Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Cross-Section Characteristics
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
All information in this document is subject to modification without prior notice. No part or this manual
may be reproduced, stored in a database or retrieval system or published, in any form or in any way,
electronically, mechanically, by print, photo print, microfilm or any other means without prior written
permission from the publisher. Scia is not responsible for any direct or indirect damage because of
imperfections in the documentation and/or the software.
ii
Table of contents
Table of contents
iii
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Version Information
This document provides background information regarding the calculation of Cross-section properties
according to different methods.
Version info
Document Title Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Release 2013.0
Revision 12/2012
1
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Introduction
In this Theoretical Background in depth information is given regarding the calculation of cross-section
properties.
The first chapter gives an overview of the different axis systems as well as a list of all cross-section
properties calculated by Scia Engineer.
The second chapter details the actual methods for determining cross-section properties. After
introducing the standardization of cross-section properties the overall procedure followed by Scia
Engineer is explained.
The chapter then explains the different numerical methods, both using 1D Finite Elements and 2D
Finite Elements, for calculating section characteristics.
The chapter concludes with a listing of all closed-form formulae used for standard section shapes.
2
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
In this chapter the different Axis systems used within Scia Engineer are outlined.
The second part of this chapter gives an overview of the properties related to these Axis systems.
Axis Systems
Within Scia Engineer the Cross-section Characteristics are referenced to three distinct Axis systems.
a) The UCS or 'Input' Axis system is defined using an arbitrary origin and uses a horizontal Y-axis
and a vertical Z-axis. This system serves as a reference from which the center of gravity is calculated.
b) The LCS Axis system has its origin in the center of gravity and YLCS and ZLCS axis parallel to the
axis of the UCS system. This system serves as a reference from which the rotation of the principal axis
is calculated.
c) The Principal Axis system has its origin in the center of gravity and principal y- and z-axis rotated
according to the angle of rotation between the principal and LCS systems.
In case the rotation angle of the Principal Axis system is zero, this system is equal to the LCS Axis
system. In this case, only the Principal Axis system is displayed.
3
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Cross-Section Characteristics
The following table provides an overview of all Cross-section Characteristics calculated by Scia
Engineer:
Property Description
A Area
Ay Shear Area in principal y-direction
Az Shear Area in principal z-direction
AL Circumference per unit length
AD Drying Surface per unit length
cYUCS Centroid coordinate in Y-direction of Input axis system
cZUCS Centroid coordinate in Z-direction of Input axis system
IYLCS Second moment of area about the YLCS axis
IZLCS Second moment of area about the ZLCS axis
IYZLCS Product moment of area in the LCS system
Rotation Angle of the principal axis system
Iy Second moment of area about the principal y-axis
Iz Second moment of area about the principal z-axis
iy Radius of gyration about the principal y-axis
iz Radius of gyration about the principal z-axis
Wely Elastic section modulus about the principal y-axis
Welz Elastic section modulus about the principal z-axis
Wply Plastic section modulus about the principal y-axis
Wplz Plastic section modulus about the principal z-axis
Mply+ Plastic moment about the principal y-axis for a positive My moment
Mply- Plastic moment about the principal y-axis for a negative My moment
Mplz+ Plastic moment about the principal z-axis for a positive Mz moment
Mplz- Plastic moment about the principal z-axis for a negative Mz moment
dy Shear center coordinate in principal y-axis measured from the centroid
dz Shear center coordinate in principal z-axis measured from the centroid
It Torsional constant
Iw Warping constant
y Mono-symmetry constant about the principal y-axis
z Mono-symmetry constant about the principal z-axis
In addition to these properties in each fibre of the cross-section for following unit stress values are
calculated:
4
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Subsequent subchapters deal with the actual calculation of properties, as well as the applied closed
form formulae.
- Area
- Center of Gravity
- Angle of the principal axis system
- Principal moments of Inertia
- Shear Center
- Torsion Constant
- Warping Constant
- Standardized Warping Ordinate
For a detailed background into the calculation of properties according to the above diagram reference
is made to Ref.[1]. Applied to Scia Engineer this gives the following differentiation:
Extended with:
- Ay, Az, AL, AD, iy, iz, Wely, Welz
- Wply, Wplz, Mply+, Mply-, Mplz+, Mplz-
- Unit stress Shear y, Unit stress Shear z
- Initial values for y, z
- General solid It
Extended with:
- Unit Torsion stress
- Final values for y, z
As indicated on the above diagram, each part is extended with multiple 'derived' properties i.e.
properties which are determined using the base properties calculated in that part.
5
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Overall Procedure
The previous paragraph showed the general principle of calculating cross-section properties using two
distinct parts. In addition to these parts, Scia Engineer also takes into account specific overrulings of
properties, for example in case the 2D FE Method is used, or in case a cross-section is taken from the
Profile Library etc.
The following diagram shows the complete calculation procedure as used in Scia Engineer.
By default, for Thick-walled sections the 2D FE Method is activated for Torsional analysis, however
this can be de-activated by the user leading to the Simplified Torsion analysis.
In the subsequent paragraphs of this chapter each item of the above diagram is described in detail.
6
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Basic characteristics
The basic cross-section characteristics are calculated using the standard formulas from solid
mechanics. For detailed information, reference is made to Ref.[3] and Ref.[4].
First, using the arbitrary origin of the UCS or 'Input' Axis system the following properties are
calculated using a horizontal Y-axis and a vertical Z-axis:
Area:
7
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Centroid:
The centroid defines the origin of the LCS Axis system with YLCS and ZLCS axis parallel to the axis
of the UCS system. According to these axis the second moments of area can be determined:
Finally, using these magnitudes the Principal Axis system and corresponding characteristics can be
determined:
8
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
in case
and
otherwise
The above determination of the angle of rotation accounts for minor numerical discrepancies. For
background information, reference is made to Ref.[1].
In addition, in case the angle of rotation is calculated according to the above formula and exceeds
a tolerance of 3, the angle is increased by in case Iz > Iy.
In case of multi-material cross-sections the basic characteristics are determined using the principles
given in this paragraph. For background information see Ref.[5]
Centroid
First the area Ai and centroid position of each cross-section part/polygon i are calculated.
To determine the location of the centroid (Neutral Axis 'NA') of the whole cross-section the following
general equation is used:
Where n represents the number of polygons and Ei the E-modulus of the material of the respective
polygon.
9
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
The distances z1, z2, zn are the distances from the NA to the centroid of each polygon (measured
in the UCS Axis system). These distances can be written in function of the centroid distance
cZUCS so the above equation can be solved this centroid distance.
The above equation illustrates the principle used for cZUCS, in the same way the equation can be
written out for cYUCS.
Area
The Area of the multi-material section is calculated using the following general formula:
Where n represents the number of polygons, Ei the E-modulus of the material of the respective
polygon and Ai the area of the respective polygon.
As indicated by the equation, each polygon of the multi-material cross-section is in fact referenced to
the material of the 'first' polygon.
Within Scia Engineer this literally means the 'first' inputted polygon. So the material of this 'first'
inputted polygon serves as reference material for the multi-material cross-section. This 'first'
material is shown with a cyan background color for easy reference.
The Second Moment of Area of the multi-material section is calculated using the following general
formula:
Where n represents the number of polygons, Ei the E-modulus of the material of the respective
polygon and Ai the area of the respective polygon.
As indicated by the equation, each polygon of the multi-material cross-section is in fact referenced to
the material of the 'first' polygon.
10
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
For those parts which are not connected the circumference AL is calculated as the summation of the
outer circumference of the different unconnected parts:
The drying surface per unit length AD is calculated as the outer circumference AL increased by the
circumference of any openings within the cross-section. In case there are no openings AD will thus be
equal to AL.
An 'opening' in this case concerns any closed in empty area within the cross-section. This calculation
method thus accounts for 'constructed' openings for example when creating an RHS from four separate
rectangles.
11
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
With: b(z) The width of the cross-section at position z from the principal y-axis
b(y) The width of the cross-section at position y from the principal z-axis
Sy(z) The First moment or Area of the 'cut-off' area A', determined
according to the principal y-axis
Sz(y) The First moment or Area of the 'cut-off' area A', determined
according to the principal z-axis
On the following picture the 'cut-off' area A' is illustrated for the Shear Area Az.
12
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
With Vy and Vz taken as unity and yi and zi the coordinates of fibre i in the principal axis system.
In case the width b at a given fibre position is zero the Unit Shear stress is taken as zero for that
fibre.
Radii of Gyration
The Radii of Gyration iy and iz about the principal axis are determined as follows:
13
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
The distances z and y according to the principal axis are determined for each fibre of the cross-section.
In essence each fibre thus has a different Elastic Section Modulus. The Moduli shown in the cross-
section properties are the minimal values taken over all fibres. These minimal values are thus obtained
by using the maximal fibre distances as shown in the above formulas.
The following picture illustrates the maximal distances for an arbitrary cross-section:
During stress calculations in the fibres (for example in the Steel checks), the stresses are
calculated in each fibre separately. These stress calculations thus use the actual Elastic Section
Moduli in each fibre and not the minima over the entire cross-section.
14
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Basic principle
In this paragraph the basic principle of the plastic property calculation is explained.
The principle is illustrated for a general cross-section made out of one material which has equal
characteristics in both tension and compression (like for example Steel).
As shown on the following picture, this cross-section is loaded by a bending moment M which causes
part of the cross-section to be in compression (C) and part of the cross-section to be in tension (T).
All the fibres in this cross-section have yielded as shown by the stress blocks.
The Plastic Neutral Axis (PNA) is defined by the axis located between the fibres yielding in
compression and those yielding in tension. This axis is off course parallel to the principal axis about
which the moment was applied.
For a single material cross-section with homogeneous material characteristics the PNA is easily
determined as the axis which splits the cross section into two equal areas: the area AC in compression
and AT in tension.
The Plastic Section Modulus Wpl is calculated as the sum of the First Moments of Area of the part in
tension (ST) and the part in compression (SC):
With: AC and AT The areas of the section in compression and tension respectively for a bending
moment about the given principal axis.
dC and dT The distances from the centroid of the areas of the section in compression and
tension respectively to the Plastic Neutral Axis, measured perpendicular to the
given principal axis.
Using the material strength f of the homogeneous material the Plastic Moment Mpl is calculated as
follows:
15
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
General formulation
The basic principle explained in the previous paragraph holds true for a homogeneous uni-strength
material. In general however there are several complexities which need to be accounted for:
- The material of the cross-section can have different characteristics in compression and in tension.
For a positive My bending moment about the principal axis, the concrete will be in compression while
the steel will be in tension.
In case of a negative My bending moment about the principal axis, the concrete will be in tension while
the steel will be in compression.
Depending on the position of the Plastic Neutral Axis one of the materials can even be partially in
compression and partially in tension.
The calculation of the Plastic Moment is therefore split according to axis and according to sign which
leads to Mply+, Mply-, Mplz+ and Mplz-. For each of these plastic magnitudes a separate calculation
is done.
The determination of the Plastic Neutral Axis needs to take into account the material characteristic of
each part. In general the following equation is solved which specifies an equilibrium of tensile and
compressive forces:
16
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
With the position of the PNA known, the Plastic Moment can be determined as follows:
In which di signifies the distance from the centroid of the area of part i of the section to the plastic
neutral axis, measured perpendicular to the given principal axis.
The above Plastic Moment calculation assumes a 'full bond' between the different materials. The
actual Composite checks take into account the effects of partial bond and recalculate the Plastic
Moments accordingly.
Since for each part the material strength can be different there is no more straightforward way to obtain
the Plastic Section Modulus Wpl. Within Scia Engineer, this value is referenced to the material of the
'first' inputted polygon, see also the paragraph on Multi-Material sections.
In addition, since there is both a positive and a negative Plastic Moment for the given axis, the final
Plastic Section Modulus is determined using the minimum of both.
With f1 the material strength of the 'first' polygon. This can either be the compressive or tensile strength
of this material depending on which stress dominates in this part.
These values for the Plastic Section Moduli are merely used for display in the Cross-Section
Manager. The actual Composite checks directly use the Plastic Moments which are thus not
referenced to the 'first' material but take into account all material characteristics.
Material Characteristics
As indicated in the above paragraphs the plastic calculation requires the compressive and tensile
strength of the respective material. These values are defined as follows for materials with code
dependent data:
Any material which does not have code dependent data is taken as 'Other'.
17
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Mono-Symmetry Constants
The Mono-Symmetry Constants y and z about the principal axis are determined as follows:
When these parameters are initially calculated the shear centre coordinates dy and dz are not yet
determined. The Mono-Symmetry Constants y and z are thus initially calculated taking dy and dz
equal to zero. After the analysis of Part II the actual shear centre coordinates dy and dz are
determined after which the Mono-Symmetry Constants y and z are modified accordingly.
For more background information regarding these parameters reference is made to Ref.[2]
with
In normal cases this It value will be overwritten by the exact It calculation done in Part II. In case
however the Part II calculation is not done the above calculation ensures there is at least an
approximate value for It. This approach avoids numerical instabilities during the analysis.
18
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Introduction
For calculating properties related to torsion the general theory makes a distinction between the
following types of cross-sections, see Ref.[1]:
A cross-section is defined as thin-walled if, through a reduction to the profile centreline and the
application of simplified theories, sufficiently exact calculation results are obtained. Ref.[1].
Within Scia-Engineer a thin-walled section is thus a section for which a centreline is available. To
simplify the identification, the Shape Type (thin-walled or thick-walled) is shown in the properties of
each cross-section.
In literature, for thin-walled, open sections analytical solutions are widely available. For thin-
walled, closed (hollow) sections with a single opening analytical solutions are also available
Ref.[6] however in case of multiple openings a statically indeterminate problem emerges which
requires a large effort to solve analytically.
Therefore, within Scia Engineer, a numerical 1D Finite Element Method is used to calculate the
torsional properties of any thin-walled section. The main advantages of this method are that it
applies to both open and closed sections and can be used for closed sections with any amount of
openings.
In literature, for thick-walled sections analytical solutions only exist for a few basic shapes such as
rectangles, triangles and ellipses. Within Scia Engineer, for thick-walled sections a numerical 2D
Finite Element Method is used to provide an exact solution for any shape.
In addition, the 2D Finite Element Method can even be applied optionally to thin-walled sections.
19
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
The following chapters give an overview of both the 1D and 2D Finite Element Methods.
Based on the centerline the cross-section is discretised into nodes and elements as schematised on
the following picture:
Each element is defined with a begin node a, an end node b and a constant thickness t.
20
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
The Finite Element analysis is carried out using the following steps:
Element matrices: ,
with: for D = S
Step 2: Position of the shear centre and standardisation of the warping ordinate:
21
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Step 4: Calculation of shear deformations due to shear forces and secondary torsion:
with:
constantly via t:
The above procedure is given here for informative reasons. For a full description of all abbreviations
used in this procedure as well as background information and worked out examples, reference is made
to Ref.[1].
The main advantage of this method is that it can be used for both open and closed thin-walled sections
or combinations of both (sections with openings and outstands). The method is however only valid for
sections with a continuous centerline i.e. where all parts are connected by one continuous line.
In case of multiple unconnected parts (like a pair section composed out of two thin-walled sections
which do not touch each other) the 1D FE Method cannot be applied since there is no continuous
centerline. In such cases the 2D FE Method should be applied.
22
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Beside thick-walled sections this method can also be applied to thin-walled sections.
As the name indicates, the 2D FE Method discretises the cross-section using two-dimensional
elements.
The analysis is split into two separate parts: a Torsion Analysis and a Shear Analysis.
The following paragraphs give more information regarding the determination of the default mesh size
and both analysis types.
In case no mesh size is inputted the default mesh size is determined as follows:
2. In case the area of the circumscribed rectangle around the cross-section exceeds 10 times the
area A the mesh size of the previous step is halved:
4. For the Shear Analysis the mesh of the previous step is further refined as follows:
This final step is applied always, also in case a manual input of the mesh size is made.
23
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
As with any Finite Element approach, to obtain accurate results the mesh needs to be sufficiently
refined.
The analysis is executed according to the Prandtl theory. Within this paragraph the basic principles of
the theory are explained.
The Prandtl theory (often referred to as the Membrane or Soap-Film Analogy) is based on the similarity
of the torsion stress function equation and the equilibrium equation of a membrane subjected to lateral
pressure.
Consider an opening in an x-y plane which has the same shape as the cross-section to be
investigated.
Cover the opening with a homogeneous membrane.
The pressure against the membrane causes the membrane to bulge out of plane.
The lateral displacement z(x,y) of the membrane and the Prandtl torsion stress function (x,y)
satisfy the same equation in (x,y)
Where z denotes the lateral displacement due to a pressure p and an initial tension S.
24
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Further elaboration and background information regarding the Prandtl theory and 2D FEM analysis
can be found in Ref.[1],[7],[8],[9].
The analysis is executed according to the Grashof-Jouravski theory. For background information
reference is made to Ref.[10].
The following paragraphs describe the theory for the shear Area Az. The same logic can be written out
for Ay.
The theory is generally valid in case the following requirements are met:
The cross-section symmetrical about the z-axis
The cross-section is massive, without large holes
Overall the obtained results are better in case the height is bigger than the width
zT
max
Qz
xz xz
xy xy
z
T yT
y
The Shear stresses lead off from the cross-section into one point K.
A
The area Az takes on the shear force Qz.
z
25
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
The value z is calculated from the shear stresses in one of the following ways:
A S yT ( z )
2
z 2 2 dA
4 IyT b ( z )
A
A S yT ( z )
2
z 2 2
4 IyT b ( z )
1 tan 2 ( z, y) dA
A
In case the cross-section does not meet the requirements of the Grashof-Jouravski theory, the z
values calculated with the influence of are absolutely incorrect and often unreal. They should
not be used in this case.
Depending on the rate of unrealized conditions, the z values which were calculated only from the
vertical component (without influence of ) are real and can be used in this case.
The user should in all cases evaluate if the values determined by the theory are acceptable or not.
In case of multi-material (heterogeneous) cross-sections the calculated shear areas Ay and Az can be
used under the following conditions:
Openings
As specified, the above theory for shear areas is not valid in case of large openings like for example
openings which divide a cross-section into different unconnected parts. A typical example are web
openings in steel members.
Then the Shear Analysis of the 2D FE Method is used separately for each part i and the shear area
Av,i of each part is stored. The final shear area Av of the cross-section is then calculated as the sum
of the shear areas of the different parts:
26
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
After the calculation of properties, depending on the shape specific properties are overruled by fixed
formulae as indicated in the following paragraphs.
Doubly-Symmetric I-section
These modifications are only done in case the rounding r0 i.e. when it concerns a true rolled section
shape.
Asymmetric I-section
For Asymmetric I-sections (Formcode 101) the Warping constant Iw is overruled as follows:
27
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
For a Full circular section (Formcode 11 or geometric 'Circle') with diameter D the Area A is
overruled as:
The Elastic Section moduli Wely and Welz are overruled as:
The Plastic Section moduli Wply and Wplz are overruled as:
28
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
For a Full Rectangular section (Formcode 7 or geometric 'Rectangle' or 'RECT') with width b
and height h the Torsional constant It is overruled as follows:
with
For a polygon with hole (geometric 'Polygon with hole') the Torsional constant It is overruled
using the second formula of Bredt:
With r the radius of the polygon, n the number of corners and t the thickness.
29
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
For a symmetrical RHS (Formcode 2) the Torsional constant It is overruled using the second
formula of Bredt:
A' = (H - t) * (B - t)
With S the circumference of the closed in area, taken as:
S = 2 * [(H - t) + (B - t)]
Where B is the width of the cross-section, H the height and t the thickness.
Ay = A * [ B / (B + H)]
Az = A * [H / (B + H)]
Asymmetric Rectangular Hollow Section
For an asymmetrical RHS (geometric 'O' or geometric 'O asymmetric') the Torsional constant It
is overruled using the second formula of Bredt:
A' = Hc * Bc
With S the circumference of the closed in area, taken as:
Hc = H - (thb1 / 2) - (thb2 / 2)
Bc = B - tha
30
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
Where B is the width of the cross-section, H the height, tha the web thickness and thb1 & thb2 the
flange thicknesses.
Ay = A * [B / (B + H)]
Az = A * [H / (B + H)]
31
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
The Plastic section moduli Wply and Wplz are overruled as:
Dc = D - t
With Di the inner diameter taken as:
Di = D - (2 * t)
32
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
A=2*B*t
The inertia Iy is overruled as:
z1 = ( H - t ) / 2
The section modulus Wely is overruled as:
The plastic modulus Wply is calculated by multiplying this Wely value with the ratio of the original Wely
and Wply of the (full) section
In these formulas B indicates the width of the cross-section, H the height, Hw the height of the web, t
the flange thickness and s the web thickness. The parameters w and sw describe the geometry of the
corrugation.
33
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
A = Bt * tt + Bb * tb
z1= h - (tb / 2)
z2 = H - h - (tt / 2)
The distance h is determined as:
h = Sy / A
With the modulus Sy calculated as:
The plastic modulus Wply is calculated by multiplying this Wely value with the ratio of the original Wely
and Wply of the (full) section
In these formulas Bt and Bb indicate the width of the top and bottom flange, tt and tb the thicknesses
of the flanges, H the height of the cross-section, Hw the height of the web and s the web thickness.
The parameters w and sw describe the geometry of the corrugation.
34
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
As can be seen on the Overall procedure diagram, the properties from the Profile Library are applied
after all properties have been calculated. The logic behind this is that the Profile Library might not
define all properties but only a few or even none at all.
In addition the overruling is done only in case the difference between the calculated property and the
property inputted in the Profile Library differs less than 10%.
This "10% rule" serves as a safety margin to avoid the application of incorrectly inputted properties in
the Profile Library.
35
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
References
36
Theoretical Background Cross-Section Characteristics
37