Apostila Completa - Motores

Engenharia de Competio
Engine theory
Rafael Licen Santos

Engine theory course structure
Course presentation in English
06 days of course / 03 hours per day
Based on presentation / discussion
Class 01 Introduction to Internal Combustion engines
Class 02 Volumetric Efficiency
Class 03 Mechanical Efficiency
Class 04 Combustion
Class 05 Engine conception
Class 06 Engine calibration

2
What will you learn from the course
The need for a high performance engine

Types of engines
Differences between passenger car engines and racing engines
Main engine parts
Geometrical parameters
P-V diagram
Main parameters of engine performance
Fundamental formula of engine theory
Discussion on practical application
3
Definition of volymetric efficiency
The need for a high volymetric efficiency
Pressure losses
Discharge coefficient and Flow coefficient
Pressure waves
NA engine optimisation
4
Definition of mechanical efficiency
The need for a high mechanical efficiency
Engine friction
Engine components friction
Engine friction measurement
5
Class 04 Combustion
Definition of combustion efficiency

Definition of adiabatic efficiency
LogP-LogV Diagram
Combustion system components
Thermodynamic efficiency
Combustion constraints
Combustion chamber aerodynamics
In-cylinder pressure & Burn rate curves
Spark timing
Abnormal combustion
6
The importance of engine conception on performance

Understanding the limitations imposed by the rules
Engine conception from scratch
Displacement
Number of cylinders
Bore-stroke ratio
Combustion chamber
Compression ratio
Intake & Exhaust system
Engine layout
7
Sensors and actuators

TMAP / MAF
O2 sensors
Injectors
Air charge calibration
Load calibration
Fuel calibration refinement
Enrichment impact on torque LBT
OL x CL
Spark Advance calibration
MBT
Cylinder Pressure Limit
Spark corrections
Knock Phenomena
Knock detection with in-cylinder pressure sensor
Knock detection with knock sensor
Knock control
8
Bibliography
The recommended bibliography on engine theory is:
Heywood, J. B., Internal Combustion Engines Fundamentals, 1988
Pignone, G. A., Vercelli, U. R., Motori ad alta potenza specifica, 2010
Hoag, K. L., Vehicular engine design Powertrain, 2006
Stone, R., Introduction to Internal combustion engines, 1999

Engine theory: Introduction
Rafael Licen Santos

Engine theory Introduction

Types of engines
Differences between passenger car engines and racing engines
Main engine parts
P-V diagram
Main parameters of engine performance
11
Engine theory introduction
Overal technical objective in racing:
Achievement of of vehicle configuration, acceptable within the rules,

which can transverse a given course in a minimum time when
operating manually be a driver utilizing techniques with his
capabilities
Driver should increase speed at a maximum rate (acceleration) out

of each turn and continue to the point where, with maximum braking
(decceleration) the speed can just be brought down to the maximum
speed for the next corner
12
Vehicle Acceleration
Vehicle speed vs Vehicle acceleration
350 4
Vehicle Speed
Longitudinal Acc
Lateral Acc
3
300
2
250
Vehicle Acceleration [ g ]
1
Vehicle speed [ km/h ]
200 0
150 -1
-2
100
-3
50
-4
0 -5
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Distance [ m ]
13
GG-Diagram
GG-Diagram
3
1
Longitudinal Acceleration [ g ]
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Lateral Acceleration [ g ]
14
Overal technical objective in racing:
Produce a tractive force that maximizes the longitudinal acceleration
forces (Tractive Resistive) = Mass * Longitudinal Acc.
15
Sensitivity Analysis - F3
Engine Power vs. lap time

4.00
3.00
Lap time [ s ]
2.00
1.00
0.00
-1.00
-2.00
-3.00
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Engine Power from baseline [ % ]
16
Types of engines
Otto cycle
Diesel cycle
17
Otto cycle engine Diesel cycle engine
18
Otto cycle race engines Diesel cycle race engines
High Power High Torque
High engine speed Medium engine speed
Spark ignition Compression ignition
Lightweight Heavyweight
Lower compression ratio Higher compression ratio
Power controller by air Power controller by fuel
Limited by knocking Not limited by knocking
Durability issues More robust engine

19
Types of engines High performance
20
Types of engines Port-fuel injection
21
Types of engines Direct injection
22
Racing engines Passenger car engines
10000-20000 rpm max. 5000-9000rpm max.
Lightweight materials (CF, Al) Heavyweight materials
Fast acceleration Slow acceleration
Precicely controlled Manufactured in production
Most of time at full load Most of time at part load
Durability 2k-10k km Durability 120k-160k km
23
Engine parts
Moving parts
24
Engine parts
Piston
25
Engine parts
Crankshaft
26
Engine parts
Cylinder Head
27
Engine parts
Engine block
28
Engine parts
Intake system
29
Engine parts
Intake system
Exhaust system
30
Engine parts
Fuel injection
31
Combusion chamber
32
4 stroke cycle
Intake Compression Expansion Exhaust
33
Bore x Stroke x Displacement
34
Compression ratio
35
P-V Diagram
36
Main Parameters of engine performance
IMEP = Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
37
BMEP = Brake Mean Effective Pressure
A constant pressure acting on top of the piston during the combustion

cycle of the 4 strokes would produce a work per cycle
Wc = p * displacement
The work of the shaft during a cycle is equal to the product of the
torque C by an angle of rotation in radians (4 for a 4-stroke engine)
Wc = 4 * C
The constant pressure p on the piston that makes equal the two
expressions of Wc is called the Brake Mean Effective Pressure
BMEP * displacement = 4 * C
38
BMEP = Brake Mean Effective Pressure
BMEP is therefore proportional to a torque per unit volume of

displacement or to a work per cycle and per unit volume of displacement
10bar = 1 kJ/liter
39
FMEP = Friction Mean Effective Pressure
FMEP is the difference between the work delivered to the piston and the
work delivered to the crankshaft
FMEP = IMEP - BMEP
40
Energy transformation in an engine
41
Power P (W) = Work (J) / time (s) = Energy flow
42
Average Piston speed

In 1 second, the engine makes (N/60) revolutions and the piston runs 2
times the stroke of each revolution. Its average speed is therefore:
Vp is the piston speed ; N is the engine speed
Formula 1 cars have Vp = 25-30 m/s (18000-20000 rpm)
Passenger cars have Vp = 14-18 m/s (5000-6000rpm)
43
Product Vp * BMEP
Sp is the surface corresponding to the sum of the cross section of the

pistons
The product Vp * BMEP is therefore proportional to the power per unit of

surface of the piston and can represent in the first approximation as the
thermal charge of an engine
44
Power and Torque vs Engine speed
Power & Torque curves - F1 engines
1000
F1 Engine 01
900
F1 Engine 02
800
Power (HP) & Torque (Nm)
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000 20000
Engine Speed [ rpm ]
45
Power and Torque vs Engine speed
At higher speed brake power decreases as friction power becomes
significant compared to the indicated power (BMEP = IMEP-FMEP)
Brake Torque drops off at lower engine speed due to heat losses
At higher engine speed it becomes more difficult to admit more air
The maximum BMEP is obtained at WOT at a particular engine speed
For a given displacement, a higher maximum BMEP means more

torque. For a given torque, a higher maximum BMEP means smaller
engine
Higher maximum BMEP means higher stresses and temperatures in

the engine hence shorter engine life
46
Derived from Pignone, G.A & Vercelli, U.R., 2010
Wu = Brake Power
Z = Number of cylinders
Sp = Piston surface area
Vp = Piston speed
T = 4 (4 stroke) / 2 (2 stroke)
c = Combustion efficiency
ac = Adiabatic efficiency
id = Ideal cycle efficiency
l = Limit cycle efficiency
ip = Indicated efficiency
p = Pumping efficiency
47
Trapping efficiency t
NOT all the fuel injected is admitted in the cylinder
The trapping efficiency is defined as the ratio between the fuel mass
in the cylinder and the total fuel mass injected
mbc = mass of fuel in the cylinder [kg]

mbt = total mass of fuel injected [kg]
48
Volumetric efficiency vt
There is a difference in the density of air from inlet conditions to the

combustion chamber conditions due to heat and pressure losses
The volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio between the fuel

mass (proportional to air) in the cylinder and the ideal fuel mass
considering the inlet conditions

mbid = ideal mass of fuel at the reference conditions [kg]
49
Combustion efficiency c
Efficiency of the combustion chamber and combustion process
NOT all the heat from the amount of fuel in the cylinder can be
released due to an inefficiency of the combustion
The combustion efficiency is defined as the ratio between the heat

released effectivelly and the heat correspondent to the complete
combustion of the mass of fuel in the cylinder
Qb = Heat released by the combustion [kJ]

Qc = Heat from the amount of fuel in the combustion chamber [kJ]
50
Why combustion efficiency < 1
51
Adiabatic efficiency ac
Efficiency of the combustion chamber
NOT all the heat from the combustion generate work cycle
One part of the combustion heat is lost by convection and radiation
The adiabatic efficiency is defined as the ratio between the heat

released to the cycle (that generates work) and the heat from
combustion

Qe = Heat released to the cycle [kJ]
52
Ideal efficiency id
Efficiency of the ideal cycle
Lid = Ideal work based on ideal cycle (Theoretical cycle) [kJ]

53
Ideal efficiency id
Why such a difference between the real and theoretical cycle
Combustion is not instantaneous (non isochoric)
Compression and expansion of a real cycle are not adiabatic,

because of heat transfer between gases and cylinder wall
Mass transfer (inlet and exhaust) are not free! Negative work called
pumping work
varies in fuction of fuel/air equivalence ratio, pressure, temperature

and chemical constitution of gases before and after combustion
54
Limit cycle efficiency l
Efficiency of the real cycle based on variability of the fuel properties

when changing the pressure and temperature
Thermodynamic cycle is affected by the variability
The limit cycle efficiency is defined as the ratio between the work
from the limit cycle and the ideal work
Ll = Limit cycle work[kJ]

Lid = Ideal work based on ideal cycle (Theoretical cycle) [kJ]
55
Indicated efficiency ip
Given by the positive part of the P-V diagram
The indicated efficiency is defined as the ratio between the work from
the positive area of the P-V diagram and the limit work
Ll = Limit cycle work[kJ]

Lip = Work from positive part of the P-V diagram[kJ]
56
Pumping efficiency p
Given by the positive part of the P-V diagram
The indicated efficiency is defined as the ratio between the work from
the positive area of the P-V diagram and the limit work
Li = Work cycle [kJ]

Lip = Work from positive part of the P-V diagram[kJ]
57
Mechanical efficiency o
An additional portion of work is used to overcome the friction of the

engine and the accessories, which are called friction losses
The mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio between the work

available at the crankshaft and the useful work from the P-V diagram
Li = Work cycle [kJ]

Lu = Work available at the crankshaft [kJ]
58
How can the power of an engine be increased?
Four ways of increasing specific performance (kW/l)

Increase the Volumetric efficiency (Intake, Exhaust, Acoustic effects)
Increase the inlet by turbocharging or supercharging
Reduce friction by improving the moving parts design
Reduce pumping losses by improving the of intake & exhaust
59
How can the power of an engine be increased?
60
Questions?
61
Engine theory: Volumetric Efficiency
Rafael Licen Santos

Definition of volymetric efficiency

The need for a high volymetric efficiency
Pressure losses
Pressure waves
2
Definition of Volumetric Efficiency
The volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio between the fuel mass
(proportional to air) in the cylinder and the ideal fuel mass considering
the inlet conditions

mbid = ideal mass of fuel at the reference conditions [kg]
3
An engine is like a volumetric pump that draws in an identical volume

of air to the volume of the volumetric cylinder capacity
In this ideal engine, the air mass introduced only depends on the air
density in the intake manifold,
Unfortunately, this ideal engine does not exist!
4
If the ambient air has a density 0, each cycle, the engine should, in
theory, draw in an air mass Mref = 0 Vcyl, where Vcyl is the total
cylinder capacity of the engine
In real life, the engine draws in an air mass Ma Mref
In general Ma < Mref because:
The density of air drawn into the cylinders is different from 0 due
to pressure losses, heat exchanges (hot cylinder walls) and
pressure wave phenomena
The actual volume drawn in by the piston is not exactly the same
as the volume of cylinder capacity due to the presence of residual
gases in the cylinder, space possibly ocuppied by vaporized fuel
and the opening and closing angles of the valves
5
We dont distinguish what is due to the change of density and what is

due to the difference in volume drawn in and, usually, is the volumetric
efficiency defined as:
Mref
Ma
Ma = Real mass of air inducted into the cylinders[kg]

Mref = Mass of air that would be inducted at the inlet conditions (p, T) [kg]
6
The need for a high volumetric efficiency
To increase the performance, the Mref (inlet) and vt must be increased
7
Why would be the volumetric efficiency < 1
8
Why would be the volumetric efficiency < 1 (Backflow)
9
Pressure losses
Bernoullis equation
The sum of the pressures and mechanical energy per unit of volume
along a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline
Dynamic pressure + Force of gravity + Static pressure = constant

is the density in kg/m
u is the speed of the fluid in m/s
g is the gravitacional force 9,81 m/s
z is the vertical elevation in meters
p is the static pressure in Pascal
10
Pressure losses
Pressure measurement
11
Pressure losses
Definition of pressure loss
Pressure loss is the total pressure drop over the length of the circuit
that is the result of energy losses (friction, separation, etc)
12
Pressure losses
Equivalent (or effective) cross section
When load is lost via a turbulent flow, the mass flow of an

incompressible fluid is proportional to the square root
of density,
Of the difference in pressure p between the inlet and the outlet
Everything occurs as if the fluid had been taken up to speed through a

ficticious cross section said to be equivalent (or effective) Se and all
the speed created in this way was then dissipated by vortices and heat
Kg/s m Kg/m Pa
13
Pressure losses
Influence of engine speed on pressure loss
14
A basic requirement of the port and valve assembly design is to enable

the engine to have high volumetric efficiency for achieving high torque
and power.
During the early stage of engine development, the performance of the

port/valve assembly in terms of the air flow capacity is usually
assessed under steady flow test conditions, using the ratio of the
measured mass flow rate to the theoretically calculated flow rate
through a reference flow area in the port/valve assembly.
This flow rate ratio is commonly called discharge coefficient or flow

coefficient, depending on which flow area is used as the reference
15
The 'discharge coefficient', Cd, refers to the flow rate ratio referenced to
the gap between the valve lips and the valve seats, and there several
ways of defining this gap area
The 'flow coefficient', Cf, refers to that corresponding to the flow area in
the port, either the minimum flow area (port throat) or the valve inner
seat area, in which the valve stem blocking effect can be included or
neglected
16
The 'discharge coefficient' (Cd), which decreases with valve lift,

reflects the flow restriction produced by the valve and seat lips at low
valve lifts which then determine the flow orifice area
The 'flow coefficient'(Cf), which

increases with valve lift, reflects the
restriction by the port geometry, when
the gap area between the valve and
seat lips becomes comparable to or
beyond the port throat area
17
The flow bench
18
Characteristics areas
19
Pressure waves
Naturally aspirated racing engines have tuned intake systems and can
now achieve volumetric efficiencies in excess of 125% and peak
engine speeds in excess of 18,000 rpm
Engines designed for single seater racing commonly dispense with the
intake manifold and its convoluted and restricting flow path preferring
single lengths of pipe feeding each cylinder separately
In the main, the engine tuning process involves the selection of an

appropriate pipe length along with the sizing and timing of the intake
(and exhaust) valves in order to harness the unsteady flow in the
intake to produce improved volumetric efficiency
20
Pressure Waves
Influence of pressure waves on Volumetric efficiency
21
Pressure Waves
Resonance
It occurs through amplification of the response or the amplitude of the

vibrations of any system depending on the excitation frequencies and
depends on characteristics frequencies of the system
22
Pressure Waves
Propagation of a negative pressure wave (end open)
The frequency of the pressure wave does not depend on the speed
23
Pressure Waves
Propagation of an excess pressure wave (end closed) of wave
24
Pressure Waves
To use a pressure wave, the following is necessary
25
Pressure Waves
How can these pressure waves be used
26
Pressure Waves
The pressure waves must be phased in order to increase filling.

However, if these correctly phased waves have no energy, the effect
will have no impact on filling
Its necessary to combine
1. Good wave phase shift
2. With sufficient amplitude to have impact on the operation of the

engine
27
Pressure Waves
For an engine with given cylinder capacity, we want to obtain

maximum power at N speed
Choice of phase shift used
First it is necessary to choose the phase step that you wish to use
and to determine at what speed it is desired
28
Pressure Waves
Choice of duct diameter
We will require a duct with the smallest diameter possible to give

better amplitude of pressure waves
Smaller diameter increase speed Pressure losses increases
Filling significantly degraded at high speed
High duct diameter doesnt generate pulsation Amplitude very

poor
29
Pressure Waves
Choice of duct diameter
30
Pressure Waves
A reduction in the diameter of the inlet ducts makes it possible to modify

the amplitude of acoustic waves but with an increase in the loss of
pressure at high speeds
Experience shows that a good acoustic / pressure loss compromise can

be obtained by choosing an inlet duct cross section such that the
maximum power mode, an average flow speed of the order of 100-110
m/s is obtained
31
Pressure Waves
At Low speed
The system starts to resonate upstream of the plenum
At High speed
Free oscillation between valves and plenum
32
Pressure Waves
Low Speed High speed
Excitation Forced oscillation of the plenum Aspiration by each piston
by all cylinders hence resonance creates free oscillation in
of the system upstream of the the pipe between the inlet
plenum valve and the plenum
Amplitude of Low (Low piston speed) High + few returns of the
excitation pressure waves (less
dampening
Phase Depends on number of cylinders Depends on intake phase
lag and the length of the
duct between the valve and
the plenum
Desirable plenum Small Major
volume
Frequency = f (Ncyl) Yes (variable frequency) No (fixed frequency)
33
Performance targets defined

Power and torque targets, or target torque curve
Converted to volumetric efficiency target using brake specific air
consumption estimation if baseline engine combustion and friction are
unknown
Model specification defined, manifold depression, back pressure etc.
Baseline model constructed based on initial assumptions
Optimisation performed for different components:
Inlet manifold including variable length
Exhaust manifold
Cam profile selection
Optimum dimensions used to generate component designs
Actual dimensions of designed components re-modelled in 1D model to check
the effect of package constraints etc
Re-optimisation performed if required
34
Example of optimisation
Baseline Model:
Base engine model or initial assumptions
Exhaust Optimisation Inlet optimisation Variable runner investigation

Assumed inlet, cams Baseline cams, exhaust if required
Cam optimisation
Best current inlet, exhaust
Updated baseline
Best inlet, exhaust, cams
Update with package feasible inlet and exhaust

dimensions from CAD
Final optimisation to investigate minor changes to CAD geometry
Final model
35
Inlet optimisation
Dimension sweeps and DOEs performed of inlet runner dimensions

Optimised for target speeds and repeated at a number of other speeds to give
best compromise
Valve timing optimised independently for each runner dimension
Repeated with a number of cam and port options Taper of outlet
diameter to port
Primary outlet dia
diameter
Primary inlet dia Inlet Port
Port diameter
set for target
mean port
Primary Length Port Length velocity
36
Inlet optimisation
Doe result, Inlet length vs inlet diameter at plenum for peak power speed
Plot of Volumetric Efficiency shown
Primary inlet diameter

Optimum
Dimensions for
max volef
Selected,
packageable
optimum Primary length (to valve) Ridge of
dimension optimum
dimensions
37
Inlet optimisation
Doe result, Inlet and outlet runner diameters for selected optimum length
Selected
dimension
38
Exhaust optimisation
High pressure pulses are seen in the exhaust and due to the temperature
high gas velocities
Multiple reflections and complex resonances
Tuned 4-2-1 system can be optimised to give multiple tuning peaks through
the speed range
Head
flange Secondary
Diameter
Primary
Diameter
Primary Length Secondary Length
39
Cam optimisation
Cam profiles scaled to give an indication of the optimum lift and duration
Models run as either sweeps or DOEs
Initial estimates for the optimum cams determined and a number of profiles
designed
Model rerun with actual profiles to check results and select optimum profile
40
Effect of tuning on manifold pressure
Plot shows pressures at the inlet and exhaust valves, cylinder pressure and
valve lift, at peak power speed for this engine
Intake tuning gives

high pressure at IVC
Exhaust tuning
gives low
pressure at
overlap
41
Effect of tuning on manifold pressure
Optimum, packagable, dimensions for all components brought together with

optimum valve profiles and timing for final performance prediction
Long runner Short runner
Tuned short
inlet runner,
exhaust
manifold
Low speed Long inlet

exhaust runner tuning
tuning peak peak
42
Questions?
43
Engine theory: Mechanical Efficiency
Rafael Licen Santos

Definition of mechanical efficiency

The need for a high mechanical efficiency
Engine friction
2
Definition of Mechanical Efficiency
The mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio between the work

available at the crankshaft and the useful work from the P-V diagram
(at the top of the piston indicated work)
Li = Work cycle (delivered to the piston) [kJ]

Lu = Work available at the crankshaft [kJ]
3
These losses are eventually dissipated as heat and can be divided

into three different fractions:
The pumping work, referred to the work involved in the mixture

intake and burned gases exhaust processes
The work employed to overcome the resistance to the relative

movements between the engine parts
The work to drive external accessories, such as water, oil and fuel
pumps
4
Example of energy distribution of

an SI engine at part load
5
Friction Power loss

Increases mainly with engine speed
6
Another way of considering the friction losses is by the FMEP (Friction

Mean Effective Pressure) FMEP = IMEP PMEP BMEP
7
A reduction of FMEP can be very interesting at low loads
8
The need for high mechanical efficiency
9
10
11
12
13
Engine friction
Stribeck curve
14
Engine friction
Conditions
Engine operating point
15
Engine friction
Conditions
Engine operating point
16
Engine friction
Conditions
Lube Oil Viscosity
Temperature
Break-in
17
Pistons Piston rings Bearings Connecting rods

Height Axial width Profile Length
Mass Tangential load Width Mass
Two ring pack Running profile Diameter
Piston pin
Coatings Coatings Clearance
Mass
Stiffness Mass Finishing
Pin/hole Two ring pack Oil channel location
Pin offset Material
Conrod guidance
Skirt finishing/profile
18
Bore surface finishing
Crankshaft offset
Thermal management
Electrically driven accessories
Optimized oil pump
Variable oil pump
Optimized gas flow in the crankcase
19
Typical result for engine components friction (including pumping)
20
Typical result for engine components friction (without pumping)
21
Piston skirt
S p Ap , eff
FMEPhydrodyn
L B2
Ap ,eff h2
FMEPhydrodyn = 2
=
Ap ,eff h1
1
FMEPhydrodyn : friction mean effective pressure due to hydrodynamic shear stresses

Sp : mean piston speed
Ap , eff : piston skirt effective area in contact with cylinder wall
L : engine stroke
B : engine bore
22
Piston skirt
100%
Considering the total power loss of
baseline as 100%, about 97% of the SQUEEZE
power loss is due to hydrodynamic 95%
Friction power loss (%)

BOUNDARY
shear stresses for the baseline HYDRODYNAMIC
while for the optimized version this 90%
values drops to 84%. Some boundary
lubrication zones appeared in the 85%
optimized version, and their contribution
to the friction power loss is around 1%.
As a conclusion, the predicted total 80%
power loss was reduced about 13% in

this case 75%
Baseline Optimized
23
Piston skirt
Baseline Optimised Formula 1
24
Piston numerical simulation
25
Engine components friction 2.5
Power loss (kW)

2.0
Piston rings -30%
1.5
F fr p f 1.0
0.5
n
V
f = 0.0
1.1 N/mm2 0.8 N/mm2
p 1st ring 2nd ring oil ring
F fr : friction force; 0.5
FMEP 0.8 F fr p0.8
= 0.8
=
f : friction coefficient; FMEP 1.1 F fr
1.1
p1.1
p : load per unit length (gas pressure + ring tension);
: oil viscosity;
V : piston velocity;
n : constant dependent on oil viscosity (0.33 to 0.67, assumed to be 0.5)
26
Piston rings
Impact of ring height (h)

Impact of ring tangential force (Ft)
27
Piston rings numerical simulation
28
Bearings
The most important bearing parameters that affect engine friction are:
operational clearances
components roughness
bearings geometrical characteristics (diameter, width and
eccentricity)
These parameters affect the friction as they contribute to the

generation of the hydrodynamic pressure field over the bearing
29
Bearings
Impact of bearing width on power loss
Rated Power condition Peak torque condition

90
MB1
Power loss (W)

80 MB2
70 MB3
CB
60
50
40
30
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Width (mm)
30
Bearings
With a simpler approach, the total power loss due to main and conrod
bearings can be expressed by the following formulation
B N
FMEP( bearings ) = 41.4 K
L 1000
N: speed (rpm)
B: engine bore D 2 mb Lmb + D 2 rb Lrb / m
L: engine stroke K =
B3
Dmb: main bearing diameter
Lmb: main bearing width
Drb: conrod bearing diameter
Lrb: conrod bearing width
m: pistons per conrod bearing
31
Bearings
32
Bearings numerical simulation
33
Bearings numerical simulation
34
Connecting rod
Minimizing the connecting rod

mass, as one of the
reciprocating masses in the
engine, contributes to reduce
friction losses
In order to reduce friction, an

optimization of the connecting
rod design can be made with
use of finite element method for
stress analysis
35
Connecting rod
Impact in bearing friction loss by reducing the connecting rod mass in

10%
300 Current Con Rod
Lighter Con Rod
250 16%
15%
Power loss (W)
17%
200
11%
150
100
50
0
CB MB1 MB2 MB3
36
Virtual engine development (Mahle)
37
Methods of measuring friction
1. Indicating method
2. Motoring
3. Willans lines
4. Morse curve (shut-off)
38
1. Indicating method
Necessary to subtract the brake power from the indicated power.

Not easy to use this method due to the cylinder-to-cylinder differences
in indicated power and due to the difficulties in obtaining accurate
pressure data.
To get a satisfactory result on the calculation of Indicated Mean
Effective Pressure (IMEP), one must have an accurate Top Dead
Center (TDC) signal as well as a pressure acquisition interval well
below one crank angle degree.
Due to the relatively complex experimental set up, this method is
usually substituted by simpler methods
39
2. Motoring
This method consists in direct motoring of the engine, complete or

partially striped, (without firing), keeping the engine conditions and
temperatures as close as possible to the firing operation and evaluate
the amount of power required to do that
40
3. Willans line
Friction is estimated by using a plot of fuel consumption versus brake

torque at a given engine speed.
Extrapolating fuel consumption to zero leads to the necessary torque
to overcome friction losses
41
4. Morse test
by sequentially cutting off each cylinder from firing, while keeping

engine speed, allows one to calculate the friction loss based on the
brake power reduction.
This method is not advisable when electronic correction by Electronic
Control Unit (ECU) can not be disabled
42
Friction power is difficult to determine accurately
One common approach for high-speed engines is tthe motoring

method, which consists of driving or motoring the engine with a
dynamometer (i.e. Operating the engine without firing it) and measure
the power to overcome all friction losses
The major sources of innacuracy of this method are that gas pressure
forces on the piston and rings are lower in the motored test than when
the engine is firing and that the oil temperatures on the cylinder wall
are also lower under motoring conditions
43
Friction measurement (Indicating method vs motoring test)
Advantages of motored test with external charging

No cyclic variation
High reproducibility of friction measurement
Small changes in friction power loss can be evaluated
Pressure force on piston can be adjusted step by step
44
Questions?
45
Engine theory: Combustion
Rafael Licen Santos

Class 04 Combustion
Definition of combustion efficiency

Definition of adiabatic efficiency
LogP-LogV Diagram
Thermodynamic efficiency
Spark timing
Abnormal combustion
2
Definition of Combustion Efficiency
Efficiency of the combustion chamber and combustion process
NOT all the heat from the amount of fuel in the cylinder can be
released due to an inefficiency of the combustion
The combustion efficiency is defined as the ratio between the heat

released effectivelly and the heat correspondent to the complete
combustion of the mass of fuel in the cylinder

Qc = Heat from the amount of fuel in the combustion chamber [kJ]
3
Definition of Combustion Efficiency
Why combustion efficiency < 1
4
Definition of Adiabatic efficiency
Efficiency of the combustion chamber
NOT all the heat from the combustion generate work cycle
One part of the combustion heat is lost by convection and radiation
The adiabatic efficiency is defined as the ratio between the heat

released to the cycle (that generates work) and the heat from
combustion

5
LogP-LogV diagram
6
Combustion
chamber
Exhaust Fuel injector

port
Spark plug Intake

port
Squish zones Piston design
7
8
Intake & Exhaust valve events
9
Under certain conditions (mixture proportion and temperature levels), a

chemical reaction occurs
This transformation is called combustion
Fuel Oxygen
Temperature
10
Combustion system objective Highest possible work at the crankshaft
Increase HP IMEP
Optimize the theoretical thermodynamic efficiency

Increase compression ratio
Increase polytropic coefficient (ex. Lean mixture)
Having the best cycle efficiency

Use all the fuel
Fast combustion
Good timing for combustion
Minimize heat transfer
11
Combustion system objective Highest possible work at the crankshaft
Reduce LP IMEP
Increase inlet pressure

Put more air in the cylinder (lean mixture)
Add a neutral gas (EGR)
Adjust valve lift and timing
Turbocharging / Supercharging
Reduce the exhaust backpressure
12
Air-Fuel ratio
Ratios
Air/Fuel Ratio = A / F = (air mass / fuel mass)

Fuel/Air Ratio = F / A = (fuel mass / air mass)
Lambda
=1 Stoichiometric mixture
<1 Rich mixture (excess of fuel)
>1 Lean mixture (excess of air)
13
Thermodynamic efficiency (Theoretical)
The theoretical thermodynamic efficiency is given by:
= Compression ratio
= ratio of gas specific heat capacities, cp/cv
It depends on:
Engine conception ()
Nature of inlet gases ()
Example: =11 and =1,35 thermo=56,8%
14
Thermodynamic efficiency (Theoretical)
Theoretical thermodynamic vs Compression ratio
Optimum = 15 if heat
transfer is considered
15
The main combustion constraints are related to the engine architecture
Maximum Cylinder Pressure

Resistance of the components (gasket, piston, rings, conrod,
bearings, etc)
Exhaust temperature (exhaust valves, exhaust manifold)
Thermal flux to the components:

Cylinder head, piston and cylinder wall
Abnormal combustion
Pre-ignition
Knocking
16
The importance of turbulence
The laminar flame speed is not sufficient for having a good combustion
centered around the top dead center
The laminar flame speed depends on:
Fuel/air equivalence ratio (optimum around 1)
Pressure and temperature
The turbulence helps to increase the total flame surface, which
increase the reaction rate
17
Turbulence is generated by destruction of macro-structures during compression

The turbulence level of a combustion chamber will depend on 2 main parameters:
Initial aerodynamic level
Capacity of the chamber to convert this structured movement into turbulence
18
Depending on the engine technology, 3 types of turbulence can occur:
Swirl Tumble Squish
19
Advantages of high turbulence level

Fast combustion and stable lower cycle-by-cycle variation
Capacity of burn stratified mixture
Higher resistance to internal residual gases
Disadvantages of high turbulence level

Higher thermal losses lower thermal efficiency
Higher pressure losses in the intake port lower volumetric eff.
20
The importance of turbulence Intake port
The intake port has two functions:

1. Permeability: capacity to ensure maximum flow under certain difference of
pressure (pressure losses)
2. Capacity to generate a structured aerodynamic movement (Swirl & Tumble)
A compromise has to be achieved between permeability/turbulence
High permeability Strong tumble

Low tumble vs. Low permeability
Performance optimised Fuel consumption optimised
21
In order to create an air movement, a sudden variation of shape, near

the the inlet valve is needed
vs.
22

High Flow port High Tumble port
23
24
The importance of turbulence Squish
Generates turbulence level near spark plug

Cool down the wedges of the combustion chamber (enhance knock
resistance)
TKE
m/s Spark plug
Squish area Combustion chamber
25
The importance of turbulence Direct injection
Tumble is very important for locating a part of mixture near the spark plug
The objective is to have a sufficient fuel/air ratio in order to ignite easily

the combustion
Different ways for creating it:
Piston shape
Intake port shape
Injector spray shape
26
Mixture preparation
27
28
Best CA50 for maximum work is more or less at 8CA after TDC
The reason why CA50 is best at 8CA and not at 0CA cames from
heat transfer Why?
29
Best cycle efficiency for CA50 = 0

The lower is CA50, higher is the cylinder pressure
Heat transfer increases when CA50 drops
Hence, the heat transfer influence on global efficiency increases when
CA50 is reduced
Cylinder pressure [bar]
Crank Angle [CA]

30
Spark timing (ST) effects (Also called Spark Advance - SA)
31
32
33
34
The spark timing for which maximum torque is obtained is called

MBT (Maximum Brake Torque) timing
35
Combustion related parameters
In-cylinder pressure curve (300 cycles & 1000 cycles if required)

Maximum Cylinder Pressure
Angle of Maximum Cylinder Pressure (APmax)
Maximum Rate of Pressure Rise (dP/d)max and Crank angle
Max. Rate of Heat Release (dQ/d)max and Crank angle
Start and End of combustion (SOC and EOC)
Mass Fraction Burn point 2%, 10%, 50%, 90%
Burn duration 0-2%, 0-5%, 0-10%, 10-90%
Maximum knocking Pressure and Percent of cycles
Misfire Lowest normalised value - LNV = (min IMEP) / (mean IMEP)
36
Spark timing
Spark timing = f (Engine speed , Engine load)

For turbocharged engines, decreasing spark timing can be very dangerous
for the turbine
37
Spark timing
Spark timing = f (Engine speed )

Since piston speed increases with rising engine speed, the spark timing
must be advanced to meet the demand that the CA50 = 8CA after TDC
Combustion rate Piston speed

Actual ~ constant Increases as rpm increases
Goal: 50% energy conversion at 8CA after TDC
As engine speed increases

Ignition advance
38
Spark timing
Spark timing = f (Air charge)

Rising the air charge increases temperature and pressure in the combustion
chamber, which leads to higher flame speed
Higher air charge
Higher pressure and temperature in the combustion chamber
Higher tendency towards self Higher flame speed

ignition (high loads)
Knocking Earlier energy conversion
Spark timing retard

39
Spark timing
Spark timing = f (Charge motion)

Charge motion leads to higher flow velocity and a better mixture preparation
Higher charge motion
Higher flow velocity (turbulence) and better misture preparation
Higher flame speed
Earlier energy conversion
Spark timing retard

40
Spark timing
Spark timing = f (Residual gas fraction)

Residual gas fraction leads to reduction of the combustion rate later energy
conversion
Higher proportion of residual gas
Lower combustion rate
Later energy conversion
Spark timing advance
41
Spark timing
Spark timing = f (Temperature)

Higher temperature in the combustion chamber causes a more rapid complete
combustion, which means that the energy conversion is advanced
Higher intake air & engine temperatures Higher
knocking
tendency
Higher combustion chamber temperature
Faster complete combustion
Earlier energy conversion
Spark timing retard

42
Spark timing
Spark timing = f (Fuel type)

Using fuels with lower octane number increases the tendency to knock,
therefore the spark timing must be retarded
Fuel type with a low octane number
Higher knocking tendency
Spark timing retard
43
Spark timing
Spark timing = f (Lambda)

Lambda influences the flame speed, in which its maximum lies in a range of
lambda = 0,85-0,9
On the other hand, as lambda increases causes a temperature decrease in the
combustion chamber
44
Abnormal combustion
45
Abnormal combustion definitions
Normal combustion is defined as a combustion process in which:

The combustion event is initiated solely by a timed spark event
The flame front propagates completely across the combustion chamber
The flame propagation is relatively uniform and consistent
Abnormal combustion can refer to a variety of situations in which one or

more of the above definitions does not hold.
This includes processes where the flame fails to completely consume
all of the charge (partial burns and misfires), where the flame front is
initiated prior to or after spark ignition by other means such as a hot
spot in the chamber (preignition), or where some or all of the charge is
consumed at extremely high rates (knock).
In the case of KNOCK, the combustion event is abnormal due to the rapid
release of chemical energy contained in the end gas.
46
Auto ignition theory
The end-gas region of the combustion chamber is compressed to

sufficiently high pressures and temperatures by the normally
advancing flame front to initiate autoignition.
Self-ignition of the end-gas occurs spontaneously, resulting in a

rapid release of heat energy
This rapid heat release creates very high localized pressures in the
combustion chamber, particularly in the end gas region, thereby
exciting chamber resonances.
47
Detonation theory
Under knocking conditions, the advancing flame front accelerates

to (super)sonic velocity and consumes the end-gas region at a rate
much faster than would occur with normal flame speeds
This theory has led many to refer to knock as detonation
High-speed photographic studies do not seem to support this

theory
48
Knock definition
Knock is defined as the explosive spontaneous ignition of fuel-air

mixture ahead of the normal propagating flame and the subsequent
cylinder pressure oscillations in homogenous-charge spark ignition
engines (autoignition)
Knock is predominantly subsonic

Knock responds to changes in fuel octane
Knock occurs late in the burn event (after 90-95% of the
cylinder charge has burned)
Knock is not detonation, which is (super)sonic
49
Abnormal combustion
Understanding knock
Knock is undesirable because:

At the audible level it is a customer annoyance,
If heavy and sustained it can erode pistons, head gaskets, etc.
If sustained it can generate excessive surface temperatures, which
can lead to engine damaging preignition
During normal combustion, the flame front progresses at between 10 and

50 m/S. This process is generally smooth and controlled, and the pressure
at all locations within the combustion chamber is uniform (quasi-
equilibrium).
During knocking combustion, the acoustic natural frequencies of the

combustion chamber are excited, resulting in pressure waves that
reverberate throughout the combustion chamber at the speed of sound
(~1000 m/S)
50
Abnormal combustion
Knock & Pre-ignition
51
Abnormal combustion
Engine parameters influence on abnormal combustion
52
Abnormal combustion
Knock detection & analysis
2.0
Knock0 Cyl 1
1.8
72.000 Knock Count Cyl 2
Cyl 3
Cyl 4
1.6
1.4
1.2
KP_PK [bar]
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Count Threshold 0.0

30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Cycle [-]
53
Questions?
54
Engine theory: Engine conception
Rafael Licen Santos


Displacement
Number of cylinders
Bore-stroke ratio
Combustion chamber
Compression ratio
Intake & Exhaust system
Engine layout
2
Decisions made on the conception phase are very important through the
engine development process and most of the time cant be changed
Engine displacement
Number of cylinders
Bore/Stroke ratio
Naturally Aspirated / Forced Induction
Port-fuel injection / Direct Injection
Compression ratio
Intake & Exhaust systems
Cooling & Lubrication & Fuel systems
Engine parts design (moving & stationary parts)
3
Engine displacement is the directly related to the number of

cylinders and bore/stroke ratio Impossible to change once youve
noticed that the choice was not the best
Number of cylinders affects the size and weight of the engine and
needs to be carefully chosen based on the competition rules
almost impossible to have a V8 engine on a FSAE car (already
done in the UK)
Bore/ Stroke ratio affects directly the combustion and thermal
efficiencies and it is one of the main decisions to be taken on a NA
PFI engine
4
Naturally Aspirated engines are limited by the atmospheric

conditions (P, T), displacement and intake air restrictors (pressure
losses) Most effective performance improvement is engine speed
To improve engine speed you will need to consider the following
Valve gear (cams, valve springs, valves)
Piston and connecting rods
Oil pressure (for both crankshaft speed and piston cooling)
The process of engine development will use a lot of dyno time as
each component should be thoroughly tested ideally in a back to
back test
5
Forced induction engines have the advantage of additional

performance in the form of either turbo charging or super charging
All forms of supercharging generate a lot of heat and an intercooler
would be necessary
The overall installation weight penalty may be quite large
The tight and twisty nature of the track puts a premium on driveability
and although it is possible to get this with turbo charged
engines it is quite difficult
Turbo charged cars are very difficult to get off the start line
Most teams are not using all the performance that is available anyway
Fuel consumption of turbo cars can be very poor
6
Port-fuel injection (PFI) are most common on racing due to the

simpler and cheaper fuel system
Direct injection systems presents advantages in comparison with
the PFI system in terms of mixture preparation, injection control,
thermal efficiency (possible to increase the CR) but are more complex
systems (fuel injector & high pressure pump)
Compression ratio is a very important decision because it improves
the thermodynamic efficiency but on the other hand it limits the engine
at full load due to abnormal combustion. By increasing the engine
speed and the fuel octane number (ethanol), a good compromise in
compression ratio can be achieved
7
Intake & Exhaust system dictates the engine breathing and,

consequently, impact directly the volumetric efficiency
The physics of the intake and exhaust systems start with a very basic
concept pressure losses (Keep this in mind all the time)
Usually, intake air restrictors are used to balance the performance of
the engines, which requires special attention concerning air flow
efficiency (avoid flow separation)
The length of the intake & exhaust systems will impact on the
maximum engine speed and the volumetric efficiency curve shape
8
Cooling systems must be design to keep the engine at the desirable

temperature
If water cooled system is used, keep in mind that water weighs 1Kg /
litre so try to minimise the system water volume
The ducting of the air to and from the radiator is very important to its
performance, so a radiator in a silly place will have to be much larger
Water expands as it heats up so allow sufficient room in the header
tank
You need to be able to fill the system with water so provide air bleed
points at any local high spots
9
Engine parts design is a quite challenging task because advanced

simulation tools are used in the industry to correctly predict the
engine behaviour
10
Type of race (e.g. 1-2h race, 12-24h race)
Type of circuit ( High speed, Low speed, Acceleration)
FSAE Acceleration (Performance), Endurance (Durability, Efficiency)
Maximum Engine displacement (e.g F1 = 2,4L, FSAE = 0,610L)
Restrictor (e.g FSAE = 19/20mm, GT3 = f(engine))

Minimum engine weight & height
Sensors & Actuators (Electronic throttle control, Electronic Valve control,
Variable Intake System)
...
11
Example: FSAE competition Possibility to design the engine
4-stroke piston engine
0,610 L
19/20mm Air restrictor (depending on the fuel)
Turbocharger / Supercharger allowed
Exhaust pipe length limited (60 cm behind the centreline of the rearwheel
Noise
12
Questions:
What is the torque curve we are looking for?

Simulation
What is the best engine for all events?
Engine weight
Engine complexity Benchmarking

Engine reliability
13
Simulation
Have a laptime simulation tool (LapSim, ChassisSim, RaceSim, etc)
Possible to create a quasi-static simulation tool in Matlab, Excel
Have an 1D simulation tool (GT-Power, Ricardo Wave, AVL Boost)
Fundamental to generate a full load curve
Model validation required (High complexity of phenomena)
Mass analysis tool Weight (Weight/Power ratio), CG excursion
FEA & CFD CFD mainly used for the intake system
14
Simulation
Typical 1D GT-Power model for a FSAE engine
15
Benchmarking
What type of engine is winning? Take into account the car as well
Level of vehicle longitudinal acceleration Take into account gearbox
Engine Torque & Power curves
Naturally Aspirated vs. Turbocharged
Intake & Exhaust configuration
Engine Efficiencies (Volumetric, Mechanical, Thermodynamic)
16
Displacement
Displacement Air mass Fuel mass Torque
Engine mass & inertia Fuel consumption

Engine volume Fuel tank size
Higher Displacement Higher maximum peak torque

Smaller Displacement Higher acceleration (for the same n. of cyl.)
Good compromise is the higher displacement low inertia (2-3 cylinders
for FSAE would be a good thing to think about)
17
Displacement
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption analysis (BSFC)
BSFC [g/kWh]
Fuel flow [g/h] / Power [kW]
Mass Air Flow [g/h] / (Lambda*AFR Stoich) Net Indicated Power [kW] - Friction Power [kW]
Theoretical air Flow [g/h] * Vol. Eff. Friction Power [kW]

Gross Indicated Power [kW] - Pumping [k ]
18
Displacement
Example: 55 kW at 9500rpm (Considering BSFC = 315 g/kWh, Vol. Eff = 0,95)
Fuel flow = 55 kW * 315 g/kWh = 17325 g/h / 1000 g/kg / 60 min/h = 0,289 kg/min
Mass Air flow = Fuel flow * Lambda * AFR Stoich
Mass Air flow = 0,289 kg/min * 0,85 * 13,3 (Gasoline E22)
Mass Air flow = 3,264 kg/min
Displacement = Mass Air flow / Air density / Engine speed * 2 rev/cycle / Vol. Efficiency
Displacement = 3,264 kg/min / 1,2 kg/m * 1000 liter/m / 9500rpm * 2 rev/cycle / 0,95
Displacement = 0,603 L (Nearly a FSAE engine!)

19
Displacement
Fuel consideration Gasoline vs Ethanol
20
Number of Cylinders
Once the displacement is defined

1 cylinder
2 cylinders V2
3 cylinders I3
Number of cylinder = function of:
4 cylinders I4, V4
Pachaging
6 cylinders in-line V6 Engine inertia (moving parts)
Friction
8 cylinders V8 Pumping losses
Surface-to-Volume ratio
10 cylinders V10 Engine speed
Balancing
12 cylinders V12 Cost & complexity
21
Bore-Stroke ratio
Knock tendency
Increased bore means longer distance from spark plug to possible auto-
ignitions sites (Gasoline)
Increased stroke can increase valve flow velocities if the valve size is kept
constant and hence increase tumble and therefore faster combustion
Thermal efficiency
Increased bore means larger piston and chamber area and hence more
heat transfer
Increased stroke tends to increase valve flow velocities and hence
increasing the heat transfer to the air during the intake stroke.
22
Bore-Stroke ratio
Friction
Friction is likely to scale with piston speed and therefore increase with
stroke
Extra friction surface (large bore) should also increase friction
23
Bore-Stroke ratio
24
Bore-Stroke ratio
25
Bore-Stroke ratio
26
Bore-Stroke ratio
Why an engine with a B/S < 1 is optimised for fuel consumption?
When contact surface is large, heat transfer is high
High heat transfer Drop of thermal efficiency
Parameter used to measure it Surface/Volume ratio (S/V)
Good S/V ratio = low bore/stroke ratio
Engines optimised for fuel consumption B/S around 0,85

27
Bore-Stroke ratio
Why an engine with a B/S >> 1 is optimised for racing engines?
Higher stroke Higher piston speed (to the same engine speed)
Higher stroke Higher friction losses (particularly at high speeds)
Short strokes allows engine speed to go very high (e.g. 20000rpm)
Higher bore Higher intake valves Higher Vol. Eff.
Higher bore Reduced forces on the piston (P = F/A)

28
Combustion chamber
The higher bore increases the surface area of the combustion chamber,
which increases the heat transfer to the cooling
In order to achieve the compression ratio, the combustion chamber
volume must be reduced, which affects the charge motion and the
combustion (flame propagation)
The higher surface area / volume ratio increases the heat transfer and,
consequently, reduces the thermal efficiency
Pentroof combustion chamber shape and valve angles

29
Combustion chamber
30
Compression ratio
Compromise between heat transfer, compression work, abnormal

combustion (CR = 13 is a good starting point)
31
Intake & Exhaust systems
Intake flows from air filter through throttle valve to air restrictor
Air restrictor with leads into air box which equalizes air flow
Intake runners lead air into intake ports and cylinder head
32
Engine Layout
33
Questions?
34
Engine theory: Engine calibration
Rafael Licen Santos

Rafael Peixoto Ferreira
Sensors and actuators

TMAP / MAF
O2 sensors
Injectors
Load calibration
Fuel calibration refinement
Enrichment impact on torque LBT
OL x CL
MBT
Cylinder Pressure Limit
Spark corrections
Knock Phenomena
Knock detection with in-cylinder pressure sensor
Knock detection with knock sensor
Knock control
2
The electronic fuel injection system is used as a control system of the engine.
.
3
Sensors and Actuators Intake air
TMAP (Temperature and Manifold Air Pressure) sensor widely used, low
cost, compact and robust design and signal quality:
Measures the intake manifold air temperature by a thermistor. The
PCM receives the resistance in and converts it through a transfer
function to temperature
Measures the intake manifold air pressure through a semiconductor
resistor bridge circuit with a silicon diaphragm and internal reference
vaccum. The output is a linear function of voltage x MAP.
MAF (Mass Air Flow) sensor less often, higher cost, higher erros with
lower mass flow, possible pulsation
It is a hot-film anemometer, that measures the variation of resistance in
a resistor bridge, and correlates it to heat transfer that was caused the
mass air flow through the sensor
4
Sensors & Actuators Exhaust Oxygen
Probably the most important sensor is the Exhaust Gas Oxygen sensor, also
called HEGO (heated exhaust gas oxygen)
It is composed of a zirconium ceramic, thin-film heater and mechanical casing.
It measures the Oxygen concentration in the exhaust gas through the Nernst
Voltage
The difference of oxygen concentration between exhaust and reference air,
creates a difference in electric potential in the ceramic that creates a transport of
oxygen ions from the reference to the exhaust.
5
Sensors & Actuators
Exhaust Oxygen: Nernst Voltage
6
Sensors & Actuators
Exhaust Oxygen: Voltage x Lambda x Temperature
7
Sensors & Actuators Injector
Fuel injector is a valve, with a flow control orifice. Fuel at medium to high
pressures (3,5bar in PFI up to 200bar in GDI) is at the injector entrance. A
metallic needle seal the exit orifice. In the body of the injector there is a wire
solenoid. The injector is always with 12V supplied by battery and the PCM
controls a pulsed ground to this solenoid, which allows a current to pass
through it, then the consequent induced magnetic field raises the needle and
allows the fuel to be injected.
It means that there is a delay for opening the injector, and

for closing it, compared to the time when the PCM controls
the pulsed ground signal these are the injector dead-
times
The consequence of this is that there is a maximum and

minimal injector times possible, function of needle inertia,
magnetic field magnitude and control driver characteristics
8
Then the injector can be expressed through a curve, called injector

characterization curve, that correlated the fuel mass flow versus injector
pulse width
Linear
zone
Minimum injection
time
Non-linear
zone
9
The air charge calibration consists of correlating the mass of air aspirated into the
cylinder into Load percentage.
It is used an indirect approach for this determination, making use of the AF ratios
of the air-fuel mixture used.
The engine is put in a dyno power test cell, with a known fuel, for example, E24.
For each MAP and engine speed point, it is changed the base injection map up
to an exhaust measured Lambda of stoichiometric
10
The next step is to measure at the dyno, the mass of fuel that was consumed,
read by the fuel balance. The balance can be either gravimetric, PLU or Coriolis-
based.
With the value of fuel mass available, it is possible to calculate the Air mass
that was aspirated, with the proper AF ratio.
Exercise: Using E24, AF ratio = 13,17. at =1.0, it was measured at the

dyno 25g of fuel for a 120s measurement, 2500RPM.
What is the air mass and load, considering a 4cyl PFI engine, 1.6L, without
valve overlap (not to consider internal EGR)? P ambient = 940mbar, Fuel
pressure = 4,2bar
11
The relationship of intake

MAP and the load is linear, for
each fixed engine speed
Load %
It means that a DoE can be
done in the air charge
calibration, to select 3 or 4
points per engine speed, and
calculate the load curves
based in MAP.
MAP
This is very efficient without
valve overlap
12
After the initial table of Air load is finished, correlating engine speed and MAP
with load output, it is time to consider the correction factors:
Base load is calibrated at warm engine (90C coolant - ECT) and air (20-40C -
ACT, to be chosen based on real-condition intake air temperature).
As the air temperature and coolant temperature changes, the mass of fresh air
aspirated changes as well, so correction factors must be used. Also a correction
of ambient pressure should be applied
ACT load
correction
Base Load Final Load
ECT load
Map at warm
correction
Ambient
Pressure
correction Speed MAP
13
Injection Tuning Calibration
Due to variation in the fuel pressure inside the fuel rail pulsation due to fuel
pump and fuel lines pressure losses, it is necessary a fine tuning of the base
injection maps.
It is performed a correction factor on the final injection time applied, in order to
keep as close to stoichiometry as possible
The corrections should be in the order of 3% to 5% maximum. Higher
discrepancies indicates a greater error in the load calculation.
Injection time
14
Open Loop Lambda target at WOT
After load tables are defined, the definition of target lambda can be calibrated.
At most conditions speed/load, the target lambda will always be 1,0
stoichiometry. However, at high load there is a benefit of changing this target
lambda. The torque has
higher output in the
richness condition
named LBT Leanest
Best Torque
If the fuel
=0,90 consumption targets
LBT
are less important
than the performance
requested, the
enrichment at wide-
open-throttle can be
used to gain 3-6Nm
depending on the
condition
15
Fuel Control: OL x CL
After the load tables are finished, and the injection tuning is optimized for
stoichiometry at all conditions, what should be the better decision, Open-Loop or
Closed-Loop fuel control?
Open-loop fuel (OL) means that the injection times are calculated and applied
for each condition, without any type of feedback.
Closed-loop fuel (CL) means that the signal of the O2 sensor will be used as a
control factor, to verify if the air-fuel mixture is lean or rich. In any case lean or
rich, a correction will be applied to keep the lambda as close to stoichiometric as
possible. If possible, always keep CL active, instead of OL
CL Proportional
Integral control
Prop
Stoichiometry rich
Upstream
threshold
O2 signal
(450mV) lean
16
The objective of spark calibration is to optimize the pressure curve within the
combustion chamber
Opposing effects are acting together in the chamber:

Work losses due to compression of fuel-air mixture, friction of piston
rings/cylinder walls, oil losses
Work increase due to pressure rise of combustion process
For every condition of engine speed and load there is an optimum region
where the difference (Positive work) (Losses) is maximum, and thus there
is a maximum output of engine torque
This condition is named MBT Maximum Brake Torque

MBT depends on the spark advance applied, and the current richness.
This topic will be focused now on spark advance, at stoichiometric condition
17
Example of differences in pressure curve with varying spark advance
2500rpm, 50% load

A 20 spark advance
B 24 spark advance
C 8 spark advance
A is a regular combustion
B pressure rise induced

knocking
C is a late ignition
combustion with partial
misfire
18
Spark Advance calibration - Combustion chamber pressure transducer
For development it is commonly used a pressure transducer mounted inside the

combustion chamber, to get all the pressure signals and calculate the
thermodynamic cycle and combustion variables.
This is most often done with a piezo-electric pressure transducer inside the spark
plug, righ next to the plug electrode.
The pressure inside the chamber creates a deformation in the piezo cristal, which
converts it to a variation of electrical charge, and it is amplified and measured in a
A/D converter
19
Spark Advance calibration - Combustion chamber pressure transducer
The most commom piezo used today is the GaPo4 (galliumorthophosphate), due
to its high stability at high temperatures compared to quartz-similar piezos.
It means that no internal cooling device is needed and then the piezo cristal can be
placed directly in small, non-refrigerated spaces, such as the internal of a spark plug
20
Spark Advance Calibration - Methods for MBT determination
A: Spark advance sweep This simple method is

based in performing torque
measurements with same
MBT zone
steps of spark advance
variation.
The spark advance with
maximum measured torque
is the MBT
However, in general there is

a region of varying spark
advance with same
measured torque
(Remember to consider the
error of dyno measurement
9CA
~1Nm)
21
A: Spark advance sweep There is a linear correlation

of spark advance applied
and maximum cylinder
pressure
In this way the usual

procedure is to define the
spark advance that does
not surpass the component
limitation (ex: limitation in
pistion pin, conrod).
In the example, 21CA of

spark advance would give
the maximum torque, at a
Pmax + 2 standard
deviation of 70bar
22
B: Angle of 50% mass fraction burned

According to Rassweiler and Withrow, the measured cylinder pressure
during combustion is a sum of the pressure rise due to the combustion
flame propagation plus the pressure rise due to isoentropic compression of
air mixture:
The pressure of isoentropic cycle can be expressed as:
Considering that the pressure rise due to combustion is related to the flame
propagation, and thus to the buring of the the fuel mass in the air+fuel
mixture, it can be expressed that:
MFB is the mass fraction burned of
fuel-air mixture, correlated to
pressure rise measured, and
function of crank angle. 23
Methods for MBT determination:Angle of 50% mass fraction burned
Measuring the
Pmax at difference of combustion
14CA pressure versus
volumetric pressure
creates the Mass
Fraction Burned curve
8CA
The MBT is correlated to
the position 8CA of
MFB50%, in a wide
range of combustion
chamber designs,
compression ratios and
fuels
50% MFB One other possible but
less accurate MBT
determination is Pmax
at 14CA
24
Spark Advance Calibration

Base spark Advance map progression:
For every speed/load condition it is determined the MBT spark advance. The
progression of the base spark maps usually follows as: Due to the flame speed in
At lower loads, higher spark advance; the combustion chamber
At higher loads, lower spark advance; versus piston speed
At lower speeds, lower spark advance; lower loads = slower flame
At higher speed, higher spark advance; front; higher speeds = less
time for flame propagation
at the same flame speed
Engine Speed (RPM)
Load %
25
Spark Advance Calibration - Spark Advance chain of calculation:
The final spark advance at any operating condition is never a single base map
speed x load. In fact, it is a sum of several spark corrections, due to the variation of
overall operating conditions.
The most commom spark corrections are based in:
All types of torque reserve (idle, consumers, drivability)
Intake Air temperature
Engine coolant temperature
Lambda
Knock correction Knock
Torque
Fuel type Air Intake reserve
Correction
(per cylinder)
Temperature
Lambda
Base, knock Applied
Fuel Type limited Map Spark
Advance
Engine
Coolant
26
Spark Advance corrections: Air Intake and Coolant Temperatures
At higher air intake and coolant temperatures, the knock tendency increases, so
usually a degradation of spark advance is expected to prevent excessive knocking.
Hot Air and Coolant (Tair > 50C, Tcoolant > 100C)
At higher loads, higher degradation is necessary (lower spk adv) higher

pressures in combustion chamber, higher knock tendency
At lower engine speeds, higher degration is necessary slower engine speed

means more time for the fuel-air mixture exchange heat with the hot surfaces of
combustion chamber, valves, cylinder head, which increases knock tendency
Cold Air and Coolant (Tair < 20C, Tcoolant < 60C)
Combustion flame speeds is slower, which means additional spark advance is

necessary to keep MBT
Less knock tendency overall
27
Spark Advance corrections: Lambda, Fuel and Torque reserve
Lambda effect: Increasing the richness (lower ), the knock tendency is reduced,
so higher spark advance can be used. However, the flame propagation speed also
increases (up to ~ = 0,85), so the spark advance increase must be carefully
verified together with knock sensor / cylinder pressure response.
Fuel effect: Different fuels, for ex: E22 x E100, have different RON levels (regular
E22 RON92-96; premium E22 R98-105; E100 7%hydrated RON>120), which
means different knock limits for the same speed/load condition. It means that
different spark advance base maps should be used for a particular chosen fuel
type. MBT is very similar among different fuels.
Torque reserves: All torque reserve types (idle reserve, clutch, FAN, AC,
drivability, etc) reduces the spark advance applied to create this reserve between
the optimum MBT torque and applied torque.
28
Spark Advance Calibration - Spark Advance corrections: Knock effect
When knock occurs, the collapse of several flame front waves creates a high
frequency response which can be heard (metallic noise), and can also be measured
by an accelerometer (knock sensor)
Knock occurs when the autoignition curve of the fuel-air mixture is crossed by an
over-temperature or an over-pressure in the chamber
The ways to remove knock is to lower the temperature of the chamber (richer
mixtures) or reduce peak pressures (reduce spark advance applied)
The knock wave collisions

increase momentarily the
maximum pressures inside
the combustion chamber,
with severe results to
components such as pistons
and valves
29

Spark Advance corrections: Knock detection
Following a pressure signal measurement with knocking
Oscillation of
measured pressure
Knock detection
window (~60CA)
30
Spark advance Calibration - Knock detection without pressure sensors:
The usual method of detecting knock without pressure signals is to measure the
frequency output of the vibration in the engine block.
This is done with one accelerometer knock sensor placed near the cylinder and
combustion chamber.
The knock sensor will measure the global vibration of the engine (vibration due to
valve closure, crankshaft and camshaft rotation, oil pump, coolant pump, etc), so a
proper signal filtering must be applied to avoid this background noise.
To calibrate knock, then it is necessary

to understand the output of the knock
sensor in details:
The signal is a high frequency voltage
output (right pict.), up to 10V
The PCM correlates the signal with
crank angle, and treats it only at a Typical knock
defined knock window sensor signal
31
The knock window is usually a 60CA total duration, starting at each cylinder TDC in
compression, in order to guarantee that all combustion event will be gathered inside
this window
During the knock window, the PCM does a digital high pass filter of the knock
sensor signal, usually between 9kHz and 16kHz of cutoff freq., to exclude most of
the other mechanical vibration happening at the engine.
However, some of the mechanical noise (and also the regular combustion noise)
remains in the frequency of filtering, so, another signal treatment is done:
After the HP filter applied, the signal is rectified to exclude negative components,
and an integration of the signal in the measured window is done.
32
Spark Advance Calibration - Visual example of signal treatment
33
Spark Advance Calibration - Overall functional diagram of knock detection
34
The integral value of a combustion event without knocking is the combustion

background noise, and is used as a reference value to determine the sensibility
threshold of knocking
Whenever the integral value of the knock sensor signal increases above the
reference background noise value, it is then determined that a knock event was
detected!
The following action after a knock is detected, is to reduce the spark advance
applied, in a Proportional Integral (PI) control-like, which will reduce from 3CA
up to 9CA (only in heavy knock) in one step the applied advance in the cylinder
that had a knock event detected.
Then the spark advance is progressively return to the base values, until a new
knock event is detected in the same cylinder
In heavy-knock conditions, a proper spark advance adaptative correction can be

used, to prevent excessive knock events.
35
Spark Advance Calibration Knock correction of spark advance
The blue, red, yellow and green curves are the spark advance removal due to
knocking. The red line in the botton is the sensibility threshold, and the white noise is
the treated signal of the knock sensor
Knock
events
36
Spark Advance Calibration Knock validation
For every condition of speed / load, leave knock control active and record the cloud
of points with and without knocking 5 regions are visible:
A: low pressure, low integral
no knock available and no
D knock was detected
B: high pressure, low integral
E problem!, high knock
Integral of knock
occurs but no detection,

sensor signal
C misdetection.
C: high pressure, high integral
system detects and
removes knock, heavy knock
D: low-medium pressure, high
A B integral system detects
and removes regular knock
E: no pressure, high integral
Delta pressure inside
combustion chamber problem!, false-detection
37
Questions?
38

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Engenharia de Competio

Rafael Licen Santos

06 days of course / 03 hours per day

Based on presentation / discussion

Class 01 Introduction to Internal Combustion engines

Class 02 Volumetric Efficiency

Class 03 Mechanical Efficiency

Class 05 Engine conception

Class 06 Engine calibration

The need for a high performance engine

Definition of volymetric efficiency

The need for a high volymetric efficiency

Discharge coefficient and Flow coefficient

Definition of mechanical efficiency

The need for a high mechanical efficiency

Engine components friction

Engine friction measurement

Definition of combustion efficiency

The importance of engine conception on performance

Sensors and actuators

The recommended bibliography on engine theory is:

Heywood, J. B., Internal Combustion Engines Fundamentals, 1988

Pignone, G. A., Vercelli, U. R., Motori ad alta potenza specifica, 2010

Hoag, K. L., Vehicular engine design Powertrain, 2006

Stone, R., Introduction to Internal combustion engines, 1999

Engine theory: Introduction

Rafael Licen Santos

The need for a high performance engine

Overal technical objective in racing:

Achievement of of vehicle configuration, acceptable within the rules,

Driver should increase speed at a maximum rate (acceleration) out

Overal technical objective in racing:

Produce a tractive force that maximizes the longitudinal acceleration

forces (Tractive Resistive) = Mass * Longitudinal Acc.

Engine Power vs. lap time

High Power High Torque

High engine speed Medium engine speed

Spark ignition Compression ignition

Lower compression ratio Higher compression ratio

Power controller by air Power controller by fuel

Limited by knocking Not limited by knocking

Durability issues More robust engine

10000-20000 rpm max. 5000-9000rpm max.

Lightweight materials (CF, Al) Heavyweight materials

Fast acceleration Slow acceleration

Precicely controlled Manufactured in production

Most of time at full load Most of time at part load

Durability 2k-10k km Durability 120k-160k km

Intake Compression Expansion Exhaust

Bore x Stroke x Displacement

IMEP = Indicated Mean Effective Pressure

BMEP = Brake Mean Effective Pressure

A constant pressure acting on top of the piston during the combustion

BMEP = Brake Mean Effective Pressure

BMEP is therefore proportional to a torque per unit volume of

FMEP = Friction Mean Effective Pressure

FMEP = IMEP - BMEP

Energy transformation in an engine

Power P (W) = Work (J) / time (s) = Energy flow

Average Piston speed

Vp is the piston speed ; N is the engine speed

Formula 1 cars have Vp = 25-30 m/s (18000-20000 rpm)

Passenger cars have Vp = 14-18 m/s (5000-6000rpm)

Sp is the surface corresponding to the sum of the cross section of the