition reference
(85) may be consulted. As to be expected there a r e similarities in the installation
and operation of the P a r s h a l l flume and the Cut-throat flume. As the former has
been described in considerable detail, discussion of the Cut-throat flume i s
limited to the essentials.
FIGURE 7-27. - F i n a l design of a 61 c m ( 2 ft) rectangular
cut-throat flume ( 9 0 ) .

FIGURE 7 - 28. - Cut-throat flume of 30.5 c m (1 ft) throat

width, with automatic recording device, operating under
f r e e flow conditions.
 Determination of Discharge under F r e e Flow Conditions

F r e e flow through the Cut-throat flume i s given by the two formulae

3
where Q = flow r a t e in m / s
C = f r e e flow coefficient

Ha = u p s t r e a m flow depth ( m e a s u r e d a t a distance of - f r o m the

9
throat, s e e F i g u r e 7- 26 )

and

where C = f r e e flow coefficient ( a s above)

K = the flume length coefficient
W = the throat width in m .
,
The values of n and K a r e obtained f r o m F i g u r e 7-29 for a given flume
length.

The d i s c h a r g e can then be calculated for any Ha by using the above two
formulae, provided f r e e flow conditions exist in the flume, ( c r i t e r i a for these
conditions a r e described in 7.6.3). F o r a c c u r a t e d i s ~ h a r g em e a s u r e m e n t s , the
recommended r a t i o of flow depth to flume length (Ha : L) should be equal to o r
l e s s than 0.4. Increasing values of this r a t i o r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r i n a c c u r a c i e s .

Example of flow calculation

A f r e e flow rating i s needed f o r a Cut-throat flume of length, L, of 1. 22 m and

width, W, of 0.36 m. F r o m F i g u r e 7- 29 the value of n i s found to be 1 . 7 5 and
the value K i s 3. 16. Then, using equation(2)the value of the f r e e flow coefficient
C i s calculated.
1.025
C = K W
1.025
= 3.16 . 0.36

Now, knowing the values of n and C, the flow r a t e through the flume can
be calculated for any value of Ha using equation (1).
 Assuming Ha = 0 . 3 6 6 m

Installation of Cut- throat Flumes for Operation under F r e e Flow Conditions

C r i t e r i a for location of the Cut-throat flume a r e identical to those already

described for P a r s h a l l flumes ( s e e 7.4.4). After the site h a s been selected i t i s
n e c e s s a r y to determine the design c r i t e r i a :

- maximum quantity of water to be measured;

- depth of flow n e c e s s a r y to obtain this discharge;
- allowable head l o s s through the flume.

F o r design purposes, the head l o s s may be taken a s the change in water

surface elevation between the flume entrance and exit. The downstream depth of
flow will remain essentially the s a m e after installation of the flume, a s i t was
p r i o r to installation, but the upstream depth will i n c r e a s e by the amount of head
loss. ,The allowable increase in upstream depth may be limited by the height of
the canal banks upstream of the flume, and such condition may require an
i n c r e a s e in the flume size in o r d e r to bring the water level down to acceptable
limits.

<
The flume must be placed level in the channel, both longitudinally and
laterally, and be aligned straight with it.

The most important dimension i s the throat width, W. (As already

mentioned one of the principal advantages of this flume i s that an e r r o r in con-
structing the throat resulting in an e r r o r in the width can be taken into account by
writing new flow ratings, using equation ( 2 ) ) . If a Cut-throat flume i s to be
constructed in concrete, a steel angle can be placed a t the throat cross-section
embedded in the concrete and this will fix the width correctly.

In the experience of the developers of this flume a transition structure

between the open channel and the flume i s not necessary. The only guidelines
to follow i s that the ratio of flow depth to flume length (Ha : L) should be 0 . 4 o r
1
m
I
m
I
-4
I
m
I
w
-
I

0
-
I
-
I

0
-
I

0
-I
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 22 N W 0
Transition submergence, St, in per cent

FIGURE 7 - 2 9 . - G e n e r a l i z e d f r e e flow coefficients and

exponents and St for C u t - t h r o a t flumes, in m e t r i c u n i t s .
l e s s a s already pointed out. F o r the usual installations in channels of gentle
grade this will e n s u r e that approach conditions will satisfy the conditions under
which the laboratory ratings w e r e developed.

Measurements may be made in the flume by the use of a staff gauge o r

stilling well s e t a t the specified location f o r Ha. The staff gauge m u s t be
carefully referenced to the elevation of the flume bottom.

In o r d e r to e n s u r e f r e e flow conditions the ratio between the water depth a t

the exit and at the entrance ( H : ~H ~ should
) not exceed a certain limit, called the
transition submergence, St, which can be determined f r o m F i g u r e 7 - 2 9 .

The procedure to follow for installing a Cut-throat flume t o operate under

f r e e flow conditions i s s u m m a r i z e d a s follows :

(i) Determine the maximum flow r a t e to be m e a s u r e d .

(ii) At the site selected f o r installing the flume, locate the high water line
on the canal bank and a s c e r t a i n the maximum p e r m i s s i b l e depth of flow.

(iii) Using equation ( I ) , calculate the depth of water that corresponds to the
maximum discharge capacity of the canal for the flume being used.

(iv) P l a c e the floor of the flume a t a depth @Ib) which does not exceed Ha
multiplied by the transition submergence St (Hb 4 Hast). Generally,
the flume bottom should be placed a s high in the kana1 a s grade and other
conditions p e r m i t to e n s u r e f r e e flow.

There i s no established r u l e f o r proportions between W and L o r W and

Ha. Therefore, a s long a s f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s a r e pending i t i s

recommended that the range of proportions which have been laboratory tested
be applied, which, adjusted to even m e t r i c values, a r e given in Table 7-9.

The procedure i s f u r t h e r illustrated by F i g u r e 7-30 and by the following

two example s:

Example 1
.A Cut-throat flume of length L = 1. 22 m and throat width W = 0. 36 m i s
to be installed f o r f r e e flow operation ( F i g u r e 7-30). The maximum flow r a t e in
the channel is 0.200 m 3 / s .

Maximum water surface

after flume installation

surface before

L O r i g i n a l canal bottom
,

FIGURE 7-30. - Installation of a Cut-throat flume.

The transition .submergence f o r t h i s flume can be determined f r o m F i g u r e

_
7;29 a s St = 68.2%. F r o m equations (1) and (2) the value of Ha that c o r r e -
sponds to the maximum flow of 0.200 m 3 / s can be calculated:

n = 1.75 ( F i g u r e 7-29)
 TABLE 7-9

F r e e Flow Calibrations for Selected Cut-throat Flumes,

Expressed by Throatwidth W x Flume Length L (85)

5
Discharge Q (m per second)
Ha
 TABLE 7-9 ( C o n t t d . )

Discharge Q ( m 3 p e r second)
Ha
(cm) 10cm
X 90 20 x 90 30 x 90 20 x 180 40 x 180 60 x 180 30 270 60 270 100 270
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
.205 .019 .041 .060 .035 .071 .lo8 .052 .107 .I80
.210 ,020 .043 .062 ,036 .074 .112 .055 .111 . 187
.215 .021 .045 -065 .038- .077 .117 .057 .I15 . 194
.220 .022 .047 .068 .039 .080 .I21 .059 .119 . 201
.225 .023 .049 .071 .041 ,083 .I26 .061 .123 .209
.230 .024 .051 .074 ,042 .086 .130 .063 .128 .216
.235 .025 .053 -077 .044 .089 .135 .065 .132 .223
.240 .026 .055 .080 .045 .092 .140 .067 .I37 .231
.245 .027 -057 .083 .047 .096 .145 .069 .141 .238
.250 .028 .059 .086 .049 .099 .150 .072 . .146 .246
.255 .029 .061 .089 .050 .lo2 .155 .074 . 150 .254
.260 .030 .063 .092 .052 .lo6 ,160 .076 . 155 ,261
.265
.270
.031
,032
-066
.068
.096
.099
.053
.055
.lo9
.112
.165
.170
.078
.081
.. 164
159 .269
.277
,275 .033 .070 .102 .057 .116 .I75 .083 .169 .285
.280
.285
.034
.035
.073
.075
.186
.109
.059
.060
.119
.123
.I80
.186
.085
.088
..I79
174 .293
.302
.290 .037 .078 .I13 .062 .126 .I91 .090 . 183 .310
.295 .038 .080 .I16 .064 .130 ,197 .093 . 188 .318
.300 .039 .082 .120 .066 .134 .202 .095 .I93 .327
.305
.310
.040
.041
.085 . 124 .067 . 137 ,208 .098 .I99 .335
.088 .127 ,069 ,141 .213 .lo0 .204 .344
..315 .043 .090 .131 . .071 .I45 .219 .lo3 .209 .353
.320 .044 .093 . 135 .073 .149 ,225 . 105 .214 .361
.325 .045 .096 . 139 .075 .152 .231 . 108 .219 .370
.330 .046 .098 . 143 .077 .156 .237 .I10 .224 .379
.'335 .048 .lo1 .I47 .079 .160 .243 .I13 .230 .388
.340 .049 .lo4 .I51 .081 .164 .249 .116 .235 .397
.345
.350
.050
-052
.lo7
.110
.I55
.159
.083
.085
.168 .255 . 118 .241 .406
.172 .261 .121 .246 .416
.355 .053 .112 .I64 .087 .176 ,267 .124 .252 .425
.360 .054 . 115 .168 .089 .180 .273 .126 .257 .434
.365 .056 .118 .172 .091 .185 .279 . 129 .263 .444
.370 .057 . 121 .177 .093 .189 .286 . 132 .268 .453
.375 .059 . 124 .181 .095 ,193 ,292 .I35 ,274 .463
.380 .060 . 127 .185 .097 .197 ,299 . 138 .280 .473
.385 .062 . 131 .190 .099 .202 .305 .140 .286 .482
,390 .063 . 134 .195 .101 .206 .312 .I43 .291 .492
.395 .065 .137 .199 .103 .210 ,318 . 146 .297 .502
.400 .066 .I40 .204 .105 .215 .325 . 149 .303 .512
.405 .068 . 143 .209 . 108 .219 .332 .152 .309 .522
.410 .069 . 147 .213 . 110 .224 .339 .I55 . 315 .532
.415
.420
.071
.072
.150
.153
.218
.223
.112
.114
.228
.233
,345 .
158 .321 .542
.352 .I61 .327 .552
.425 .074 . 157 .228 .I16 .237 .359 .164 .333 .563
.430 .076 .160 .233 .119 .242 .366 .167 ,339 .573
.435 .077 . 163 .238 .121 .247 .373 .170 .346 .584
.440
.445
.079
.080
.167 .243 .123 .251 ,380 .173 .352 .594
.170 .248 .I26 ,256 .388 .176 .358 .605
.450 .082 . 174 .253 .128 .261 .395 .179 .364 .615
 TABLE 7 - 9 (Cont'd.)

Discharge Q ( m3 per second)

Ha
10 x 90 20 x 90 30 x 90 20 x 180 40 x 180 60 x 180 3Cx 270 60 x 270 100 x 270
( cm) cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
.455 . 130 .266 .402 .182 .37 1 .626
.460 .133 .270 .409 .185 .377 .637
.465
.470
. 135
. 138
.275
.280
.417
.424
. 189
. 192
.383
.390
.648
.659
.475 .I40 .285 .432 .195 .396 .669
.480 .142 .290 .439 . 198 .403 . 681
.485 . 145 .295 .447 .201 .409 .692
.490 . 147 .300 .454 .205 .416 .703
 The downstream flow depth, Hb, becomes

Hb = Hast = 0.377 . 0.682 = 0.257 m

T h e r e f o r e the floor of the flume should be placed no lower than 0 . 2 5 7 m

below the high w a t e r line in the canal ( F i g u r e 7-30).

Suppose the logical Cut-throat flume s i z e n e c e s s a r y to m e a s u r e a maximum

discharge of 350 11s under f r e e flow conditions m u s t be found. P r e s e n t l y , the
maximum flow depth in the channel i s 30 c m and the head l o s s i s not to exceed
15 cm. Under t h e s e conditions, the maximum downstream flow depth would be
30 c m and the maximum u p s t r e a m flow depth 45 c m (30 15 = 45). The +
30
submergence would b e 67% ( 45 = 0. 67). F r o m F i g u r e 7-29 i t i s found that the
only f l u m e s with a transition submergence g r e a t e r than 67% a r e those with a
length of 1.15 m and above. To s e l e c t the p r o p e r flume s i z e r e f e r to Table 7-9.
Tentatively 'select the 40 x 180 c m flume and find the value of Ha which
c o r r e s p o n d s to the given d i s c h a r g e of 350 11s. F o r this value the u p s t r e a m
depth i s 54 cm, which i s g r e a t e r than the allowable maximum u p s t r e a m depth of
45 cm. Consequently a l a r g e r flume s i z e i s n e c e s s a r y to satisfy the conditions
imposed. F r o m Table 7-9.it i s found that the 60 x 180 c m flume h a s an u p s t r e a m
depth of 42 c m f o r a discharge of 0.350 m 3 / s , and since this value i s l e s s than
the r e s t r i c t e d depth of 45 c m i t would be selected f o r u s e in this p a r t i c u l a r
situation. A slightly s m a l l e r flume s i z e could be used, e . g. a throat width, W,
between 40 and 60 c m could be selected, which however would n e c e s s i t a t e
preparation of a s e p a r a t e rating table. With known W and L the flume can be
dimensioned according to F i g u r e 7-26.

7. 6.4 Maintenance

As f o r P a r s h a l l flumes ( s e e 7.4.8).

Experience and r e s e a r c h have 'shown that, in many r e s p e c t s , trapezoidal

flumes a r e s u p e r i o r to the rectangular o r P a r s h a l l - t y p e flumes, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r
m e a s u r i n g s m a l l e r flows. The shape conforms to the n o r m a l shape of ditches,
particularly those that a r e lined. This m i n i m i z e s the amount of transition
section needed a s compared to that r e q u i r e d when changing f r o m a trapezoidal
shape to a rectangular one and back to the trapezoidal. The trapezoidal shape i s
a l s o desirable since the side walls expand a s the depth i n c r e a s e s . This m e a n s
that one s t r u c t u r e can convey a l a r g e r range of flow. Also, the e n t i r e range of
depth f o r a given range of discharge i s s m a l l e r . Another d e s i r a b l e feature of
the trapezoidal flume i s the flat bottom throughout r a t h e r than a dropped section
such a s with the.Parshal1 flume. The l o s s in head, i. e . total head l o s s , through
the trapezoidal s t r u c t u r e , m a y be l e s s f o r comparable discharges.

These f e a t u r e s make the trapezoidal flume particularly suited f o r

installation in concrete lined ditches. The flume i s usually put on top of the
lining, thus constricting the flow section to the extent required for f r e e flow
conditions over the whole range of discharges up to the design dischargk of the
ditch ( F i g u r e 7-31 (a) and (b) ). The elevation of the flume floor above the ditch
bottom depends on the existing grade of the ditch; the lower the' grade the higher
the elevation.

FIGURE 7-31 ( a ) and (b). - Trapezoidal m e a s u r i n g flume with a

r a i s e d bottom c a s t in a concrete ditch. The discharge i s about
34 11s (1.2 f t 3 / s ) a t a submergence of about 70% (87).
 A tentative standard for trapezoidal flumes, coded ASAE S 359 T, was
adopted by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (AsAE) in 1972, see
(103). Two c l a s s e s of flume a r e included. The f i r s t - c l a s s consists of f o u ~
experimentally calibrated flumes of short length relative to their flow capacity.
Some of their characteristics a r e given in Table 7- 10. Figure 7-32 shows a
standard design for the No. 1 flume. Flumes Nos. 1 and 2 a r e designed for use
in two standard lined ditch sections. Flumes 3 and 4 a r e recommended primarily
for use in unlined channels.

TABLE 7-10

Some Characteristics of the Standard Calibrated Trapezoidal Flume

(Derived f r o m ASAE Standard S 359 T)

I
Width of approach Side slope of approach Range of Range of
Flume section (= bed section ( = side slope calibrated calibrated
No. width qf ditch) of ditch) flow depth flow
cm (horizontal : vertical) cm l/s

The second c l a s s of flume has a long enough thi-oat 'section to result in

parallel flow (in that section) to permit the discharge relationships td be
calculated by the solution of equations describing the conservatidn of energy
between the flume approach and throat sections, rather than by experimental
calibration. The size and shape of the flumes were also selected for use. in
ditches conforming to ASAE standard slipform lining. Submerged flow ratings
a r e not available for this c l a s s of flume since they will operate ilnder f r e e flow
conditions in channels with the specified slope o r a steeper one. Table 7- 11
gives some particulars of this c l a s s of flume which h a s been designed in 30
different types divided into five categories. Figure 7-33 illustrates a typical
parallel flow critical depth flume.
 PLAN VlEW THROAT SECTION

Fitting for
recorder w el I .
kl~5g +l'-@,'+A
3'-10g

PROFILE VlEW E N D VIEW

FIGURE 7 - 3 2 . - Trapezoidal flume for 1 ft i r r i g a t i o n channels.

 TABLE 7-11

Some Characteristics of the Standard Parallel Flow Flume

(Derived from ASAE Standard S 359 T)

Bed width of Range of Range of

approach section Side slope of approach maximum maximum
Flume
(= bed width of section ( = side slope upstream measurable
code 11
ditch) of ditch) flow depth flow
cm (horizontal : vertical) cm I/ 8

Each flume codp represents a group of 6 geometrically slightly different

flumes ,

Trapezoidal flumes can be used to measure discharge with an accuracy of

-+ 5% with free flow conditions. The accuracy i s however dependent on the

accuracy of the dimensions of the throat cross section, the stage of measurement
and the flume installation. Discharge e r r o r s will be approximately proportional
to throat area e r r o r s . For trapezoidal flumes with a wide throat width, the
discharge e r r o r approaches 1.5 times the e r r o r in stage *reading. F o r flumes
with a triangular throat section the discharge e r r o r wil1,pe about 2.5 times the
e r r o r in stage reading (103). Submerged conditions should be avoided but may
be necessary where head loss through the flume must be reduced to the minimum.

FIGURE 7- 33. - Typical parallel flow critical depth flume.

 Although the s t a n d a r d flumes mentioned above m a y be u s e d in unlined
ditches if cut-off walls a r e attached t o each end, they have been designed
p a r t i c u l a r l y for c o n c r e t e lined d i t c h e s . Installation i s b e s t accomplished by a
s t e e l f o r m a s shown in F i g u r e 7-34. If only a s m a l l n u m b e r of f l u m e s a r e to
be i n s t a l l e d a l i g h t e r f o r m , using plywood and t i m b e r , which a r e c h e a p e r , m a y
be s a t i s f a c t o r y . Construction of a c o n c r e t e flume without using a f o r m i s not
recommended i f s t a n d a r d r a t i n g t a b l e s a r e t o be applied. As with a l l f l u m e s
the a c c u r a c y of m e a s u r e m e n t depends to a g r e a t extent on the p r e c i s i o n of con-
struction. The t h r o a t section i s the control section and t h e r e f o r e the exact
dimensioning of t h i s a r e a i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t . F l u m e s in unlined ditches m a y be
built of galvanized s t e e l s h e e t o r r e i n f o r c e d p o l y e s t e r r e s i n s .

Complementary information such a s complete dimensions and r a t i n g s a r e

given in the ASAE Standard (103) a s well a s in ( 5 9 ) and (87).

FIGURE 7-34. - P o r t a b l e s t e e l f o r m used to c a s t

trapezoidal c o n c r e t e f l u m e s in c o n c r e t e ditches (87).

7.8 USE O F CULVERTS AS MEASURING DEVICES

7.8. 1 General

Numerous c u l v e r t s a r e found in i r r i g a t i o n distribution s y s t e m s a s well a s

in f a r m h e a d ditches. They a r e useful for c r o s s i n g w a t e r c o u r s e s , r o a d s o r
railway l i n e s and they a r e commonly placed through canal banks to d i v e r t water
into l a t e r a l s (pipe outlets), e i t h e r with a head gate placed a t the culvert inlet to
 ROD

HOOK BOLT CLIP

SPIGOT BACK WITH PlPE ATTACHED

7-71
ANCHOR

SEATING'
FACE

0
GROUT

<
c

FLAT BACK ATTACHED TO CONCRETE

o
c

I
l

' ,
,

NOTCH CUT IN LlFT STEM AT

TOP OF LlFT NUT WHEN GATE
IS AT POINT OF ZERO OPENING

f/ - GATE
1 OPENING IS DETERMINED BY MEASURING DISTANCE
BETWEEN NOTCH ON STEM AND TOP OF LlFT NUT

6 MINIMUM TO INSURE COMPLETE SUBMERGENCE OF THE

OUTLET PlPE AND A POSITIVE WATER MEASUREMENT IN THE
WELL CONNECTED TO THE TOP OF PlPE

XJ
'DIFFERENCE IN WATER
ELEVATION IN WELLS
NOT GREATPR T H A N 1 R
BOTTOM OF
OUTLET DITCH

xcIZ
r
I 4'MIN f
ON TOP OF PlPE

INSTALL PIPE ON LEVEL GRADE

F I G U R E 7 - 3 5 (a) and (b). - M e t e r g a t e f o r pipe o u t l e t s

(64).
control the quantity of flow diverted to the lateral, o r without any control device.
If properly calibrated, culverts with and without control gates can be used for
discharge measurements.

Gated Culverts

A shut-off is, in most instances, required at a farm outlet because of the

manner in which the system i s operated. If properly calibrated the shut-off can
also serve a s a means of measurement and there have been numerous attempts to
provide this combination.

A measuring gate used in the U. S. A. and in some other countries i s shown

in Figure 7-35 (a) and (b). It consists of a circular plate, operated by a screw,
which can shut off the outlet pipe. Two stilling wells, a s shown, a r e fixed to the
outlet; one is connected to the canal and the other to the delivery pipe on the
downstream side of the gate. The difference in water levels in the two wells and
the gate opening is measured and the discharge obtained from tables derived from
standard calibrations. The head loss i s low but changes in either upstream or
downstream water levels alter the rate of flow so that periodic observations and
manual adjustments a r e necessary.

The flow through gated culverts may be estimated by using the formula :

where Q = discharge in 11s

C = coefficient = 0 . 7 for short culvert%. (such a s those used
for farm outlets)
A = area of orifice in cm 2
g = 981 c m f s2
h = head in cm causing discharge through the orifice

Example:
Aasume orifice a r e a = 300 cm2 and H = 40 cm
Tertiary canal Farm ditch

-Sliding iron gate

I L = 300 cm (minimum I

FIGURE 7 - 3 6 . - Sketch of pipe outlet with sliding 'gate fdr delivery

control and measurement (88)
 A simpler form of gate and method of measurement i s used in the
installation shown in Figure 7-36. Calibration of this type of concrete pipe
outlet has been conducted by 'the State Hydraulic Works Department in Turkey.
The r e s u l t s a r e shown in Figure 7-37. After the water level in the supply canal
has been established by a canal eheck gate, the r a t e of flow through the outlet i s
determined by correlating i t s gate opening to the head which i s read f r o m staff
gauges up and downstream of the pipe. Although accuracy i s relatively low, the
cost to provide this measuring facility i s negligible.

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Gote opening (cm) - meorurad inclined

FIGURE 7-37. - Rating curve for pipe outlet (88).

7.8.3 U n ~ a t e dCulverts

The discharge of a culvert i s dependent on effective head, i t s c r o s s section,

degree of submergence of inlet, pipe ( o r b a r r e l ) and outlet, shape of inlet, length,
slope, and roughness of the pipe ( o r b a r r e l ) . Of the basic flow conditions that
can exist, downstream conditions ( f r e e surface, o r submerged) usually control
the flow in culverts used in irrigation systems. So f a r only approximate dis-
charge formulae a r e available f o r f r e e surface flow affected by downstream
conditions, and hydraulic computations a r e involved. Recent r e s e a r c h on
culvert hydraulics conducted a t the Colorado State University, Report No. 17 (96),
h a s provided the theoretical b a s i s on which culverts can be accurately rated a s
flow measuring devices for t h r e e basic flow conditions. Rating tables have been
produced for a 30.5 cm (12 inch) diametric corrugated metal pipe for various
slopes, including horizontal, and pipe lengths of 1.5, 3 and 6 m (5, 10 and 20 ft),
and the r e p o r t recommends discharge rating experiments be extended to a
variety of culvert sizes and lengths.

PROPELLER METERS

General

Propeller m e t e r s a r e commercial flow measuring devices used near the

end of pipes o r conduits flowing full (under gravity flow) o r a s in-line m e t e r s in
pressurized pipe systems. The latter application will not be discussed h e r e ,
since p r e s s u r e distribution systems a r e excluded f r o m the scope of this Handbook
If used for gravity flow the m e t e r i s also known a s an open flow m e t e r . The
propeller rotates about a horizontal axle which i s geared to a totalizing head that
r e c o r d s the total number of cubic m e t r e s o r cubic feet, passing the measuring
section. Some m e t e r s indicate instantaneous discharge a s well.

Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s

Hydraulic properties such a s range of discharge, head l o s s and calibration

curves, vary slightly between manufacturers who usually furnish such data for
individual types. The data quoted below r e f e r to one make which may be
generally representative of m o s t of the available propeller m e t e r s .
 FIGURE 7-38. -

FIGURE 7-39. - Propeller meter FIGURE 7-40. - Register of a

installed at a pipe outlet. propeller meter.
 The diagram in Figure 7-41 shows that the flow velocity should fall within
the range from 0.35 m / s (1.15 f t / s ) to 2.5 m / a (8.2 f t / s ) and that *e normal
flow velocity should preferably range between the limits 1.3 to 2.0 m / s (4.25 to
6.5 ftfs). If the velocity falls short of 0.35 m / s accuracy rapidly deteriorates.

Max. test flow

velocitv ronoe
Min. test flow, 1I

FIGURE 7-41. - Range ability of a propeller meter and

the selection of meter diameter (t4% accuracy).
,

Example of determination of required propeller diameter :

Given Maximum design flow ' = 0.5 m3/ s

Minimumdesignflow = 0.15m3/s
Normal flow rate = 0.4 m 3 / s

Solution - F r o m Figure 7-41 it i s found that a propeller diameter of 600 mm

would best fit the given flows. Its permissible velocity range covers the
required maximum and minimum flows and the normal flow rate may be die-
charged within the normal velocity range.
 F r o m the p r o p e l l e r d i a m e t e r required, the suitable pipe d i a m e t e r i s d e t e r -
mined. The l a t t e r should be f r o m 1. 25 to 2.0 t i m e s a s l a r g e a s the propeller.

F o r n o r m a l velocity distribution in the m e a s u r i n g section the pipe u p s t r e a m

of the m e t e r should be s t r a i g h t f o r a length of 15 pipe d i a m e t e r s . Straightening
vanes may be r e q u i r e d ahead of the device i f spiralling flow i s expected. This
m a y develop a t the entrance f r o m the canal into the pipe.

F o r p r o p e r r e g i s t r a t i o n the p r o p e l l e r m u s t be completely submerged.

Therefore, if occasionally the pipe i s to be run only partly filled, a backwater h a s
t o be c r e a t e d a t the outlet. This i s done by installing a submerged weir with a
c r e s t 10 c m ( 4 inches) above the top of the pipe. The face of the weir should be a t
l e a s t 1 m e t r e plus 2 pipe d i a m e t e r s away f r o m the pipe mouth ( s e e F i g u r e 7-42).

The head l o s s e s of the m e t e r shown in F i g u r e s 7-38 to 7-40 a r e 10 c m

( 4 inches) for flow velocities below 2.5 m / s ( 8 . 2 f t / s ) and 15 c m ( 6 inches) for
flow velocities f r o m 2. 5 up to 3 m / s (10 f t / s ) .

Performance

P r o p e l l e r m e t e r s a r e used to a considerable extent in the U. S. A., Japan

and Australia, and some other countries have s t a r t e d to introduce them. They
may be used with advantage in s y s t e m s where water i s sold on a volumetric b a s i s
since flow volumes a r e given directly without computation. Other advantages
a r e s m a l l head l o s s e s , and independence f r o m external power. However,
propeller m e t e r s do suffer f r o m some distinct limitations :

- the m e t e r s a r e v e r y susceptible to weeds ahd other d e b r i s in the flowing

water;
- suspended sediments m a y enter into the bearings and reduce the number of
p r o p e l l e r revolutions thus resulting in under - r e g i s t r a t i o n ;
- the m e t e r s m u s t be submerged under a l l flow conditions;
- m a n u f a c t u r e r s usually c l a i m a d e g r e e of m e a s u r i n g accuracy which may be
obtained under controlled l a b o r a t o r y conditions (e.g. -
f 2% a c c u r a c y ) but

hardly under field conditions; a p a r t f r o m e r r o r s introduced by d e b r i s and

bearing problems, considerable registration e r r o r s may be caused by faulty
installation. Under average field conditions the m e a s u r i n g accuracy m a y
be c l o s e r to + 5% than -+ 2% and even l e s s .
-
- the serviceable life i s relatively short; Japanese s o u r c e s c l a i m a life of 5
 Dia. 13 (@ 2 5 0

Front elevation or plane

Section B-B

I. B = 1,200 mm for Dl 5 0 0 mm 5 = 1,500 mm for

43 6 0 0 mm
2 The half of the pipe is used for the attachment t o the
square box
3 The water vent and top is installed in the inside wolf
i f indicated
4 Standard size of 6 1 ,B2
61= 2 4 + 1,000 mm (min. 1,200 mm)
B2 if Dl & 5 0 0 mm 5, = 5 0 0 mm
Dl 3 5 0 0 m m 6, = 1,000 mm

F A O - lClO
Dia. 13 @ 2 5 0
STANDARD DESIGN OF OPEN TYPE

PROPELLER METER
Section A-A

Project , Reqron, Country

Unspeclfled , Jopon

F~gureNo 7-42
 to 8 y e a r s .
- propeller m e t e r s require continuous maintenance - purchase of spare p a r t s
may cause problems; the r i s k of damage i s high;
- propeller m e t e r s a r e relatively expensive to purchase.

7.9.4 Design Example

Figure 7-42 shows a standard design developed in Japan for low p r e s s u r e
pipe systems. The design i s easily modified to fit into a pipe outlet to an open ditch.

7.10 DEFLECTION METERS

7.10.1 General
A deflection m e t e r consists of a vane o r rod dipped in the flowing water and
mounted on a horizontal spindle a c r o s s the measuring section in a channel. The
deflection caused by the f o r c e of the flow against the vane o r rod i s indicated on a
calibrated scale giving the instantaneous discharge. At l e a s t two systems of
indication a r e in use: in the simplest one a pointer indicates the deflection on a
fixed vertical scale ( F i g u r e s 7-43 and 7-44); a m o r e advanced type consists of a
bubble glass tube attached to a scale that i s directly fixed on the top of the vane.
The discharge i s determined by reading the position of the centre of the bubble
against the scale ( F i g u r e 7-45).

FIGURE 7-43. - Example of a deflection m e t e r with a pointer

indicating against a fixed vertical scale (Rajasthan, India).
 FIGURE 7-44. - The Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r in u s e

Deflection m e t e r s a r e usually manufactured commercially but a s shown

in F i g u r e 7-43 and 7-44 can be constructed locally a s well. The m e t e r s a r e
usually portable and m a y be e a s i l y moved f r o m one station to another. The
b e a r i n g s which keep the m e t e r in position a r e usually permanently installed in a
trapezoidal o r rectangular m e a s u r i n g section. Thus one m e t e r head can s e r v e a
number of ditches of about the s a m e flow capacities, provided these ditches a r e
equipped with permanent liner sections. Each m e t e r handles about 1: 15 range of
flows in a given size of ditch and automatically compensates for different com-
binations of velocity and depth.

Under ideal conditions a measuring accuracy of + 2% may be obtained but in

-
practice the level of accuracy depends on local factors. Wind i s a m a j o r source
of inaccuracy and can produce l a r g e e r r o r s .

Since deflection m e t e r s a r e handy and easy to install, they have been used
successfully in field t r i a l s for irrigation efficiency and water management studies,
a s well a s for water distribution control at the f a r m level.

FIGURE 7-45. - Commercially available deflection m e t e r .

 Elevotion End elevation

4nti-vortex
Slot to just OllOw, boffk
possoge of rod- _

Table of dimensions

_IZ. Rods, needle bearings, lock nuts

I 7- to be of brass
a,:*ionol elevotbn A-A Tube, 60f f le i n d heodwoll to
be of 245 G.I.

f
.- T
-
3
Plon

FIGURE 7-46. - Sketch of the Rajasthan channel

flow meter.
 The m e t e r shown i n F i g u r e 7-44 i s commercially available in 16 standard
models. The s m a l l e s t model h a s a capacity range of 3 t o 100 11s ( 0 . 1 to 3.5
ft3/ s ) while the l a r g e s t model i s applicable to a flow r a n g e f r o m 40 t o 850 l / s
(1.5 to 30 f t 3 / s ) . The cost (in 1968) ranged f r o m $595 t o $615 f o r the m e t e r s
and f r o m $ 4 3 to $ 8 3 f o r the l i n e r sections; i t i s c l e a r t h e r e f o r e that t h i s type of
device i s economic only if one m e t e r can s e r v e a s many m e a s u r i n g stations a s
po s sible .

7.10.2 The Rajasthan Channel Flow M e t e r

The Rajasthan Channel Flow Meter ( F i g u r e s 7-43, 7-44 and 7-46) was
developed by the FAO/UNDP P r o j e c t - Soil and Water Management R e s e a r c h and
Demonstration in the Rajasthan Canal A r e a , in 1970, a s a m e a n s of m e a s u r i n g
flows in i r r i g a t i o n efficiency t r i a l s .

Design c r i t e r l a for the m e t e r a r e : they should b e operated with a negligible

head l o s s in muddy water containing some t r a s h ; they should be simple, robust,
capable of manufacture by village c r a f t s m e n and portable; the a c c u r a c y should be
of the o r d e r of 10% o r b e t t e r and the indicating device should be simple to r e a d .
On this b a s i s four different s i z e s have been developed a s indicated below.

M e t e r Size Measurement Range

cm inch 11s ft5/ s

A cost of 150 Indian r u p e e s ($20) was quoted (in 1970) for the 30 c m m e t e r .
F i e l d testing showed that in g e n e r a l deflections and discharge corresponded
well in the middle r a n g e s of flow, with an a c c u r a c y of 10/o, while a t low o r
high flows r e s u l t s w e r e scattered. It i s concluded that the flow m e t e r a p p e a r s
to be a cheap and useful m e a s u r i n g device, that with reasonable c a r e in
manufacture, handling and installation, will attain m e a s u r e m e n t s within + 570
accuracy limits.
 0 I 3 3 4
Flow in ft/s
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 004 0 0 5 0 0 6 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11
L I I I 1 ' 1 I 1 I I 1 1
3
Flow in m / s

FIGURE 7 - 4 7 . - Sample calibration curve. for 30 c m

( 1 2 inch) Rajasthan Channel flow m e t e r . '

7.11 THE DETHRIDGE METER

The Dethridge m e t e r i s a self-integrating m e a s u r i n g device developed in

Australia. It i s designed particularly to fit f a r m outlets and i s t h e r e f o r e
d i s c u s s e d in detail i n Chapter 5, F a r m Outlets, Section 5.5.

7.12 THE CONSTANT HEAD ORIFICE TURNOUT

The Constant Head Orifice Turnout i s a combined regulating and m e a s u r i n g

device that u s e s an adjustable submerged orifice for the m e a s u r e m e n t of d i s -
 charge. The structure may be installed in canal intakes o r (the m o s t common
application) may s e r v e a s a f a r m outlet (or f a r m turnout). A comprehensive
description of the structure i s given in Chapter 3, Section 3.4.

7.13 CALIBRATION O F MEASURING STRUCTURES

Calibration of a measuring -structure i s required in o r d e r to establish in

numerical values the exact relationships between water stage o r gauge height
and discharge for any given water depth o r opening (in the case of orifices).
Most of the standardized measuring weirs and flumes have been extensively
calibrated through laboratory o r field t e s t s and the r e s u l t s a r e available in
published rating tables o r graphs. If the individual measuring s t r u c t u r e s be
built to these standard dimensions, these tables will be directly applicable with
a high degree of accuracy, say f r o m + 170to + 5%. However, if in actual
practice dimensions and m a t e r i a l s of in-situ-built s t r u c t u r e s differ so much
f r o m standard that application of standard rating tables would cause e r r o r s above

-+ 5%, individual field calibration may be n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to i n c r e a s e accuracy

to acceptable values. Calibration i s usually required where ordinary gates,
sluices o r other existing s t r u c t u r e s a r e to be used for water measurement.

In calibrating an individual structure, a s e r i e s of discharge measurements

a r e made covering the whole range of water depths o r the whole range of gate
openings expected in the future and the working heads a r e recorded
simultaneously. F r o m this information curves o r tables have to be prepared.
F o r calibration measurements the current m e t e r method i s commonly used a s
described in many textbooks. Measurements a r e made in a rating section of
known dimensions. The rating section should be situated in a uniform channel
reach, f r e e f r o m disturbances caused by upstream conditions such a s bends,
waves and other distorting influences. A l a r g e number of current m e t e r
readings a r e required to obtain a good match curve a s individual readings may
vary considerably.

Another calibration method that, where applicable, will yield accurate

r e s u l t s i s the use of a temporary weir o r flume of standard type installed up-
s t r e a m or downstream of the permanent structure to be calibrated. F o r this
method, however, sufficient fall h a s to be available to ensure f r e e fall conditions.
 LIST OF REFERENCES

USDA Soil Conservation Service - National Engineering Handbook. Irrigation

Chapter 3, Planning F a r m I r r i g a t i o n Systems.

Canada. Water Rights B r a n c h of the Department of Lands and F o r e s t s . P r a c t i c a l

Information on Irrigation for B r i t i s h Columbia Water U s e r s .

S i r A. Gibb & P a r t n e r s . Irrigation and Drainage P r o j e c t in the Balikh Basin.

General Administration f o r the Development bf the E u p h r a t e s Basin.

Edward, G. Y. Mechanics of F i e l d Irrigation. Scheduling, utilizing Bouyoucos

J951 blocks. Agric. Eng. 32: pp 148-151, 154.

Pruit. Irrigation Scheduling Guide. Agr. Eng. 37: pp 180- 181.

A m e r i c a n Society ~f Agricultural Engineers. Managing Irrigation Water on the

F a r m . Transactions 8: pp 433-436

F e r g u s o n , D. S . Irrigation & Drainage (with p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e s t o ,efficiency

1968 of land and water use). Water f o r P e a c e , Vol 7 . U. S. Government
P r i n t i n g Office: pp 252-261.

M e r r i a m , J. L. Irrigation System Evaluation and Improvement. 1415 Monterey

1968 Street, San Luis, Obispo, California 93401.

M. B a k e r Jr. INC. Rochester, Pennsylvania and H a r z a Engineering Company.

1955 Jordan Valley P r o j e c t , M a s t e r P l a n Report, Vol VII. Recommended
Irrigation F e a t u r e s .

Nath, B. C r i t e r i a for Fixing Outlets and t h e i r Commands of P e r e n n i a l Irrigation

1969 S y s t e m s in Northern India. 5th Irrigation P r a c t i c e s Seminar NESA
Region, New Delhi.

Lamba, S. S. and Murthy, A. N. Determination of Command A r e a ' of Outlets.

1969 5th Irrigation P r a c t i c e s Seminar NESA Region, New Delhi.

Curnmins, J. Check S t r u c t u r e s in Irrigation Channels. ICID Annual Bulletin.

1959

U. S . A. USDA Bureau of Reclamation, Washington. Irrigation Adviser s t Guide.

1951

Robinson, E. P. Water Right S t r u c t u r e s f o r F a r m Channels. Victoria State

19 64 R i v e r s and Water Supply Commission, Melbourne.

P o r t l a n d Cement A s s o c . , Chicago. Irrigation with Concrete P i p e .

1952
 L i s t of References

P r o c e e d i n g s of The ASCE ( J R 4 ) - Rectangular Cut-throat Flow Measuring F l u m e .

1967

B u t l e r , S. S. Irrigation S y s t e m s of the T i g r i s and E u p h r a t e s Valleys. P r o c . ASCE,

1960 ( J R 4 ) No 8 6

Second Regional Irrigation P r a c t i c e s L e a d e r s h i p Seminar, Teheran.

1958

Rolley, P. Ameliorations Agricoles. I r r i g a t i o n s . 480 p. Librairie J . -B.

1953 ~ a i l l i 2 r e& F i l s . 19, Rue Hautefeuille, P a r i s .

Lauritzen, C. W. Butyl for the Collection, Storage and Conveyance of Water.

1967 Bull. 465 Utah State University, Logan, U.S.A.

Colorado State University Experiment Station - F a r m Irrigation S t r u c t u r e s .

1966 Bulletin No. 496-S. F o r t Collins.

Houk, I. E. Irrigation Engineering. Vol I and 11. John Wiley & Sons Inc. New
1951 York.

OEEC, G r e e c e - F a r m Irrigation. Report on a Training Course.

1954

Boardman, J. A Comparative Study of Irrigation Canal Outlets. University of

1966 Southampton, Department of Civil Engineering.

Mahbub, S. J . and Gulhati, N. D. Irrigation Outlets. 184 p. Atma Ram & Sons,
1951 Kashrnere Gate, Delhi.

USDA Bureau of Reclamation, Reclamation Manual - Canals and Related

1952 S t r u c t u r e s . Design Supplement No 3 to P a r t 2 Engineering Design of
Volume X, Design and Construction.

USDA Soil Conservation Service, National Engineering Handbook - Irrigation.

1967 Chapter 3, Section 15. Planning F a r m Irrigation Systems. Washington.

Neyrpic, Grenoble - a gal is at ions Neyrpic dans l e domaine de l'irrigation. R. J.580.

Rouse, H. Engineering Hydraulics. Proceedings of the F o u r t h Hydraulic

1949 Conference, Iowa, Institute of Hydraulic Research, Iowa, June 12- 15.
John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York.
P r i y a n i , V. B. Irrigation Engineering. Revised Edition. C h a r o t a r Book Stall
1964 Tulsi Sadan, Statron Road, Anand, India.

Cantor, L. M. A World Geography of Irrigation. Olives & Boyd, Tweeddale

Court, Edinburgh and 39A Welbeck Street, London.
 L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s
Cont'd.

Ozal, K. P r i n c i p l e s and Methods of c a p a c i t y Determination of Irrigation

1965 Distribution Systems. Muhendislik Faktiltesi, Ankara, Yayin,
Publication No 22. Ankara.

Robinson A. R. et a l . Distribution Control and M e a s u r e m e n t of Irrigation Water on

1963 the F a r m . USDA Miscellaneous Publication No 926.

Thomas, C. W. World P r a c t i c e s in Water Measurement a t Turnouts. Journ.

1960 I r r i g . ' & Drainage Division. ASCE. 86 ( 1 ~ 2 pp
: 29-54).

Associazione Nationale della Bonifiche delle Irrigazioni e de Migliamenti fondiari-

1958 Manufatti Idraulici Normali p e r l a Bonifica e l ' i r r i g a z i o n e . Tipographia
Tip. Roma.

P e t e r k a , A. J. Water M e a s u r e m e n t P r o c e d u r e s . I r r i g a t i o n O p e r a t o r s ' Workshop

19 64 USBR Division of Irrigation Operations Office of Chief Engineer, Denver,
Col.

Freeman, P.A. Fluidics in Water Management. Agricultural Engineering. June.

1971

H a r z a Engineering Company International. Etude d'un P r o g r a m m e d 1 ~ m ; n a g e r n e n t

1969 Hydro-AgrEcole d e s T e r r e s Rizicultivables de l a ~ a s s e - ~ u i n e / Rapport
e.
F i n a l Vol IV. Juillet.

Hersey-Sparling Meter Company. Sparling Irrigation M e t e r s . Bulletin 500.

1964

Rayaratnam, V. N. Distribution Systems to S e r v e Small Holdings. 3rd Regional

19 60 Irrigation P r a c t i c e s Leader ship Seminar, L a h o r e . F A 0 l i b r a r y :
631. 6 ( 0 6 3 ) / ~ 2 71960.
/

Deloye, M. and Rebour, H. L ' i r r i g a t i o n en grande culture. ~ r e / ~ a r a t i oe n

t
1958 gal is at ion d'un project d'irrigation k l a f e r m e . 286 p. P a r i s .

USDA Soil Conservation Service - Conservation Irrigation i n Humid A r e a s .

1957 Agriculture Handbook No 107. Washington.

USDIJUSDA - Irrigation on Western F a r m s . Agric. Inf. Bull. No 199.

1959

FA0 - Report to the Government of the U. A. R. for Improvement of I r r i g .

1963 . Practices. By Doneen, L . D. Rome.

Neyrpic - Emploi d e s a p p a r e i l s automatiques de distribution d'eau s u r l e s r g s e a u x

1951 d'irrigation en canaux a commande p a r l'amont.
/
Darlot, A. L'amenagement d e s s o l s en vue de l ' i r r i g a t i o n . Publication du C e n t r e
/
1956 de Recherches e t d4Experimentation du ~ e / n i eR u r a l de Rabat, No 6, Oct.
 L i s t of References
Contld.

47. King, H. W. Handbook of Hydraulics F o r the Solution of Hydraulic P r o b l e m s , 4th

1954 Edition. McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc. New York.

48. FA0 - Survey of Irrigation P o s s i b i l i t i e s in the H a r i Rud and Upper Kabul River
1970 B a s i n s , Afghanistan. - Final Report.

49. USBR - Water Measurement Manual, Second Edition, Denver, Col.

1967

50. Milinusic, B. M. Some P r o p o s a l s on the Design of Irrigation Systems. Republic

1966 of Cyprus, Ministry of Agriculture & Natural R e s o u r c e s , Dept. of Water
Development. Report No 12. Nicosia.

Skogerboe, G. V . e t a l . R e s e a r c h Topics f o r Small Irrigation S t r u c t u r e s . Journal

1970 of the I r r i g . & Drainage Division. Prockedings of the ASCE. IR 3 . Sept.
pp 309-317.

Murley, K. A. Irrigation Channel S t r u c t u r e s , Victoria, Australia. Journal of the

1970 I r r i g . & Drainage Division. Proceedings of the ASCE. IR 3 . June.
pp 131-150.

Nugteren, J. Technical Aspects of Water Conveyance and Distribution S y s t e m s .

197 1 Working Document f o r FAO/UNDP Regional Seminar on the Effective
Use of Irrigation Water a t the F a r m Level held in Damascus, Syria.
Dec.

USBR - Canals and Related S t r u c t u r e s Design Standards No 3 . Denver, Col.

19 67

ICID - Hydraulic S t r u c t u r e s on Irrigation and Drainage Systems. Transactions of

1957 the Third Congress on Irrigation and Drainage. Vol IV. New Delhi.

Oficina Nacional de D e s a r r o l l o Communal, P e r u . Manual de pegue<as O b r a s de

19 68 Regadio. P r o y e c t o de D e s a r r o l l o e Integracion de l a Poblacion
Campesina.

FAO/UNESCO - International Source book on Irrigation and Drainage of A r i d Lands.

Humpherys, A. S. Mechanical S t r u c t u r e s for F a r m Irrigation. Journal of the

19 69 I r r i g . & Drainage Division. Proceedings of the ASCE, Dec.

Bondurant, J. A. e t a l . Cast-In-Place Concrete Trapezoidal Measuring F l u m e s .

1969 USDA, ARS 41-155, Nov.

60. Humpherys, A. S. and Robinson, A. R. F i e l d Evaluation of Drop-Check S t r u c t u r e s

1971 f o r F a r m Irrigation Systems. USDA, ARS 41- 180. March.
 L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s
Contld.

61. WMO - U s e of W e i r s and F l u m e s in S t r e a m Gauging. Technical Note No 117.

1971

62. Livingston, A. C. Control Gates f o r I r r i g a t i o n and Drainage P r o j e c t s .

1960 Communications of the 4th Congress of ICID, Madrid.

63. Hernandez, N. M. Irrigation S t r u c t u r e s . Section 34 i n Davis, Handbook of Applied

1969 Hydraulics.

A r m c o Steel Corporation, Metal P r o d u c t s Division. A r m c o Gates f o r I r r i g a t i o n

1971 and Other Low Head Applications. Catalog G- 1057 1. Middle town, Ohio.

~ o h n s t o n ,C. N. F a r m Irrigation S t r u c t u r e s . University of California Agric. Exp.

Station. C i r c u l a r 362. 7945.

Blair, E. Manual de Riegos y Avenamiento. Institute I n t e r a m e r i c a n o de Ciencias

Agricolas. Lima, P e r u .
f

Nazionale Delle Bonifiche, delle I r r i g a z i o n i e d e i Miglioramenti Fondiari.

1958 Mannfatti Idraulici Normali p e r l a Bonifica e l l I r r i g a z i o n e (Standard
Hydraulic S t r u c t u r e s f o r Reclamation and Irrigation). Supplement t o
Bulletin No 9. Rome.

Lancastre - Manual dlHydraulique. E y r o l l e s .

Neyrpic - Irrigation Canal Equipment. P a r i s , Grenoble.

1958

D i Ricco, G. L1irrigazione dei Terreni. Edizioni Agricole. Bologna. .

1967

Boyaci, R. and Savaskan, C. F a r m Layout and Distribution S y s t e m s - C u m r a -

1964 Karkin I r r i g a t i o n Development P r o j e c t . R e p o r t on the 5th I r r i g a t i o n
P r a c t i c e s Seminar, NESA Region, New Delhi.

De L o s Rios Romero, D. F. Consideraciones Sobre F u t u r o s P r o y e c t o s de O b r a s

1963 en l a s Zonas Regables. Ministry of Agriculture, Spain.

73. Robinson, A. R. and Hurnpherys, A. S. Water Control and M e a s u r e m e n t on the

1967 F a r m . Irrigation of Agricultural Land. U. S. A. 1967.

74. USDA 'Soil Conservation S e r v i c e - Engineering Handbook Section 11, Standard

S t r u c t u r a l P l a n s . Lincoln, Nebraska.

75. U. S. A. Water Control Corp. - Water-Control Irrigation S t r u c t u r e s . Bulletin

HW-103. C r y s t a l Lake, Ill.

76. p r e s s , H. Stauanlagen und W a s s e r k r a f t w e r k e 11 Teil. Wehre, Berlin.

1959
 L i s t of References
Conttd.

77. Nugteren, J. Technical Aspects of Water Conveyance and Distribution Systems.

1971 P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t the F A 0 Seminar on The Effective u s e of Irrigation
Water a t the F a r m Level. D a m a s c u s .

78. FA0 - Automated Irrigation - -Regulation of a Hydraulic System by Clement, R.

1971 Automated Irrigation - Irrigation and Drainage P a p e r No 5.

79 ICID - Eighth Congress on Irrigation and Drainage, Question 28.2. R e p o r t s for

1972 Discussion. Varna.

80. Thomas, C. W. World P r a c t i c e s in Water M e a s u r e m e n t s a t Turnouts. Journal

1960 of the Irrigation & Drainage Division. IR 2, June.

81. USDI Bureau of Reclamation - Water Measurement Manual. Second Ed.

1967 Denver, Col.

82. USDA Soil Conservation Service - National Engineering Handbook. Measurement of

1962 Irrigation Water. Section 15 Irrigation. Chapter 9. Washington.

83. Tsu-Yang Wu. Effects of Settlement on F l u m e Ratings. Water Management

197 1 Technical Report No 12, Colorado State University, F o r t Collins
Colorado.
A
84. ~ e c r e / t a r i a dt l E t a t aux Affaires ~ t r a n g k r e s- Techniques R u r a l e s en Afrique.
1970 4. L e s 0 u v r a g . e ~dtun petit r e s e a u d'irrigation.

85. Skogerboc, G. V. , Bennett, R. S. and Walker, W. R. Installation and Field Use

1972 of Cut-throat F l u m e s for Water Management. Water Management
Technical Report No 19, Coloradp State University, F o r t Collins,
March.

86. Bennett, R. S. Cut-throat F l u m e Discharge Relations. Water Management

1972 Technical Report No 16. Colorado State University, F o r t Collins,
March.

87. USDA Agricultural R e s e a r c h Service - Cast-in-Place Concrete Trapezoidal

19 69 Measuring F l u m e s .

88. Ozal, K. and Ozsoy, E. Measuring Devices for F a r m Turnouts and P i p e s .

M.E. Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.

89. Worstell, R. V. The Snake River Auto-Start Siphon Tube. Agricultural

1971 Engineering, Vol 52, October.

90. ICID - Hydraulic S t r u c t u r e s on Small Channels. Question 24, Seventh Congress

1969 on Irrigation and Drainage, Mexico City.
 L i s t of References
Cont'd.

9 1. Ponzoulet, J. M. and P o r c h e r o n , R. Utilization d'un ordinatein pour l e calcul d e s

/
1967 r e s e a u x m o d e r n e s d'irrigation - calcul pratique d e s debits a l a
"demand" optimisation de s p a r a m e t r e s d e s canalisations. ICID
Annual Bulletin.

92. Starosolszky, 0. Measuring Irrigation Water for Investigating the efficiency of

1962 an Irrigation System. ICID Annual Bulletin.

93. Canada - Alberta Department of Agriculture, Water R e s o u r c e s Division.

Commonly used F a r m Irrigation S t r u c t u r e s .

94. P r o c e e d i n g s of the A m e r i c a n Society of Civil Engineers. Operation and

197 3 Maintenance of Irrigation and Drainage Systems. Journal of the
Irrigation & Drainage Division, Vol 99, No IR 3: pp 237-338.

King, H. W. Handbook of Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York.

Va- son-Boonkird. C u l v e r t s a s Flow Measuring Devices. Water Management

1972 Technical Report No 17, Colorado State University, F o r t Collins,
Colorado, F e b r u a r y .

V e r d i e r , J. and ~ a ~ n \ e r e Js., ~ i f f g r e n t stypes de stations de pompage

automatiques. L a Houille Blanche, 5: pp 593- 610.

Conseil Superieur de llAgriculture Roumaine. Fonctionnement et rGgulation

d e s canaux d'irrigation. P e r i m e t r e c a r a s u .

FA0 - Automated Irrigation. European Commission on Agriculture. Working

1971 P a r t y on Water R e s o u r c e s and Irrigation. Tel Aviv, I s a r e l , 1970.
Irrigation and Drainage P a p e r No 5. Rome.

Humpherys, A. S., Garton, J. E. and K r u s e , E . G. Auto-Mechanization of Open

1970 Channel Distribution Systems. Proceedings of t h e National Irrigation
Symposium, November 1970. 20 p. USDA, U. S. A.

Humphery s, A. S. Automatic Equipment f o r Surface Irrigation. Working P a p e r

1968 for presentation at 1968 Annual Meeting of the Oregon Reclamation
Congress, USDA, Kimberley, Idaho, U. S. A.

Shipley, H. Development of Automation on Salt River P r o j e c t . Journal of the

1970 Irrigation and Drainage Division, ASCE, June.

ASAE Agricultural E n g i n e e r s Year Book - Trapezoidal F l u m e s for Irrigation

197 3 - Flow Measurement. Tentative Standard: ASAE S359 T.

Bos, M. G. The Romijn Movable Measuring cum Regulating Weir. Working Paper,
1972 International Institute f o r Land Reclamation and Improvement,
Wageningen, the Netherlands. 1972.
 L i s t of References
Contld.

Khushalani, K. B. Irrigation, Vol VI, Distribution Works. Central Water and

1954 P o w e r Commission, India.

Skogerboe, G. V. e t al. Check-Drop-Energy Dissipator S t r u c t u r e s in Irrigation

Systems. CUSUSWASH Water Management Technical Report No 9, May,
Colorado State University, Denver, Col.

Colorado State University - Commonly Used Drawings f o r Open Irrigation Systems.

1970 Report No CB-5, Revised, Denver, Col.

USDA Soil Conservation Service - Engineering F i e l d Manual. Washington.

1970

ASCE - Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation and Drainage Systems. Journal

1973 of the Irrigation and Drainage Division, Vol 99, No IR 3, September.

Abdul Hamid. Distribution and Measurement of Irrigation Supplies in West

1957 Pakistan. ICID T r a n s . 3 r d Congress Irrigation and Drainage, Vol IV
Q 9, R 18, pp 9.235 - 9.250. New Delhi.

Blackwell, B. T. Calibration of the ~ o n s t ' a n t - ~ e aOrifice

d Turnout - 1:2 Scale
1946 Model. USBR Hydraulic L a b o r a t o r y Report No Hyd-216, November
(unpubli shed).

Butcher, A. D. C l e a r Overfall W e i r s .
1922

Butcher, A.D. Submerged W e i r s and Standing Wave W e i r s .

1933

Egypt - Ministry of Public Works, Calibration of Regulators and Weirs.

1935

Crump, E . S. Moduling of Irrigation Channels. Punjab Irrigation Branch, P a p e r

1922 No 26, G o v t . P r e s s , Punjab, Lahore.

Korea-Agric. E n g r . R e s . Centre. Experiment for PVC Pipe Turnout. Hydraulic

1969 Experiment Report No 47, December.

Hamid, Chowdhry Abdul. Distribution and Measurement of Irrigation Supplies

1957 in West Pakistan. ICID, T r a n s . 3rd Congress on Irrigation and
Drainage, Vol IV, Q 9, R 18, pp 9. 234 - 9. 250. New Delhi.

Inglis, C. C. Modules and Semi-Modules for Irrigation. P r o c . Bombay Engng.

192 1 Congr., Bombay, Vol IX, P a p e r No 8.

Kruse,E.G. The Constant-Head-Orifice F a r m Turnout. USDA Agric. Res. Serv.

1955 Publ. ARS 41 -93, January.
 L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s
Cont'd.

Mahajan, I.K. and Handa, C.L. Control and Distribution of Water in Irrigation
1957 Systems with Special Reference t o t h e Punjab. ICID T r a n s . 3 r d
Congress on Irrigation and Drainage, Vol IV, Q 9, R 25, pp 9.369-
9.398. New Delhi.

Mahbub, S. I. and Gulhati, N. D. I r r i g a t i o n Outlets. p p 184. Atma R a m & Sons,

1951 Delhi.

Neyrpic - ~ a t e / r i e d'irrigation,
l Notice A P 21 1.
1951

Meacham, I. Measuring Irrigation Deliveries, the Dethridge M e t e r . Aqua,

1961 April. pp 184-189.

Molesworth, H. W. and Yenidunia, T. H. Irrigation P r a c t i c e in Egypt.

1922

Murley, K. Dethrldge M e t e r Investigations. Aqua, May. pp 201 - 21 1.

1966

P i e t r i , M. q u v r a g e s s u r canaux secondaires e t t e r t i a i r e s dans l e s Beni Moussa

1957 (Reseau de distribution). ICID T r a n s . 3 r d Congress on Irrigation and
Drainage, Vol IV, Q 9, R 24, pp 9.320 - 9.398. New Delhi.

S h a r m a , K.R. A Theoretical Design of New Type of Outlet for Irrigation

1931 Channels. Punjab Engng. Congr. P r o c . , Vol XIX, P a p e r No 146,
pp 105-113K. Lahore.

S h a r m a , K. R. Design of an Adjustable Proportional Module. Punjab Engng.

1934 Congr., P a p e r No 176.

S h a r m a , K. R. Improved Adjustable Proportional Module and Open F l u m e Outlet.

1940 Punjab Engng.Congr. P a p e r No 237. Lahore.

S h a r m a , K. R. Outlets and Tail C l u s t e r s . Irrigation Engineering; Vol I,

1949 Chap C XV, P t 11, pp 340- 360.

S h a r m a , K. R. Silt Conduction by Irrigation Outlets. Punjab Engng. Congr .P r o c .

1934 Vol XXI, P a p e r No 168.

Neyrpic - The Distribution of Water in Irrigation Networks with the Help of

1950- Neyrpic Apparatus. Grenoble.

Coeuret, C. Regulation dynarnique du t r a n s p o r t e t d e l a distribution de l'eau

d'irrigation - -
a s p e c t s theoriques p r e m i e r e s applications pratiques.
Working P a p e r for the Regional Meeting of ICID, Aix- en-Provence ,
 L i s t of References
Cont'd.

Romijn, D. G. Eeen r e g e l b a r e m e e t o v e r l a a t a l s t e r t i a i r e aftapsluis. (A Movable

1932 Measuring Weir a s Turnout S t r u c t u r e . ) De Waterstaatsingenieur, n r 9.

Romijn, D. G. Meetsluizen ten behoeve van i r r i g a t i e - w e r k e n . (Measuring W e i r s

1938 for Use in Irrigation P r o j e c t s . ) Handleiding. Manual by De vereniging
van W a t e r s t a a t ingenieurs in Nederlandsch-Indik!.

Vlugter, H. De r e g e l b a r e meetoverlaat. (The Movable Measuring Weir)

1940 De Waterstaatsingenieur, n r 10.

Zwart, J. and Hooftman, P. Modelonderzoek n a a r de invloed van de p i j l e r v o r m

1940 bij Romijn meetoverlaten. (Model T e s t s on the Influence of
Intermediate P i e r Shapes with the Romijn Measuring Weir. ) Msc
t h e s i s , Delft University, (unpublished).

Cohen, A. Invloed van de i n s t r o m i n g s v o r m van een Romijn m e e t o v e r l a a t op de

1953 afvoer coefficient. (Influence on the Abutment Shape of a Romijn
Measuring Weir on the Discharge Coefficient.) Report of Hydraulics
Laboratory, Delft.

A c k e r s , A. and H a r r i s o n , A. J. M. C r i t i c a l Depth F l u m e s f o r Flow Measurement

1963 in Open Channels. Hydraulic R e s e a r c h P a p e r No 5. HM Stationery
Office, London.

H a r r i s o n , A. J. M. The Streamlined B r o a d - C r e s t e d Weir. Proceedings

1967 Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 38. Dec. pp. 657-678.

B r i t i s h Standards Institution - Methods of Measurement of Liquid Flow in Open

1969 Channels. B r i t i s h Standard 3680; P a r t 4B, W e i r s and F l u m e s . London.
 NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS-11

Area

A r e a of c r o s s section

A r e a of c r i t i c a l section

Breadth o r width (usually a c r o s s the a x i s

of flow)

Bed width of canal u p s t r e a m a fall, syphon,

aqueduct, etc. , and in p a r e n t channel in
c a s e of intakes and outlets

Bed width of canal downstream a fall,

syphon, aqueduct, etc. Bed width i n the
offtake channel below the intake o r
w a t e r c o u r s e below the outlet

Width of t h r o a t o r controlling section o r

width of weir c r e s t a c r o s s the a x i s of
flow

Width of inlet

Width a t outlet end

Width of gate opening o r sluice opening

Wi dth of stilling basin, c i s t e r n , etc.

'/ F o r terminology and definitions r e f e r e n c e should be m a d e to the Multilingual

Technical Dictionary on Irrigation and Drainage published by the ICID in
1967.
Coefficient of discharge

Coefficient of roughness

Coefficient of submergence

Coefficient of submergence of hydraulic jump

Coefficient in Chezy's formula

Coefficient, approach velocity

Depth of canal

Designed depth of canal (if distinguished)

~ e ~ oft canal h u p s t r e a m of falls, proportional

d i s t r i b u t o r s o r d i v i s o r s , syphons, aqueducts,
e t c . , and i n parent channels of outlets and
offtake channels

Depth of canal downstream of falls, etc.

and depth of offtake channels below intakes
and of w a t e r c o u r s e s below outlets

Depth of stilling basin

Diameter

D i a m e t e r of pipe

Discharge

Discharge intensity o r discharge p e r unit

width

Discharge in the parent canal

Discharge of offtake channels o r outlets

Small i n c r e m e n t in discharge

Distances and spacings

Efficiencies

Flexibility

F r e e board

Froude number

Height over h a r ding s

Head over c r e s t , etc.

Working head
*

~ e a d - d u to
e velocity of approach

Head l o s s

Height of gate opening

Height of c r e s t above u p s t r e a m bed level

Height of c r e s t above bottom level of

stilling basin

Height of c r e s t above downstream bed level

Height of u p s t r e a m water level above

soffits of orifices, pipes, etc.

Height of orifice above c r e s t o r bottom

level of control section

Hydraulic d r o p

Depth of flow a t the beginning of hydraulic

jump o r super critical sequent depth

Depth of flow a t the end of hydraulic jump

o r subcritical sequent depth

Critical depth corresponding to minimum

energy
 -
L

Length

Length of c r e s t along the axis of flow

Length of glacis

Length of stilling basin

Length of pipe

Length of jump

Proportionality

Radius

Hydraulic radius

Ratio

Sensitivity

Shear s t r e s s

Slope (longitudinal)

Side slope

Thickness

Velocity

Critical velocity

von K a r m a n ' s constant

Weights
Specific weight of fluid
 .and and

econon