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Core Mathematics 3
1 Algebraic fractions .................................................................................................3
Cancelling common factors .................................................................................................................. 3
Multiplying and dividing fractions ....................................................................................................... 3
Adding and subtracting fractions .......................................................................................................... 3
Equations .............................................................................................................................................. 4
2 Functions ...............................................................................................................5
Notation ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Domain, range and graph ...................................................................................................................... 5
Defining functions ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Composite functions ............................................................................................................................. 7
Inverse functions and their graphs ........................................................................................................ 7
To find the inverse of a function x y................................................................................................................................. 7
Domain and range of inverse functions ................................................................................................ 9
Modulus functions .............................................................................................................................. 10
Modulus functions y = |f (x)|.................................................................................................................................................10
Modulus functions y = f (|x|) ..................................................................................................................................................11
Standard graphs................................................................................................................................... 11
Combinations of transformations of graphs ........................................................................................ 12
Sketching curves ................................................................................................................................. 13
3 Trigonometry ........................................................................................................ 14
Sec, cosec and cot ............................................................................................................................... 14
Graphs ................................................................................................................................................................................................14
Inverse trigonometrical functions ....................................................................................................... 15
Graphs ................................................................................................................................................................................................15
Trigonometrical identities ................................................................................................................... 16
+
Proof of sin P + sin Q = 2 sin cos .................................................................................................................16
2 2
Finding exact values.....................................................................................................................................................................17
Proving identities. .........................................................................................................................................................................17
Eliminating a variable between two equations ...............................................................................................................18
Solving equations ..........................................................................................................................................................................18
R cos(x + ) ........................................................................................................................................ 19
5 Differentiation ...................................................................................................... 23
Chain rule ............................................................................................................................................ 23
Product rule ......................................................................................................................................... 23
Quotient rule ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Derivatives of ex and logex ln x. ..................................................................................................... 25
= ............................................................................................................................................. 26
Derivative of ax................................................................................................................................... 26
Trigonometric differentiation .............................................................................................................. 27
Chain rule further examples ............................................................................................................. 27
Trigonometry and the product and quotient rules ............................................................................... 28
7 Appendix.............................................................................................................. 32
Derivatives of sin x and cos x .............................................................................................................. 32
sin
lim0 = 1 ...............................................................................................................................................................................32
Alternative formula for derivative ........................................................................................................................................32
Derivatives of sin x and cos x ...................................................................................................................................................33
Index ........................................................................................................................... 34
1 Algebraic fractions
Cancelling common factors
x 3 2 x 2 3x
Example: Simplify .
4 x 2 36
Solution: First factorise top and bottom fully
x 3 2 x 2 3x x( x 2 2 x 3) x( x 3)( x + 1)
= =
4 x 2 36 4( x 2 9) 4( x 3)( x + 3)
and now cancel all common factors, in this case (x 3) to give
x( x + 1)
Answer = .
4( x + 3)
(3 x 2)(3 x + 2) x ( x + 1)
2
= cancel all common factors
x(3 x 2) (3x + 2)( x 1)
x( x + 1)
Answer = .
x 1
3x 2 3x 5 x + 20 3x 2 8 x + 20
= = which cannot be simplified further.
( x 1)( x 3)( x 4) ( x 1)( x 3)( x 4)
Equations
x x 1 1
Example: Solve =
x +1 x 2
Solution: First multiply both sides by the Lowest Common Denominator
x x 1 1
= multiply both sides by 2x(x + 1)
x +1 x 2
x 2x (x 1) 2(x + 1) = x(x + 1)
2x2 2x2 + 2 = x2 + x
x2 + x 2 = 0,
(x + 2)(x 1) = 0
x = 2 or 1
2 Functions
A function is an expression (often in x) which has only one value for each value of x.
Notation
y = x2 3x + 7, f (x) = x2 3x + 7 and f : x x2 3x + 7
are all ways of writing the same function.
Example: Find the largest possible domain and the range for the function
f : x x 3 + 1.
Solution: First notice that we cannot have the square root of a negative number and so
x 3 cannot be negative
x30
and we see that the graph will cover all of the 4 y=(x3)+1
range
y-axis from 1 upwards 2
domain x
Example: Find the largest possible domain and the range for the function
2x
f:x . Give the equations of its asymptotes.
x +1
Solution: The only problem occurs when the denominator is 0, and so x cannot be 1.
Thus the largest domain is x : x 1.
y
To find the range we sketch the graph 8
2
Asymptotes are x = 1 and y = 2 asymptote x=1 range
4
Defining functions
Some mappings can be made into functions by restricting the domain.
Examples:
1) The mapping x x where x is not a function as 9 is not defined, but if we
restrict the domain to positive or zero real numbers then f : x x where x , x 0
is a function.
1
2) x where x is not a function as the image of x = 3 is not defined,
x 3
1
but f : x where x , x 3 is a function.
x 3
Composite functions
To find the composite function fg we must do g first.
Example: f : x 3x 2 and g : x x2 + 1. Find fg and gf.
f is multiply by 3 subtract 2
g is square add 1
The inverse of f is written as f 1: note that this does not mean 1 over f .
The graph of y = f 1(x) is the reflection in y = x of the graph of y = f (x).
Solution: We have x y = 3x 2 4 y
x+2 2
(ii) solving for y y=
3 y = f 1(x)
x
x+2
f 1
:x 4 2 2 4
3
2 y = f (x)
x+3
Example: Find the inverse of g : x .
2x 5
y
x+3
Solution: We have x y = 6
2x 5 y=x
x(2y 5) = y + 3 4 2 2 4 6
2xy 5x = y + 3 2
2xy y = 5x + 3
4
y(2x 1) = 5x + 3
5x + 3
y =
2x 1
5x + 3
g 1 : x
2x 1
1
Note that the domain of f (x) is the range of f (x),
1
and that the range of f (x) is the domain of f (x).
1
This is because the graph of y = f (x) is that of y = f (x) after a reflection in the line y = x.
Solution:
(a) As the domain of f is x 3, we only y
have the left part of the parabola.
y = f (x)
8
The range is f (x) 4, f (x) .
6
y=x
(b) To find the inverse, swap x and y, then
find y. 4
x = (y 3)2 + 4
2 y = f 1(x)
y 3 = 4 .
x
From the reflection of y = f (x) in y = x, 2 2 4 6 8
we can see that we want the negative
sign 2
y = 3 4.
Modulus functions
Modulus functions y = |f (x)|
Solution:
First sketch the graph of y = x2 3x Then reflect the portion below
the x-axis in the xaxis to give
3 y 3 y
y=x3x y=|x3x|
2 2
1 1
x x
1 1 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4
1 1
2 2
so to sketch the graph, first sketch the graph for positive values of x only, then reflect
the graph sketched in the yaxis.
3 y
y=x3x
2
Example: Sketch the graph of y = |x|2 3|x|.
1
x
2 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
Solution: f (x) = x 3x
1
f (x) = x2 3x
2
First sketch the graph of y = x2 3x for positive
values of x only. 3 y
y=|x|3|x|
2
Standard graphs
3 y y
4 y=x
y=x y=x
2 y=x
3
1
2
x
3 2 1 1 2
1
1
x
2 1 1 2
2
1
y
y
2 3
y=1/x
1 2
y=x
x
1
3 2 1 1 2 3
x
1
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 1
Examples:
Sketching curves
When sketching curves, show the coordinates of the intercepts with the axes, and the
equations of any asymptotes show the asymptotes with dotted lines.
2
Example: Sketch the curve = 4 , x > 0
Solution:
5 y
asymptote y=4
4
3
y=42/x
2
asymptote
x=0
1
x
2 1 1 2 3 4 5
1
2
3
Note that the domain is x > 0, so no graph to the left of the y-axis.
x 0 curve does not meet the x-axis
y=0 x=1
2
Thinking of y =
translated up 4,
the horizontal asymptote is y = 4.
Do not forget that the y-axis, x = 0, is also an asymptote.
3 Trigonometry
Sec, cosec and cot
1 1
Secant is written sec x = ; cosecant is written cosec x =
cos x sin x
1 cos x
cotangent is written cot x = =
tan x sin x
Graphs
y y
y=cosecx
y=secx
2 2
y=sinx
y=cosx x x
2 2
2 2
y
y=tanx y=cotx
2
Notice that your calculator does not have sec,
cosec and cot buttons so to solve equations x
involving sec, cosec and cot, change them 2
into equations involving sin, cos and tan and
then use your calculator as usual.
2
The inverse of sin x is written as arcsin x or sin1 x and in order that there should only be
one value of the function for one value of x we restrict the domain to /2 x /2 .
Note that the graph of y = arcsin x is the reflection of part of the graph of y = sin x in the
line y = x.
Similarly for the inverses of cos x and tan x, as shown below.
Graphs
y = arcsin x y = arccos x
y
y=x y
y=arcsinx
/2
y=arccosx
y=x
y=sinx
x
/2
3 2 1 1 2 3 4
y=cosx
x
/2
3 2 1 1 2 3 4
y = arctan x
y
y=tanx y=x
y=arctanx
/2
x
6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
/2
Trigonometrical identities
You should learn these
= 1 2 sin2 A P+Q P -Q
cos P + cos Q = 2 cos cos
sin2 A = (1 cos 2A) 2 2
The last four formulae, 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A B) etc., are not in the formula
booklet, and should be learnt.
+
You should know the proofs of the four formulae sin P + sin Q = 2 sin 2
cos 2
, etc.
+
Proof of sin P + sin Q = 2 sin
cos
Solution: We know the exact values of sin 45o, cos 45o and sin 30o, cos 30o
so we consider cos 15 = cos (45 30) = cos 45 cos30 + sin 45 sin 30
3 + 1 6 +
= 1
2
2
3
+ 1
2
12 = 2 2
= 4
2
.
Example: Given that A is obtuse and that B is acute, and sin A = 3/5 and cos B = 5/13 find
the exact value of sin (A + B).
Solution: We know that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B so we must first find
cos A and sin B.
Proving identities.
Start with one side, usually the L.H.S., and fiddle with it until it equals the other side.
cos 2 A + 1
Example: Prove that = cot 2 A .
1 - cos 2 A
Solving equations
Here you have to select the best identity to help you solve the equation.
cos 4x = 0, or sin x = 0
R cos(x + )
An alternative way of writing a cos x b sin x using one of the formulae listed below
(1) R cos (x + ) = R cos x cos R sin x sin
(2) R cos (x ) = R cos x cos + R sin x sin
(3) R sin (x + ) = R sin x cos + R cos x sin
(4) R sin (x ) = R sin x cos R cos x sin
To keep R positive and acute, we select the formula with corresponding + and signs.
The technique is the same which ever formula we choose.
Example: Find the maximum value of 12 sin x 5 cos x and the smallest positive value
of x for which it occurs.
Natural logarithms
Definition and graph y = ex y=x
e 27183 and logs to base e 2
Graph of y = e(ax + b) + c. y
y = e2x y = ex
3
4 2 2
Solution: Take the natural logarithm of each side, remember that ln x is the inverse of ex
ln (e2x + 3) = ln 5 2x + 3 = ln 5
ln 5 3
x = = 0695 to 3 S.F.
2
Solution:
(i) From the definition of logs loga x = y x = ay
ln (3x 5) = 4
3x 5 = e4
e4 + 5
x = = 199 to 3 S.F.
3
OR
(ii) Raise both sides to the power of e, .
eln (3x 5) = e4 (3x 5) = e4 remember that ex is the inverse of ln x
e4 + 5
x = = 199 to 3 S.F.
3
5 Differentiation
Chain rule
If y is a composite function like y = (5x2 7)9
think of y as y = u9, where u = 5x2 7
then the chain rule gives
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy du
= 9u 8
dx dx
dy
= 9(5 x 2 7) 8 (10 x) = 90 x(5 x 2 7) 8 .
dx
du
The rule is very simple, just differentiate the function of u and multiply by .
dx
dy
Example: y = (x3 2x). Find .
dx
1
Solution: y = (x3 2x) = ( x 3 2 x) 2 . Put u = x3 2x
1
y= u 2
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy 1 du 1
= 12 u 2 = 1
2
( x 3 2 x) 2
(3 x 2 2)
dx dx
dy 3x 2 2
= 1
.
dx 2( x 2 x )
3 2
Product rule
1
Solution: y = x2 (x 5) = x2 ( x 5) 2
1
so put u = x2 and v = ( x 5) 2
dy dv du
= u + v
dx dx dx
1 1
= x2 1
2
( x 5) 2
+ ( x 5) 2 2x
2
x
= + 2x x 5 .
2 x5
Quotient rule
du dv
v u
u dy dx dx .
y = = 2
v dx v
2x 3
Example: Differentiate y =
x 2 + 5x
2x 3
Solution: y = , so put u = 2x 3 and v = x2 + 5x
x + 5x
2
du dv
v u
dy dx dx
= 2
dx v
( x 2 + 5 x) 2 (2 x 3) (2 x + 5)
=
( x 2 + 5 x) 2
2 x 2 + 10 x (4 x 2 + 4 x 15) 2 x 2 + 6 x + 15
= = .
( x 2 + 5 x) 2 ( x 2 + 5 x) 2
32
Example: If y = , find , expressing your answer as a single algebraic fraction in
1
its simplest form.
3 2
: = 1
( 1)2
1 1
( 1)2 3 (3 2) 12( 1) 2
=
1
1 (3 2)
( 1)2 3
1
2( 1) 2
=
1
1 (3 2)
( 1)2 3 1
1
2( 1) 2 2( 1) 2
= 1
1 2( 1) 2
6( 1) (3 2) 6 6 3 + 2
= 3 = 3
2( 1) 2 2( 1) 2
3 4
= 3
2( 1) 2
dy 1 k
y = ln xk y = k ln x = k =
dx x x
Solution: f (x) = ln 3x ln x5 = ln 3 + ln x 5 ln x = ln 3 4 ln x
4
f (x) =
x
or we can use the chain rule
1 1 4
f (x) = 3 5 5x 4 =
3x x x
2 dy
Example: y = e x . Find .
dx
dy
Example: y = ln 7x3. Find .
dx
1
Using the chain rule we can see that
= 1,
=
Example: x = sin2 3y. Find .
Solution: First find
as this is easier.
= 2 sin 3y cos 3y 3 = 6 sin 3y cos 3y
1 1 1 1
= = = = 3
cosec 6y
6 sin 3 y cos 3 y 3 sin 6 y
Derivative of ax
y = ax
= ln
Proof:
y = ax
ln y = ln ax = x ln a
1
= ln
= y ln a = ax ln a
Example: If y = 5x + 2, find
.
Solution 1: y = 5x 52 = 25 5x
= 25 5x ln 5
Solution 2: y = 5x + 2 = 5u
= 5u ln 5 = 5x + 2 ln 5 using the chain rule and
=1
2
Example: = 7 , find
2
Solution: y = 7u
= 7u ln 7 = 7 ln 7 2x using the chain rule
Trigonometric differentiation
y = u4
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy du
= 4u 3 = 4 sin 3 x cos x .
dx dx
dy
Example: y = e sin x . Find .
dx
Solution: y = eu, where u = sin x
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy du
= eu = esin x cos x = cos x esin x .
dx dx
dy
Example: y = ln (sec x). Find .
dx
Solution: y = ln u, where u = sec x
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy 1 du 1
= = sec x tan x = tan x .
dx u dx sec x
dy dv du
Solution: = u + v
dx dx dx
y = x2 cosec 3x
= x2 ( 3cosec 3x cot 3x) + cosec 3x 2x
tan 2 x
Example: Differentiate y =
7x3
du dv
v u
u dy dx dx
Solution: y = = 2
v dx v
tan 2 x
y =
7x3
6 Numerical methods
Locating the roots of f(x) = 0
Example:
(a) Show that a root, , of the equation f (x) = x3 8x 7 = 0 lies between 3 and 4.
(b) Show that the equation x3 8x 7 = 0 can be rearranged as x = 3
8x + 7 .
(c) Starting with x1 = 3, use the iteration xn + 1 = 3 8 x n + 7 to find the first four
iterations for x.
(d) Show that your value of x4 is correct to 3 S.F.
Solution:
(a) f (3) = 27 24 7 = 4, and f (4) = 64 32 7 = +25
Thus f (x) changes sign and f (x) is continuous there is a root between 3 and 4.
(b) x3 8x 7 = 0 x3 = 8x + 7 x= 3
8x + 7 .
(c) x1 = 3
x2 = 3
8 3 + 7 = 314138065239
x3 = 317912997899
x4 = 318905898325
(d) x4 = 319 to 3 S.F.
f (3185) = 31853 8 3185 7 = 017
f (3195) = 31953 8 3195 7 = + 005
f (x) changes sign and f (x) is continuous
there is a root in the interval [3185, 3195]
= 319 to 3 S.F.
y y
y=x y=x
y=g(x)
y=g(x)
x x
X1 X2 X3 X4 X1 X3 X4 X2
(a) will converge without oscillating (b) will oscillate and converge
if 0 < g () < 1, if 1 < g () < 0,
g () < 1 or g () > 1.
y=g(x)
y=x
x
X1 X 2 X3 X4
7 Appendix
Derivatives of sin x and cos x
= C
A
OAB is a sector of a circle with centre O and radius r.
1 2
The area of the triangle OAB, 2
r sin h, r r tan h
1 2
is less than the area of the sector OAB, 2
rh
1 2 1 2 h
2
r sin h < 2
rh O
r B
sin
<1 .I
1 2
Also the area of the sector OAB, 2
rh r tan h
1 2
is less than the area of the triangle OBC, 2
r tan h,
1 2 1 2 sin
2
rh < 2
r tan h cos h <
..II
sin
I and II cos h <
<1
and as 0, lim cos = 1
0
sin sin
1 < lim <1 lim =1
0 0
h must be in RADIANS, as the formula for the area of sector is only true if h is in radians.
limit (+)()
In C2 we used the formula f (x) = 0
Similarly, we can show that
(cos ) = sin x
x must be in RADIANS.
Index
algebraic fractions graphs
adding and subtracting, 3 combining transformations, 12
equations, 4 standard functions, 11
multiplying and dividing, 3 inverse functions
chain rule, 23 domain and range, 9
further examples, 27 finding inverse, 7
cosecant, 14 graphs, 7
cotangent, 14 iteration
curves conditions for convergence, 31
sketching, 13 iteration equation, 30
derivative justification of accuracy, 30
ax, 26 locating the roots, 30
ex, 25 logarithm
ln x, 25 graph of ln x, 21
differentiation natural logarithm, 21
= 1 , 26 product rule, 23
proof of results for sin x and cos x, 32 further examples, 28
trigonometric functions, 27 quotient rule, 24
equations further examples, 28
graphical solutions, 30 R cos(x + ), 19
exponential secant, 14
eax + b = p, 22 trigonometrical identities, 16
graph of y = e(ax + b) + c, 21 trigonometry
graph of y = ex, 21 finding exact values, 17
functions, 5 graphs of sec, cosec and cot, 14
combining functions, 7 harder equations, 18
defining functions, 6 inverse functions, 15
domain, 5 proving identities, 17
modulus functions, 10
range, 5