Electrostatics

Electrostatics
Electric Charge (6) Charge is
Transferable : It can be transferred from one body to
(1) Charge is the property associated with matter due to which another .
it produces and experiences electrical and magnetic effects. Associated with mass : Charge cannot exist without mass
but reverse is not true.
(2) It is known that every atom is electrically neutral, Conserved : It can neither be created nor be destroyed.
containing as many electrons as the number of protons in the
Invariant : Independent of velocity of charged particle.
nucleus.
(3) Charged particles can be created by disturbing neutrality of (7) Electric charge produces electric field (E) , magnetic field
an atom. Loss of electrons gives positive charge (as then np > ne)
(B) and electromagnetic radiations.
and gain of electrons gives negative charge (as then ne > np) to a
v = constant v constant
particle. In charging mass of the body changes as shown below + v =0 + +

E only E and B E , B and Radiates energy
Neutral Fig. 18.3
(8) Point charge : A finite size body may behave like a point
+ M
charge if it produces an inverse square electric field. For example
M'' > M
M' < M an isolated charged sphere behave like a point charge at very large
Fig. 18.1
distance as well as very small distance close to its surface.
(4) Charges with the same electrical sign repel each other, and
(9) Charge on a conductor : Charge given to a conductor
charges with opposite electrical sign attract each other.
always resides on it's outer surface. This is why a solid and hollow
+ + + conducting sphere of same outer radius will hold maximum equal
charge. If surface is uniform the charge distributes uniformly on the
Fig. 18.2 surface and for irregular surface the distribution of charge, i.e.,
charge density is not uniform. It is maximum where the radius of
(5) Unit and dimensional formula
curvature is minimum and vice versa. i.e., 1/R . This is why
S.I. unit of charge is Ampere sec = coulomb (C), smaller S.I. charge leaks from sharp points.
units are mC, C. +
+
+ + + + +
+ +
C.G.S. unit of charge is Stat coulomb or e.s.u. + +
+ + +
Electromagnetic unit of charge is ab coulomb +
+
+ +
+
1 + +
+
+
1C 3 109 stat coulomb ab coulomb . +
+ + + + +
10
(A) (B)
Dimensional formula [Q] AT Fig. 18.4
Electrostatics

(10) Charge distribution : It may be of two types (1) Electric charge can be (1) Mass of a body is a positive
(i) Discrete distribution of charge : A system consisting of positive, negative or zero. quantity.
ultimate individual charges. (2) Charge carried by a body (2) Mass of a body increases with
Q2 Q4 does not depend upon velocity m0
its velocity as m
Q1 of the body.
1 v2 / c 2
Q3 Q5
where c is velocity of light in
Fig. 18.5 vacuum, m is the mass of the body
(ii) Continuous distribution of charge : An amount of charge moving with velocity v and m0 is
distribute uniformly or non-uniformly on a body. It is of following rest mass of the body.
three types
(3) Charge is quantized. (3) The quantization of mass is yet
(a) Line charge distribution : Charge on a line e.g. charged to be established.
+
straight wire, circular charged ring etc. + + (4) Electric charge is always (4) Mass is not conserved as it can
+ +
+
Charge +
+ conserved. be changed into energy and vice-
+
Linear charge density + versa.
Length +
+
+
+ (5) Force between charges can (5) The gravitational force between
+ +
C +
be attractive or repulsive, two masses is always attractive.
S.I. unit is + +
m + + + accordingly as charges are
+
+ +
Dimension is [L1TA] unlike or like charges.
Fig. 18.6

(b) Surface charge distribution : Charge distributed on a Methods of Charging

surface e.g. plane sheet of charge, conducting sphere, conducting
cylinder of A body can be charged by following methods.
(1) By friction : By rubbing two bodies together, both positive
Charge
Surface charge density +
Area + + and negative charges in equal amounts appear simultaneously due
+ +
to transfer of electrons from one body to the other.
C + +
S.I. unit is 2 + (i) When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod becomes
m +
+ + positively charged while the silk becomes negatively charged. The
+ +
Dimension is [L2TA] decrease in the mass of glass rod is equal to the total mass of
Fig. 25.7
electrons lost by it.
(c) Volume charge density : Charge distributes through out the (ii) Ebonite on rubbing with wool becomes negatively charged
volume of the body e.g. charge on a dielectric sphere etc. making the wool positively charged.

Charge (iii) Clouds also get charged by friction.
Volume charge density + + +
+ + +
Volume (iv) A comb moving through dry hair gets electrically charged.
+ + +
+ It starts attracting small bits of paper.
C + +
S.I. unit is +
+ +
+
m3 + + (v) During landing or take-off, the tyres of an aircraft get
Dimension is [L TA] 3 Fig. 18.8 electrified therefore special material is used to manufacture them.

(11) Quantization of charge : If the charge of an electron (2) By electrostatic induction : If a charged body is
brought near an uncharged body, one side of neutral body (closer
( 1.6 10 19 C ) is taken as elementary unit i.e. quanta of charge, to charged body) becomes oppositely charged while the other side
the charge on any body will be some integral multiple of e i.e., becomes similarly charged.
Q ne with n 1, 2, 3 .... Q + +Q
+Q +
2 + ++ + + + ++
+ +
+ + +
Charge on a body can never be e , 17.2e or 105e etc. + +
3 +
+

+
+
+
+
++ ++
(12) Comparison of charge and mass : We are familiar with
role of mass in gravitation, and we have just studied some features of


electric charge. We can compare the two as shown below +Q

++
+ ++
+
Table 18.1 : Charge v/s mass +

+

+
+
+
Charge Mass
Fig. 18.10
 Electrostatics

Induced charge can be lesser or equal to inducing charge (but Q1 Q 2 kQ1 Q 2

1 F i.e., F (k = Proportionality constant)
never greater) and its maximum value is given by Q' Q 1 r2 r2
K Q Q
where Q is the inducing charge and K is the dielectric constant of In C.G.S. (for air ) k 1, F 1 2 2 Dyne
r
the material of the uncharged body. It is also known as specific
inductive capacity (SIC) of the medium, or relative permittivity r 1 N -m2
In S.I. (for air) k 9 109
of the medium (relative means with respect to free space) 4 0 C2
Table 18.2 : Different dielectric constants 1 Q Q
F . 1 2 2 Newton (1 Newton = 105 Dyne)
4 0 r
Medium K Medium K
0 Absolute permittivity of air or free space
Vacuum 1 Mica 6
C2 Farad
air 1.0003 Silicon 12 = 8.85 10 12 . Its Dimensional
N m2 m
Paraffin vax 2.1 Germanium 16
formula is [M 1 L3 T 4 A 2 ]
Rubber 3 Glycerin 50
(1) Vector form of coulombs law : Vector form of
Transformer oil 4.5 Water 80
Q Q Q Q
Glass 510 Metal
Coulombs law is F 12 K. 1 3 2 r 12 K. 1 2 2 r12 , where r12 is
r r
the unit vector from first charge to second charge along the line
(3) Charging by conduction : Take two conductors, one joining the two charges.
charged and other uncharged. Bring the conductors in contact with (2) Effect of medium : When a dielectric medium is
each other. The charge (whether ve or ve ) under its own completely filled in between charges rearrangement of the charges
repulsion will spread over both the conductors. Thus the inside the dielectric
K
conductors will be charged with the same sign. This is called as medium takes place and Q1 Q2
charging by conduction (through contact). the force between the
same two charges r
Electroscope decreases by a factor of Fig. 18.13
It is a simple apparatus with which the presence of electric K (dielectric constant)
charge on a body is detected (see Fair 1 Q Q
figure). When metal knob is touched i.e. Fmedium . 12 2
K 4 0 K r
with a charged body, some charge is
transferred to the gold leaves, which (Here 0 K 0 r = permittivity of medium)
then diverges due to repulsion. The
separation gives a rough idea of the If a dielectric medium (dielectric constant K, thickness t) is
amount of charge on the body. When a partially filled between K
the charges then Q1 Q2
charged body brought near a charged
electroscope, the leaves will further effective air separation
r
diverge, if the charge on body is similar between the charges
to that on electroscope and will usually becomes (r t t K ) Fig. 18.14
converge if opposite. If the induction
Fig. 18.11 1 Q1 Q 2
effect is strong enough leaves after Hence force F
converging may again diverge. 4 0 (r t t K ) 2

Coulombs Law (3) Principle of superposition : According to the principle

If two stationary and point charges Q 1 and Q 2 are kept at a of super position, total force acting on a given charge due to
number of charges is the vector
distance r, then it is found that force of attraction or repulsion
sum of the individual forces Q
between them is
acting on that charge due to all r1

F2 on 1 the charges. Q1 r2
r3 Qn
Torsion r Consider number of charge
fiber Q1 Q2 Qn 1
Q1 , Q 2 , Q 3 are applying force Q3
Q2
on a charge Q Fig. 18.15
F1 on 2
Net force on Q will be
r
Charged Q1 F

pith balls 2 on 1 Fnet F1 F 2 .... F n1 Fn

F1 on 2 The magnitude of the resultant of two electric forces is given by
Q2
Scale
Fig. 18.12
Electrostatics

Fnet F12 F22 2 F1 F2 cos Fnet (1) Electric field intensity (E) : The electric field intensity
F2 at any point is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive

F2 sin F
and tan charge placed at that point. E
F1 F2 cos
q0
F1
Where q0 0 so that presence of this charge may not affect
Fig. 18.16
the source charge Q and its electric field is not changed, therefore
For problem solving remember following standard results. expression for electric field intensity can be better written as

F
F F F
E Lim
Fnet 2 F 1/ 2 q 0 0 q
0
Fnet (2 2 ) F
Fnet 3 F
90 60 45 (2) Unit and Dimensional formula
45 30 22.5
F F F Newton volt Joule
Its S.I. unit
coulomb meter coulomb meter
F Fnet F
and C.G.S. unit Dyne/stat coulomb.
Dimension : [ E ] =[ MLT 3 A 1 ]
120 60 F F
F F (3) Direction of electric field : Electric field (intensity) E
F Fnet 0 is a vector quantity. Electric field due to a positive charge is always
Fnet 2 F
away from the charge and that due to a negative charge is always
Fig. 18.17 towards the charge.
(4) Relation between electric force and electric field :
Table 18.3 : Fundamental forces of nature
In an electric field E a charge (Q) experiences a force F Q E . If
Force Nature and Range Relative charge is positive then force is directed in the direction of field
formula strength
while if charge is negative force acts on it in the opposite direction
Force of Attractive F = Long range 1 of field
gravitation Gm1m2/r2, (between
between two obeys Newtons planets and E E
+Q F Q
masses third law of between
motion, its a electron and
conservative force proton) Fig. 18.19

Electromagne Attractive as well Long (upto few 10 37 (5) Super position of electric field (electric field at a point
tic force (for as repulsive, kelometers) due to various charges) : The resultant electric field at any point is
stationary obeys Newtons
equal to the vector sum of electric fields at that point due to various
and moving third law of
charges) motion, its a charges i.e. E E1 E2 E3 ...
conservative force
(6) Electric field due to continuous distribution of
Nuclear force Exact expression Short (of the 1039
(between is not known till order of nuclear
charge : A system of closely spaced electric charges forms a
(strongest) continuous charge distribution. To find the field of a continuous
nucleons) date. size 1015 m)
charge distribution, we divide the charge into infinitesimal charge
Weak force Formula not Short 1024
elements. Each infinitesimal charge element is then considered, as
(for processes known 15
(upto 10 m)
like decay) a point charge and electric field dE is determined due to this
charge at given point. The Net field at the given point is the
Electrical Field
A positive charge or a negative charge is said to create its field
summation of fields of all the elements. i.e., E
dE .
around itself. Thus space around a charge in which another Electric Potential
charged particle experiences a force is said to have electrical field
in it. (1) Definition : Potential at a point in a field is defined as the
amount of work done in bringing a unit positive test charge, from
infinity to that point along any arbitrary path (infinity is point of
zero potential). Electric potential is a scalar quantity, it is denoted
E + E W
q0 + +
+ + q0 by V; V
+
q0

(2) Unit and dimensional formula

Fig. 18.18
Joule
S. I. unit : volt
Coulomb
 Electrostatics

1 Graph
C.G.S. unit : Stat volt (e.s.u.); 1 volt Stat volt
300 E V
2 3 1
Dimension : [V ] [ML T A ]
(3) Types of electric potential : According to the nature of
charge potential is of two types r r
Fig. 18.23
(i) Positive potential : Due to positive charge.
(2) Line charge: Electric field and potential due to a charged
(ii) Negative potential : Due to negative charge. straight conducting wire of length l and charge density
(4) Potential of a system of point charges : Consider P is
+ Ey
a point at which net electric potential is to be determined due to
+
several charges. So net potential at P +
P l P Ey
Q Q
V k 1 k 2 k 3 k
Q Q4 ... + r
r1 +
r1 r2 r3 r4
+
r2
X
+Q1 r3 r4 Fig. 18.24

kQi
In general V
ri +Q2 Q4
i 1 +Q3 k k
Fig. 18.20 Ex (sin sin ) and Ey (cos cos )
r r
(5) Electric potential due to a continuous charge
distribution : The potential due to a continuous charge r2 l2 l
V log e
distribution is the sum of potentials of all the infinitesimal charge 2 0 r2 l2 l
elements in which the distribution may be divided i.e.,

dQ (i) If point P lies at perpendicular bisector of wire i.e. = ;

V dV , 4 0r Ex
2k
sin and Ey = 0
r
(6) Graphical representation of potential : As we move
on the line joining two charges then variation of potential with
(ii) If wire is infinitely long i.e. l so = = ;
distance is shown below 2
+q q +q +q 2k
Ex and Ey = 0 Enet and V log e r c
r 20r 2 0
Y Y
(iii) If point P lies near one end of infinitely long wire i.e. = 0,
V
V
and
2
+
X k
O
x X | E x|| Ey| +
O r
x +
(A) (B) +
Fig. 18.21 2k
Enet Ex2 Ey2 +
r P Ey
(7) Potential difference : In an electric field potential
difference between two points A and B is defined as equal to the
2 2
amount of work done (by external agent) in moving a unit positive E E x Ey
Ey
W
charge from point A to point B i.e., VB V A Fig. 18.25
q0
Electric Field and Potential Due to Various (3) Charged circular ring : Suppose we have a charged
Charge Distribution circular ring of radius R and charge Q. +
+
+
+
On its axis electric field and potential +
+
(1) Point charge : Electric field and potential at point P due is to be determined, at a point x + R +

to a point charge Q is + P
distance away from the centre of the +
+
Q P ring. + + E
r + +
At point P + +
Fig. 18.22 +
+ +
kQx kQ
E ,V Fig. 18.26
Q Q 1 Q (x 2 R 2 )3 / 2
E k 2 or E k 2 r k , V k x 2 R2
r r 4 0 r

Electrostatics

kQ If point of observation (P) lies outside the cylinder then for

At centre x = 0 so Ecentre = 0 and Vcentre
R
both type of cylindrical charge distribution E out , and
kQ kQ 2 0 r
At a point on the axis such that x >> R E , V
x2 x
Vout log e r c
R Q Q 2 0
If x , E max and Vmax
2 6 3 0 a 2 2 6 0 If point of observation lies at surface i.e. r = R so for both

cylinder E suface and Vsurface log e R c
Graph E 2 0 R 2 0
If point of observation lies inside the cylinder then for conducting
r
x R O R x cylinder E in 0 and for non-conducting Ein
2 0 R 2
2 2
Graph
Fig. 18.27 E
(4) Some more results of line charge : If a thin plastic rod E
1 1
having charge density is bent in the following shapes then electric Eout Eout
Ein r r r
field at P in different situations shown in the following table
Table 18.4 : Bending of charged rod Ein=0
O r O r
r=R
(A) For non-conducting cylinder (B) For conducting cylinder
+ + + + + +

+ + Fig. 18.29
+
r
+
+
r +
(6) Charged Conducting sphere (or shell of charge) : If
+ + r r
+
E +
charge on a conducting sphere of radius R is Q (and = surface
+ +
E
+ charge density) as shown in figure then electric field and potential
2k 2k
E sin E cos in different situation are
r r
+Q P +Q +Q
+ + + + + + + + +
P +
+ + +
+ + + r + + r +
+
+
+ r
+ + + + + + P +
+ 45 +
+ + +
90 90 + + R + R + R
+ 45 + + + + +
+ + +
r r + + + + + +
2 k E 2k (A) Outside (B) At the surface (C) Inside
E E E
r r Fig. 18.30

(i) Out side the sphere : If point P lies outside the sphere
+ + +
+ + + + + + +
1 Q R 2 1 Q R 2
+ +
+ E out . 2 and Vout .
+ + 4 0 r 0r 2
4 0 r 0r
+
+
+ +
r + r (Q = A = 4 R2)
+
+
E +
+
(ii) At the surface of sphere : At surface r R
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + 1 Q 1 Q R
2 k So, E s . and Vs .
E E0 4 0 R 2 0 4 0 R 0
r
(iii) Inside the sphere : Inside the conducting charge sphere
(5) Charged cylinder
electric field is zero and potential remains constant every where
(i) Non-conducting (ii) Conducting charged and equals to the potential at the surface.
uniformly charged cylinder cylinder Ein 0 and Vin = constant Vs
Graph R
R
+ + + + + + O O
+ + + + P + + P
+ + + + + +
E 1 VS 1
r + +
r E out Vout
+ + + + 2
r r
+ + + + + + Ein=0

O O r =R r
(A) (B) r
Fig. 18.28
(A) (B)
Fig. 18.31
 Electrostatics

(9) Electric field due to two thin infinite plane parallel

sheet of charge : Consider two large, uniformly charged parallel.
Plates A and B, having surface charge densities are A and B
(7) Uniformly charged non-conducting sphere : Suppose
charge Q is uniformly distributed in the volume of a non- respectively. Suppose net electric field at points P, Q and R is to be
calculated.
conducting sphare of radius R as shown below A B
+Q P +Q +Q
EA
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + r P + + + EA EB EA
+ + r +
+ + + +
r
+
+ + + P + R EB
+ + + Q
+ + + R + + + + R EB P
+ R+
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
(A) Outside (B) At the surface (C) Inside
Fig. 18.35
Fig. 18.32
(i) Outside the sphere : If point P lies outside the sphere 1
At P, EP ( E A EB ) ( A B )
1 Q 1 Q 2 0
E out . and Vout .
4 0 r 2 4 0 r 1
At Q, E Q ( E A E B ) ( A B )
Q 2 0
If the sphere has uniform volume charge density
4
R 3 1
3 At R, ER ( E A EB ) ( A B )
R 3
R 3 2 0
then Eout and Vout
3 0 r 2 3 0 r Special case
(ii) At the surface of sphere : At surface rR (i) If A = B = then EP = ER = /0 and Eq = 0
1 Q R 1 Q R 2
Es . and Vs . (ii) If A = and B = then EP = ER = 0 and EQ = /0
4 0 R 2 3 0 4 0 R 3 0
(iii) Inside the sphere : At a distance r from the centre (10) Hemispherical charged body
1 Qr r + + +
Ein . Ein r At centre O, E +
++ + +
4 0 R 3 3 0 4 0 + + +
+ + + + + +
+ +
1 Q [3 R 2 r 2 ] (3 R 2 r 2 ) R
+ +
O +
and Vin V
4 0 2R 3 6 0 2 0 Fig. 18.36
3 1 Q 3
At centre r 0 so, Vcentre . Vs
2 4 0 R 2
(11) Uniformly charged disc : At a distance x from centre
i.e., Vcentre V surface Vout
O on its axis
Graph
+ + + +
+ + + R+ x
+O R +
O E 1 R
+ +
+ +
+ 2 0 x 2 R 2
+ O
x
E 2
E out
1 VC 1 V x R 2 x
Ein r

2
Vout
r 2 0 Fig. 18.37
r VS

O r=R r
O r=R r If x 0, E ~
i.e. for points situated near the disc, it
(A) (B) 2 0
Fig. 18.33 behaves as an infinite sheet of charge.
(8) Infinite thin plane sheet of charge : Consider a thin
infinite non-conducting plane sheet having uniform surface charge Potential Due to Concentric Spheres
density is . Electric field and potential near the sheet are as
(1) If two concentric conducting shells of radii r1 and r2(r2 > r1)
follows
carrying uniformly distributed charges Q1 and Q2 respectively.
Potential at the surface of each shell
E (E r o ) E Q 2
2 0 E Q1
1 Q 1 Q
A V1 . 1 . 2
r 4 0 r1 4 0 r2 r2
and V C
2 0
1 Q1 1 Q2 r1
Fig. 18.34 V2 . .
4 0 r2 4 0 r2

Fig. 18.38
Electrostatics

(2) Potential gradient is a vector quantity and its direction is

(2) The figure shows three conducting concentric shell of radii opposite to that of electric field.
a, b and c (a < b < c) having charges Qa, Qb and Qc respectively
(3) Potential gradient relates with electric field according to the
Potential at A; dV
following relation E ; This relation gives another unit of
dr
1 Qa Qb Qc
VA volt
4 0 a b c Qc electric field is .
Qb meter
Potential at B; Qa
(4) In the above relation negative sign indicates that in the
c A
1 Qa Qb Qc b
a B direction of electric field potential decreases.
VB
4 0 b b c (5) Negative of the slope of the V-r graph denotes intensity of
V
Potential at C; electric field i.e. tan E
Fig. 18.39
r
1 Qa Qb Qc (6) In space around a charge distribution we can also write
VC
4 0 c c c
E E xi E y j E z k
(3) The figure shows two concentric spheres having radii r1
V V V
and r2 respectively (r2 > r1). If charge on inner sphere is +Q and where Ex , Ey and Ez
x y z
outer sphere is earthed then
+Q dV
(i) Potential at the (7) With the help of formula E , potential difference
Q dr
r2
surface of outer sphere between any two points in an electric field can be determined by
r1 knowing the boundary conditions
1 Q 1 Q'
V2 . . 0 r2 r2
4 0 r2 4 0 r2 dV
r1
E . dr
r1
E. dr cos
Q' Q Fig. 18.40
Electric Lines of Force
(ii) Potential of the inner sphere (1) Definition : The electric field in a region is represented
1 Q 1 (Q) Q 1 1 by continuous lines (also called lines of force). Field line is an
V1 . imaginary line along which a positive test charge will move if left
4 0 r1 4 0 r2 4 0 r1 r2
free.
(4) In the above case if outer sphere is given a charge +Q and
inner sphere is earthed then +

(i) In this case potential at the surface of inner sphere is zero, so

if Q' is the charge induced on inner sphere +Q
r2 (A) (Radially outward) (B) (Radially inward)

1 Q' Q
then V1 0 r1
4 0 r1 r2 + + +
N
r
i.e., Q' 1 Q
r2 (D)
Fig. 18.41 (C)
Fig. 18.42
(Charge on inner sphere is less than that of the outer sphere.)
(ii) Potential at the surface of outer sphere (2) Properties of electric lines of force

1 Q' 1 Q (i) Electric field lines come out of positive charge and go into
V2 . .
4 0 r2 4 0 r2 the negative charge.
(ii) Tangent to the field line at any point gives the direction of
1 r1 Q r1
V2 Q Q 1 the field at that point.
4 0 r2 r2 4 0 r2 r2
EA
Relation Between Electric Field and Potential EB
B
(1) In an electric field rate of change of potential with distance
is known as potential gradient. A
Fig. 18.43
 Electrostatics

(3) The equipotential surfaces produced by a point charge or

(iii) Field lines never intersect each other. a spherically charge distribution are a family of concentric spheres.
V = V2
(iv) Field lines are always normal to conducting surface.
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5

V = V1
+

+ +
+ +
+ +

+
+ +
+ + Equipotential
+ +
surface
+ Spherical E.P.S. V1 > V2 > V3 > V4 > V5

For a point charge

(A) (B) Fig. 18.47

Fig. 18.44
(v) Field lines do not exist inside a conductor.
(vi) The electric field lines never form closed loops. (While
magnetic lines of forces form closed loop)
(vii) The number of lines originating or terminating on a
charge is proportional to the magnitude of charge i.e. |Q|
number of lines. In the following figure | Q A || Q B |
(4) For a uniform electric field, the equipotential surfaces are a
family of plane perpendicular to the field lines.
(5) A metallic surface of any shape is an equipotential surface.
(6) Equipotential surfaces can never cross each other
(7) The work done in moving a charge along an equipotential
surface is always zero.
Motion of Charge Particle in Electric Field
(1) When charged particle initially at rest is placed in
the uniform field

A Suppose a charge particle having charge Q and mass m is

+ B initially at rest in an electric field of strength E. The particle will
experience an electric force which causes it's motion.
(i) Force and acceleration : The force experienced by the
charged particle is F QE .
Fig. 18.45
F QE
Acceleration produced by this force is a
(ix) If the lines of forces are equidistant and parallel straight m m
lines the field is uniform and if either lines of force are not
(ii) Velocity : Suppose at point A particle is at rest and in
equidistant or straight line or both the field will be non uniform, time t, it reaches the point B where it's velocity becomes v. Also if
also the density of field lines is proportional to the strength of the V = Potential difference between A and B, S = Separation
electric field. between A and B
E
QEt 2QV A
v B
m m
X Y X Y S

Fig. 18.48

QEt
(A) EX = EY (B) EX > EY (iii) Momentum : Momentum p = mv, p m QEt
m
Fig. 18.46
2QV
or p m 2mQV
m
Equipotential Surface
(iv) Kinetic energy : Kinetic energy gained by the particle in
For a given charge distribution, locus of all points having same 2
potential is called equipotential surface regarding equipotential 1 1 QEt Q2 E 2t 2
time t is K mv 2 m
surface following points should keep in mind : 2 2 m 2m
(1) The density of the equipotential lines gives an idea about
1 2QV
the magnitude of electric field. Higher the density larger the field or K m QV
strength. 2 m

(2) The direction of electric field is perpendicular to the (v) Work done : According to work energy theorem we can
equipotential surfaces or lines. say that gain in kinetic energy = work done in displacement of
charge i.e. W = QV
 Electrostatics

where V = Potential difference between the two position of in stable equilibrium. If U is the potential energy then in case of
charge Q. ( V E . r Er cos where is the angle between d 2U
stable equilibrium is positive i.e., U is minimum.
direction of electric field and direction of motion of charge). dx 2
(ii) Unstable equilibrium : After displacing a charged
If charge Q is given a displacement r (r1i r2 j r3 k) in an
particle from it's equilibrium position, if it never returns back then it
electric field E ( E1i E 2 j E 3 k). The work done is is said to be in unstable equilibrium and in unstable equilibrium
W Q( E . r ) Q(E1r1 E2r2 E3 r3 ) . d 2U
is negative i.e., U is maximum.
dx 2
Work done in displacing a charge in an electric field is path
independent. (iii) Neutral equilibrium : After displacing a charged particle
from it's equilibrium position if it neither comes back, nor moves
away but remains in the position in which it was kept it is said to
I
A B WI = WII = WIII d 2U
II
be in neutral equilibrium and in neutral equilibrium is zero
dx 2
i.e., U is constant
III
Fig. 18.49 Table 18.5 : Different cases of equilibrium of charge
Suspended charge System of three collinear
(2) When a charged particle enters with an initial charge
velocity at right angle to the uniform field
Freely suspended charge
When charged particle enters perpendicularly in an electric
E F = QE In equilibrium In the following figure three
field, it describe a parabolic path as shown
QE mg charges Q1, Q and Q2 are kept
(i) Equation of trajectory : Throughout the motion particle along a straight line, charge Q
has uniform velocity along x-axis and horizontal displacement (x) is +Q mg will be in equilibrium if and
E
given by the equation x = ut Q only if
Since the motion of the particle is accelerated along yaxis mg |Force applied by charge Q1|
= |Force applied by charge Q2 |
Suspension of charge from
Y Q1 Q2
E string Q

x1 x2

l E x
P(x, y)
T cos
u X T
Q1 Q Q2 Q
i.e.
Fig. 18.50 x 12 x 22
T sin QE
2 2
1 QE x Q1 x 1
So y ; this is the equation of parabola which
2 m u mg
Q 2 x 2
shows y x 2 In equilibrium This is the necessary condition
for Q to be in equilibrium.
(ii) Velocity at any instant : At any instant t, v x u and T sin QE .(i)
If all the three charges (Q1, Q
and Q2) are similar, Q will be
QEt Q2 E 2t 2 v T cos mg .(ii)
vy so v | v | vx2 vy2 u 2 in stable equilibrium.
m m2 From equations (i) and (ii) If extreme charges are similar
vy
If is the angle made by v with x-axis than T QE 2 mg 2 while charge Q is of different
nature so Q will be in unstable
vy QEt vx QE equilibrium.
tan . and tan
vx mu Fig. 18.51 mg

Equilibrium of Charges Time Period of Oscillation of a Charged Body

(1) Definition : A charge is said to be in equilibrium, if net (1) Simple pendulum based : If a simple pendulum having
force acting on it is zero. A system of charges is said to be in length l and mass of bob m oscillates about it's mean position than
equilibrium if each charge is separately in equilibrium.
l
it's time period of oscillation T 2
(2) Type of equilibrium : Equilibrium can be divided in g
following type:
(i) Stable equilibrium : After displacing a charged particle
from it's equilibrium position, if it returns back then it is said to be l

O
Fig. 18.52
 Electrostatics

(3) Spring mass system : A block of mass m containing a

Case-1 : If some charge say +Q is given to bob and an
negative charge Q is placed on a frictionless horizontal table and
electric field E is applied in the direction as shown in figure then
is connected to a wall through an unstretched spring of spring
equilibrium position of charged bob (point charge) changes from O
constant k as shown. If electric field E applied as shown in figure
to O. the block experiences an electric force, hence spring compress and
E

block comes in new position. This is called the equilibrium position
of block under the influence of electric field. If block compressed
l further or stretched, it execute
O QE oscillation having time period
E
mg m
T 2 . Maximum k m, Q
O mg k
compression in the spring due
Fig. 18.53
QE Fig. 18.57
On displacing the bob from its equilibrium position 0. It will to electric field =
k
oscillate under the effective acceleration g, where
Neutral Point and Zero Potential
mg' mg 2 QE 2 g' g 2 QE / m2 . Hence the A neutral point is a point where resultant electrical field is zero.
l l (1) Neutral point Due to a system of two like point
new time period is T1 2 2 1 charge : For this case neutral point is obtained at an internal
g'
g 2
QE/m 2 2
point along the line joining two like charges.
N
Since g' >g, so T1 < T i.e. time period of pendulum will decrease. Q1 Q2
Case-2 : If electric field is applied in the downward direction x1 x2
then. x
Effective acceleration T Fig. 18.58

g' g QE / m If N is the neutral point at a distance x 1 from Q1 and at a
l
distance x 2 x x1 from Q 2 then

So new time period E
At N |E.F. due to Q1| = |E.F. due to Q2|
l
T2 2 x
2
g QE/m mg + QE
i.e.,
1 Q
. 1
1 Q Q
. 2 1 1
Fig. 18.54 4 0 x12 4 0 x 22 Q2 x 2
T2 < T
x x
Case-3 : In case 2 if electric field is applied in upward Short Trick : x1 and x 2
Q2 / Q1 1 Q1 / Q2 1
direction then, effective acceleration.
QE (2) Neutral point due to a system of two unlike point
g' g QE / m charge : For this condition neutral point lies at an external point

l along the line joining two unlike charges. Suppose two unlike
So new time period E
charge Q1 and Q 2 separated by a distance x from each other.
l Q1
T3 2
g QE/m N Q2
mg
l
Fig. 18.55
T3 > T x

(2) Charged circular ring : A thin stationary ring of radius R Fig. 18.59
has a positive charge +Q unit. If a negative charge q (mass m) is Here neutral point lies outside the line joining two unlike charges
placed at a small distance x from the centre. Then motion of the
and also it lies nearer to charge which is smaller in magnitude.
particle will be simple harmonic motion.
If Q1 Q2 then neutral point will be obtained on the side of
4 0 mR 3
Having time period T 2
Qq x

+
+ + Q
Q1 , suppose it is at a distance l from Q1 so l
Q /Q 1
2 1
+
+
+
R + E (3) Zero potential due to a system of two point charge
+ q
+
+ (i) If both charges are like then resultant potential is not zero at
O +
+ x any finite point.
+
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
Fig. 18.56
Electrostatics

(ii) If the charges are unequal and unlike then all such points of charge (1e), when accelerated by 1volt i.e.
where resultant potential is zero lies on a closed curve. 1 J
1eV 1.6 10 19 C 1.6 10 19 J = 1.6 1012 erg
C
(iii) Along the line joining the two charge, two such points
exist, one lies inside and one lies outside the charges on the line (6) Electric potential energy of a uniformly charged
joining the charges. Both the above points lie nearer the smaller sphere : Consider a uniformly charged sphere of radius R having
a total charge Q. The electric potential energy of this sphere is
charge.
equal to the work done in bringing the charges from infinity to
For internal point
3Q 2
assemble the sphere. U
(It is assumed that | Q1 || Q2 |). 20 0 R

Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 (7) Electric potential energy of a uniformly charged thin

At P, P
x1 x x1 spherical shell : It is given by the following formula U
Q2
x1 x2 8 0 R
x x
x1
Q2 /Q1 1 Fig. 18.60
(8) Energy density : The energy stored per unit volume
around a point in an electric field is given by
For External point
U 1
Ue 0 E 2 . If in place of vacuum some medium
Q1 Q2 P
Q1 Q2 Volume 2
At P,
x1 x x1 1
x1 is present then U e 0 r E 2
x 2
x
x1
Q2 /Q1 1 Fig. 18.61 Force on a Charged Conductor
Electrostatic Potential Energy To find force on a charged conductor (due to repulsion of like
charges) imagine a small part XY to be cut and just separated from
(1) Work done in bringing the given charge from infinity to a
the rest of the conductor MLN. The field in the cavity due to the
point in the electric field is known as potential energy of the
rest of the conductor is E2, while field due to small part is E1. Then
charge. Potential can also be written as potential energy per unit
E2
W U E1
charge. i.e. V . X
Q Q E2
++
M + Y
+ + +
(2) Potential energy of a system of two charge + + +
+ N + +
E2
+ +
Potential energy of Q1 = Potential energy of Q2 = potential + E1 + + + +
+ Inside + + + +
QQ Q1 Q2 +
L + +E = 0+ +
+ + +
energy of system U k 1 2 + +
r A B
(A) (B)
r Fig. 18.63
QQ
In C.G.S. U 1 2 Fig. 18.62
r Inside the conductor E E1 E 2 0 or E1 E 2
(3) Potential energy of a system of n charge
Outside the conductor E E1 E 2
0
k n QiQ j 1
It is given by U k
2 i, j rij 4 0
Thus E1 E 2
i j 2 0
1 (1) To find force, imagine charged part XY (having charge
The factor of is applied only with the summation sign
2 dA placed in the cavity MN having field E2). Thus force
because on expanding the summation each pair is counted twice. 2
dF ( dA)E 2 or dF dA . The force per unit area or
Q Q QQ QQ 2 0
For a system of 3 charges U k 1 2 2 3 1 3
r
12 r23 r13 dF 2
electrostatic pressure p =
dA 2 0
(4) Work energy relation : If a charge moves from one
position to another position in an electric field so its potential (2) The force is always outwards as ( ) 2 is positive i.e.,
energy change and work done by external force for this change is
whether charged positively or negatively, this force will try to
W U f Ui
expand the charged body. [A soap bubble or rubber balloon
(5) Electron volt (eV) : It is the smallest practical unit of expands on charging to it (charge of any kind + or )].
energy used in atomic and nuclear physics. As electron volt is
defined as the energy acquired by a particle having one quantum Equilibrium of Charged Soap Bubble
 Electrostatics

(1) For a charged soap bubble of radius R and surface tension T (1) Dipole moment : It is a vector quantity and is directed
T from negative charge to positive charge along the axis. It is
and charge density . The pressure due to surface tension 4
R

denoted as p and is defined as the product of the magnitude of
and atmospheric pressure Pout act radially inwards and the electrical
either of the charge and the dipole length i.e. p q (2l )
pressure (Pel ) acts radially outward.
Its S.I. unit is coulomb-metre or Debye (1 Debye = 3.3
Pout Pout 1030 C m) and its dimensions are M0L1T1A1.
air + + Pelec (2) When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, its atoms or
PT
air
molecules are considered as tiny dipoles.
PT Pin
Pin
+ +
+ +

(A) Uncharged bubble (B) Charged bubble

(A) (B)
Fig. 18.64
Fig. 18.66
Water (H2O), Chloroform (CHCl3), Ammonia (NH3), HCl, CO
(2) The total pressure inside the soap bubble
molecules are some example of permanent electric dipole.
4T 2
Pin Pout + H
+
R 2 0
O2

(3) Excess pressure inside the charged soap bubble
+ H+
4T 2
Pin Pout Pexcess .
R 2 0 Fig. 18.67

(4) If air pressure inside and outside are assumed equal then (3) Electric field and potential due to an electric dipole :
If a, e and g are three points on axial, equatorial and general
4T 2
Pin Pout i.e., Pexcess 0 . So, position at a distance r from the centre of dipole
R 2 0
e E

4T 2 8 0 T 2T E g
(i) Charge density : Since e
R 2 0 R kR

80 T q +q +
(ii) Radius of bubble R
2 Ea
a
r
2R 2l
(iii) Surface tension T p
8 0
Fig. 18.68
(iv) Total charge on the bubble Q 8R 2 0 TR
(i) At axial point : Electric field and potential are given as
(v) Electric field intensity at the surface of the bubble 1 2p
Ea . (directed from q to +q)
4 0 r 3
8T 32 kT
E 1 p
0R R Va . . Angle between E a and p is 0o.
4 0 r 2
8 RT 1 p
(vi) Electric potential at the surface V 32RTk (ii) At equatorial point : Ee . (directed from +q to
0 40 r 3

Electric Dipole q) and Ve 0 . Angle between E e and p is 180o.

System of two equal and opposite charges separated by a 1 p

(iii) At general point : Eg . (3 cos 2 1) and
small fixed distance is called a dipole. 4 0 r 3
1 p cos
Vg . . Angle between E and p is ( + ) (where
Equatorial

4 0 r2
axis

1
A tan tan )
B 2
+ Axial line
q 2l q
p
Fig.
Electrostatics

(4) Dipole in an external electric field : When a dipole is I

kept in an uniform electric field. The net force experienced by the T 2 where I = moment of inertia of dipole about
pE
dipole is zero as shown in fig.
the axis passing through its centre and perpendicular to its length.
The net torque experienced by the dipole is
(5) Electric dipole in non-uniform electric field : In

pE sin p non-uniform electric field Fnet 0, net 0
QE
+Q F

p E
QE
Q
Fig. 18.69
+q
Hence due to torque so produced, dipole align itself in the
direction of electric field. This is the position of stable equilibrium F'
q
of dipole.
(i) Work done in rotation : Suppose initially, dipole is kept
in a uniform electric field at an angle 1. Now to turn it through an
angle 2 (with the field) Work done W pE(cos 1 cos 2 ) . F' > F
Fig. 18.71
+q E
2 +q Motion of the dipole is combination of translatory and rotatory
1 motion
q Table 18.6 : Dipole-dipole interaction
q
Potential
Fig. 18.70 Relative position of dipole Force
energy

If 1 = 0o and 2 = i.e. initially dipole is kept along the field

then it turn through so work done W pE(1 cos ) q +q q +q 1 6 p1 p2 1 2p p
. 4 . 13 2
4 0 r 4 0 r
(ii) Potential energy of dipole : It is defined as work done p1 p2
in rotating a dipole from a direction perpendicular to the field to (attractive)
r
the given direction, i.e. from above formula of work.
If 1 = 90o and 2 = W = U pE cos
+q +q
1 3p p 1 pp
p . 14 2 . 1 2

p1 p2 4 0 r 4 0 r 3
E E E
(repulsive)
p p q q
r
= 0o = 90O = 180o
Stable equilibrium Not in equilibrium Unstable equilibrium
+q
=0 max = pE =0 q +q 1 3p p

. 14 2
W=0 W = pE Wmax = 2pE p1 4 0 r 0

Umin = pE U=0 Umax = pE p2 (perpendicular
q
to r )
(iii) Equilibrium of dipole : When = 0o i.e. dipole is r
placed along the electric field it is said to be in stable equilibrium,
because after turning it through a small angle, dipole tries to align Electric Flux
itself again in the direction of electric field. Electric flux is a measure of 'flow' of electric field through a
surface. It is equal to the product of an area element and the
When = 180o i.e. dipole is placed opposite to electric field, it
is said to be in unstable equilibrium. perpendicular component of E , integrated over a surface.

(iv) Oscillation of dipole : In a uniform electric field if a (1) Flux of electric field E through
dipole is slightly displaced from its stable equilibrium position it A
any area A is defined as. E
executes angular SHM having period of oscillation.

E.A cos or E. A
dA

Fig. 18.72
 Electrostatics

(2) In case of variable electric field or curved area. Q Q

Flux from surface S1 = , Flux from surface S2 = ,
0 0

E.dA and flux from S3= flux from surface S4 = 0

2
N -m Application of Gauss's law : See flux emergence in the
(3) Its S.I. Unit is (Volt m) or
C following cases
(4) For a closed body outward flux is taken to be positive (1) If a dipole is enclosed by a surface
while inward flux is taken to be negative. Q +Q
Qenc 0

0 Fig. 18.75

(2) The net charge Qenc is the algebraic sum of all the enclosed
positive, and negative charges. If Qenc is positive the net flux is
outward; if Qenc is negative, the net flux is inward.

+Q1
1 +Q2
(Q1 Q2 Q3 )
0 Q3
A
A E Fig. 18.76
E
90 E (3) If a closed body (not enclosing any charge) is placed in an
A electric field (either uniform or non-uniform) total flux linked with it
Negative flux Zero flux Positive flux y
will be zero

Fig. 18.73 E

Gauss's Law and it's Application

Sphere
(1) According to this law, the total flux linked with a closed x
surface called Gaussian surface. (The surface need not be a real a
z a
physical surface, it can also be an hypothetical one) is (1/o) times
the charge enclosed by the closed surface i.e., (A) T 0 (B) in = out = Ea2 T = 0
1

s
E dA

o
(Qenc ) Fig. 18.77

(2) Electric field in E. dA is complete electric field. It may be (4) If a hemispherical body is placed in uniform electric field
partly due to charge with in the surface and partly due to charge then flux linked with the curved surface calculated as follows
outside the surface. However if there is no charge enclosed in the
Curved Circular 0 E
Gaussian surface, then E. dA 0 . Curved Circular
(3) The electric field E is resulting from all charge, both those R
( E R 2 cos 180)
inside and those outside the Gaussian surface.

n
(Keep in mind, the electric field due to a charge outside the R 2 E
Fig. 18.78
Gaussian surface contributes zero net flux through the surface,
Because as many lines due to that charge enter the surface as leave
it). (5) If a hemispherical body is placed in non-uniform electric
field as shown below. then flux linked with the circular surface
calculated as follows
S1 S2 S4

Circular Curved
+
S3 R
+Q Q Circular (E 2R 2 cos 0)

n

E
2R 2 E
Fig. 18.79
Fig. 18.74
Electrostatics

(6) If charge is kept at the centre of cube Smaller S.I. units are mF, F, nF and pF ( 1mF 10 3 F ,
1 Q 1F 10 6 F , 1nF 10 9 F , 1 pF 1F 10 12 F )
total .(Q) face
0 6 0 (3) It's C.G.S. unit is Stat Farad 1F 9 10 11 Stat Farad .
Q
Q Q (4) It's dimension : [C] [M 1 L2 T 4 A 2 ] .
corner edge
8 0 12 0
Fig. 18.80 (5) Capacity of a body is independent of charge given to the
(7) If charge is kept at the centre of a face : First we should body or its potential raised and depends on shape and size only.
enclosed the charge by assuming a Gaussian surface (an identical
(6) Capacity of an isolated spherical conductor : When
imaginary cube)
charge Q is given to a spherical conductor
+ + + +Q
of radius R, then potential at the surface of +
+ +
1 Q Q + R +
Q sphere is V 4 0 R + +
4 0 R V +
O +
+ +
+++
(B) 1
(A) C 4
0 R .R Fig. 18.84
9 10 9
Fig. 18.81
Q
Total flux emerges from the system (Two cubes) total If earth is assumed to be a conducting sphere having radius
0
R 6400 km. Its theoretical capacitance C 711 F . But for all
Q practical purpose capacitance of earth is taken infinity and its
Flux from given cube (i.e. from 5 face only) cube
2 0 potential V 0 .
(8) If a charge is kept at the corner of a cube (7) Energy of a charged conductor : Electrostatic potential
energy of a conductor carrying charge Q, capacitance C and
1 1 Q2
potential V is given by U QV CV 2
2 2 2C

Combination of Charged Drops

Suppose we have n identical drops each having Radius r,
Capacitance c, Charge q, Potential v and Energy u.
If these drops are combined to form a big drop of Radius R,
(A) (B)
Capacitance C, Charge Q, Potential V and Energy U then
Fig. 18.82
(1) Charge on big drop : Q nq
For enclosing the charge seven more cubes are required so
Q (2) Radius of big drop : Volume of big drop = n volume of a
total flux from the 8 cube system is T = . Flux from given cube
0 4 4
single drop i.e., R 3 n r 3 , R n1 / 3 r
Q 3 3
cube . Flux from one face opposite to change, of the given
8 0 (3) Capacitance of big drop : C n1/ 3 c
Q / 8 0 Q
cube face (Because only three faces are seen). Q nq
3 24 0 (4) Potential of big drop : V V n 2/ 3 v
C n1 / 3 c
(9) A long straight wire of charge density penetrates a hollow
1 1
body as shown. The flux emerges (5) Energy of big drop : U CV 2 (n1 / 3 c )(n 2 / 3 v) 2
from the body is 2 2
+ + + + + +

= (Length of the wire U n 5 /3 u

inside the body) (6) Energy difference : Total energy of big drop is greater
Fig. 18.83 than the total energy all smaller drop. Hence energy difference
Capacitance U 1
U = U nu U n U 1 2 / 3
(1) Capacitance of a conductor : Charge given to a n5 / 3 n
conductor increases its potential i.e., Q V Q CV
Redistribution of Charges and Loss of Energy
Where C is a proportionality constant, called capacity or When two charged conductors joined together through a
capacitance of conductor. Hence capacitance is the ability of conducting wire, charge begins to flow from one conductor to
conductor to hold the charge. another from higher potential to lower potential.
Coulomb This flow of charge stops when they attain the same potential.
(2) It's S.I. unit is Farad (F)
Volt
 Electrostatics

Due to flow of charge, loss of energy also takes place in the (4) Net charge on a capacitor is always zero, but when we
form of heat through the connecting wire. speak of the charge Q on a capacitor, we are referring to the
Suppose there are two spherical conductors of radii r1 and magnitude of the charge on each plate.
(5) Energy stored : When a capacitor is charged by a
r2 , having charge Q1 and Q 2 , potential V1 and V2 , energies U 1
voltage source (say battery) it stores the electric energy. If C =
and U 2 and capacitance C1 and C 2 respectively. Capacitance of capacitor; Q = Charge on capacitor and V =
Potential difference across capacitor then energy stored in
Q1 Q2
r2 1 1 Q2
C1 r1 C2 capacitor U CV 2 QV
V1 2 2 2C
V2
U1 U2 In charging capacitor by battery half the energy supplied is
Q1= C1V1 Q2= C2V2
stored in the capacitor and remaining half energy (1/2 QV) is lost in
the form of heat.
Fig. 18.85
Dielectric
If these two spheres are connected through a conducting wire,
then alteration of charge, potential and energy takes place.
Conductor
Q1 Q2 (Metal foil)
C1 r1 r2 C2
V V
U1 U2
Q1=C1V Q2=C2V Dielectric
Conductor
(Metal foil) (Plastic sheet)
Fig. 18.86
Dielectrics are insulating (non-conducting) materials which
(1) New charge : According to the conservation of charge transmits electric effect without conducting.
Q1' C r Dielectrics are of two types
Q1 Q 2 Q1' Q 2' Q (say), also 1 1
Q2' C2 r2 (1) Polar dielectrics : A polar molecule has permanent

electric dipole moment (p) in the absence of electric field also. But
r r
Q2' Q 2 and similarly Q1' Q 1 a polar dielectric has net dipole moment zero in the absence of
r1 r2 r1 r2 electric field because polar molecules are randomly oriented as
(2) Common potential : Common potential shown in figure.
+
+ +
Total charge Q Q2 Q ' Q 2' C V C2 V2
(V ) 1 1 1 1
Total capacity C1 C 2 C1 C 2 C1 C2 + +

(3) Energy loss : The loss of energy due to redistribution of
Fig. 18.88
charge is given by
In the presence of electric field polar molecules tends to line
C1C2 up in the direction of electric field, and the substance has finite
U Ui U f (V1 V2 )2
2(C1 C2 ) dipole moment e.g. water, Alcohol, CO 2 , NH 3 , HCl etc. are
Capacitor or Condenser made of polar atoms/molecules.
(1) A capacitor is a device that stores electric energy. or A (2) Non polar dielectric : In non-polar molecules, Each
capacitor is a pair of two conductors of any shape, which are close molecule has zero dipole moment in its normal state.
to each other and have equal and When electric field is applied, molecules becomes induced
opposite charge. electric dipole e.g. N 2 , O 2 , Benzene, Methane etc. are made of
(2) The capacitance of a non-polar atoms/molecules
capacitor is defined as the In general, any non-conducting, material can be called as a
magnitude of the charge Q on the dielectric but broadly non conducting material having non polar
positive plate divided by the molecules referred to as dielectric.
magnitude of the potential difference (3) Polarization of a dielectric slab : It is the process of
Q inducing equal and opposite charges on the two faces of the
V between the plates i.e., C Fig. 18.87
dielectric on the application of electric field.
V
(3) A capacitor gets charged when a battery is connected +
across the plates. Once capacitor gets fully charged, flow of charge +
+ +

carriers stops in the circuit and in this condition potential difference + + +

across the plates of capacitor is same as the potential difference Ei

+ + +
across the terminals of battery.
+
+ +
+
+ +
E
Fig. 18.89
 Electrostatics

(i) Electric field between the plates in the presence of dielectric (vii) If a number of dielectric slabs are inserted between the
medium is E' E E i where E = Main field, E' = Induced field. plate as shown
(ii) Dielectric constant of dielectric medium is defined as :
E Electric field between the plates with air K1 K2 K3
K A
E' Electric field between the plates with medium

(iii) K is also known as relative permittivity ( r ) of the t1 t2 t3

material or SIC (Specific Inductive Capacitance) d

(4) Dielectric breakdown and dielectric strength : If a Fig. 18.91

very high electric field is created in a dielectric,. The dielectric then
0 A
behaves like a conductor. This phenomenon is known as C'
t t t
dielectric breakdown. d (t1 t 2 t 3 ........) 1 2 3 ........
K
1 K 2 K 3
The maximum value of electric field (or potential gradient)
that a dielectric material can tolerate without its electric breakdown (viii) When a metallic slab is inserted between the plates
is called its dielectric strength. 0 A t
C'
V (d t)
S.I. unit of dielectric strength of a material is but practical
m If metallic slab fills the
kV complete space between the plates A K=
unit is .
mm (i.e. t = d) or both plates are
Capacity of Various Capacitor joined through a metallic wire then
capacitance becomes infinite. d
(1) Parallel plate capacitor : It consists of two parallel
Fig. 18.92
metallic plates (may be circular, rectangular, square) separated by
a small distance. If A = Effective overlapping area of each plate. (ix) Force between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor.
Q
(i) Electric field between the plates : E 2A Q2 CV 2
0 A 0 | F |
2 0 2 0 A 2d
d
(ii) Potential difference between the plates : V E d
0 (x) Energy density between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor.

0A A Energy 1
(iii) Capacitance : C . In C.G.S. : C Energy density 0 E 2.
d 4d Volume 2
(iv) If a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K is filled
Table 18.7 : Variation of different variable (Q, C, V, E and
completely between the plates then capacitance increases by K U) of parallel plate capacitor
K 0 A
times i.e. C ' C' KC Quantity Battery is Removed Battery Remains
d connected
(v) The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor depends on A
1
(C A) and d C . It does not depend on the charge on the A K A K
d
plates or the potential difference between the plates.
d d
(vi) If a dielectric slab is partially filled between the plates
V

+ Capacity C = KC C = KC
+ t Charge Q = Q Q = KQ
0 A +
C' Potential V = V/K V = V
t A
dt +
K K Intensity E = E/K E = E
+
+ Energy U = U/K U' = KU
E
d
Fig. 18.90
 Electrostatics

(2) Spherical capacitor : It consists of two concentric (iii) In series combination potential difference and energy
conducting spheres of radii a and b (a < b). Inner sphere is given distributes in the reverse ratio of capacitance i.e.,
charge +Q, while outer sphere is earthed 1 1
V and U .
(i) Potential difference : Between the spheres is C C
Q Q Q (iv) If two capacitors having capacitances C1 and C2 are
V C1C2 Multiplication
4 0a 4 0b a connected in series then Ceq
b C1 C2 Addition
ab +Q C2
(ii) Capacitance : C 4 0 . . V1 and V2 C1 . V
.V
ba C C
C1 C 2 1 2
Fig. 18.93
ab (v) If n identical capacitors each having capacitances C are
In C.G.S. C . In the presence of dielectric medium
ba connected in series with supply voltage V then Equivalent
ab C
(dielectric constant K) between the spheres C' 4 0 K capacitance Ceq and Potential difference across each
ba n
(iii) If outer sphere is given a charge +Q while inner sphere is V
capacitor V ' .
earthed n
Induced charge on the inner sphere (vi) If n identical plates are arranged as shown below, they
a
constitute (n 1) capacitors in series. If each capacitors having
a A 0 A
Q' .Q and capacitance of b capacitance 0 then Ceq
b d (n 1)d
b2 +
+ + + +
the system C' 4 0 . + + + +
ba Fig. 18.94 + + + +
+ + + +
This arrangement is not a capacitor. But its capacitance is
equivalent to the sum of capacitance of spherical capacitor and Fig. 18.97
b2 ab In this situation except two extreme plates each plate is
spherical conductor i.e. 4 0 . 4 0 4 0 b
ba ba common to adjacent capacitors.
(3) Cylindrical capacitor : It consists of two concentric (2) Parallel grouping
cylinders of radii a and b (a < b), inner cylinder is given charge (i) Potential difference across each capacitor remains same
+Q while outer cylinder is earthed. Common length of the and equal to the applied potential difference but charge distributes
cylinders is l then b
i.e. Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 +Q1 Q1
Q Q a +
+
2 0 l +
+
C Q1
b +Q2 Q2
log e l +
+
a Q2 +
+

Q Q3 +Q3 Q3
+
+
+
+
Fig. 18.95 V
Grouping of Capacitor Fig. 18.98
(1) Series grouping (ii) Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3
(i) Charge on each capacitor remains same and equals to the (iii) In parallel combination charge and energy distributes in
main charge supplied by the battery but potential difference the ratio of capacitance i.e. Q C and U C
distributes i.e. V = V1 + V2 + V3 (iv) If two capacitors having capacitance C1 and C2 respectively
(ii) Equivalent capacitance are connected in parallel then C eq C1 C 2
1 1 1 1 C1 C2
or C eq (C 11 C 21 C 31 ) 1 Q1 . Q and Q2 .Q
Ceq C1 C2 C3 C C
C1 C2 1 2
C1 C2 C3 (v) If n identical capacitors are connected in parallel
+Q Q +Q Q +Q Q
+ +

+

Equivalent capacitance C eq nC and Charge on each
+ + +
+ + +
Q + + + Q
capacitor Q'
V1 V2 V3 n
+ If n identical plates are arranged such that even numbered of
V
plates are connected together and odd numbered plates are
Fig. 18.96
connected together, then (n 1) capacitors will be formed and they
will be in parallel grouping.
Electrostatics

(iii) Time constant () : The quantity RC is called the time

constant as it has the dimension of time during charging if
2 4 6 1
1 3 5 7 t RC , Q Q0 (1 e 1 ) 0.63 Q0 = 63% of Q0 ( 0.37 )
e
or during discharging it is defined as the time during which charge
on a capacitor falls to 0.37 times (37%) of the initial charge on the
Fig. 18.99
capacitor.
Equivalent capacitance C' (n 1) C
Kirchhoffs Law for Capacitor Circuits
A
where C = capacitance of a capacitor 0 According to Kirchhoffs junction law q 0 and Kirchhoffs
d
second law (Loop law) states that in a close loop of an electric
Charging and Discharging of Capacitor in Series circuit V 0
RC Circuit Use following sign convention while solving the problems.
As shown in the following figure (A) when switch S is closed, E E
capacitor start charging. In this transient state potential difference
E +E
appears across capacitor as well as resistor. When capacitor gets
fully charged the entire potential difference appeared across the
C C
capacitor and nothing is left for the resistor. [Shown in figure (B)]
+ +
C R C R V = + q/C
+ + V = q/C

V V V0 Fig. 18.102
i
When an arrangement of capacitors cannot be simplified by
the method of successive reduction, then we need to apply the
+ + Kirchhoffs laws to solve the circuit.
S V0 S V0
(A) Transient state (B) Steady state After earthing a positively charged conductor electrons flow
Fig. 18.100 from earth to conductor and if a negatively charged conductor is
(i) Charging : In transient state of charging charge on the earthed then electrons flows from conductor to earth.

t +
capacitor at any instant Q Q0 1 e RC and potential +
+ + e e
+
+ +
+
t
difference across the capacitor at any instant V V0 1 e RC +


(Here Q and V are the instantaneous values of charge and When a charged spherical conductor placed inside a hollow
potential difference while maximum charge on capacitor is insulated conductor and connected through a fine conducting
wire the charge will be completely transferred from the inner
Q0 CV0 )
conductor to the outer conductor.
(ii) Discharging : After the completion of charging, if battery
is removed capacitor starts discharging. In transient state charge on
+Q
the capacitor at any instant Q Q0 e t / RC and potential difference

cross the capacitor at any instant V V0 e t / CR .

Q0
Q Q = Q0(1 et/RC)
O t
Charge on the capacitor increases
with time during charging
Fig. 18.101
Q0
Q Q = Q0 et/RC
O t
Charge on the capacitor decreases
with time during discharging
Lightening-rod arrestors are made up of conductors with
one of their ends earthed while the other sharp, and protects a
building from lightening either by neutralising or conducting the
charge of the cloud to the ground.
With rise in temperature dielectric constant of liquid decreases.
If X-rays are incident on a charged electroscope, due to
ionisation of air by X-rays the electroscope will get discharged
and hence its leaves will collapse. However, if the electroscope
is evacuated. X-rays will cause photoelectric effect with gold and

so the leaves will further diverge if it is positively charged (or
uncharged) and will converge if it is negatively charged.
Two point charges separated by a distance r in vacuum and
a force F acting between them. After filling a dielectric medium
having dielectric constant K completely between the charges,
force between them decreases. To maintain the force as before
separation between them has to be changed to r K . This
distance known as effective air separation.
No point charge produces electric field at its own position.
The electric field on the surface of a conductor is directly
proportional to the surface charge density at that point i.e, E
Two charged spheres having radii r1 and r2 , charge
densities 1 and 2 respectively, then the ratio of electric field
E1 1 r22 Q
on their surfaces will be charge 1 / 3 e and 2 / 3 e. However, as quarks do not
E2 2 r12 4r 2
In air, if intensity of electric field exceeds the value
3 10 6 N/C , air ionizes.
A small ball is suspended in a uniform electric field with the
help of an insulated thread. If a high energy Xray beam falls on
the ball, X-rays knock out electrons from the ball so the ball is
positively charged and therefore the ball is deflected in the
direction of electric field.
E
F= QE
XRay
Electric field is always directed from higher potential to
lower potential.
A positive charge if left free in electric field always moves
from higher potential to lower potential while a negative charge
moves from lower potential to higher potential.
An electric potential can exist at a point in a region where
the electric field is zero and its vice versa.
It is a common misconception that the path traced by a
positive test charge is a field line but actually the path traced by
a unit positive test charge represents a field line only when it
moves along a straight line.
An electric field is completely characterized by two physical
quantities Potential and Intensity. Force characteristic of the
field is intensity and work characteristic of the field is potential.
For a short dipole, electric field intensity at a point on the
axial line is double the electric field intensity at a point on the
Electrostatics
equatorial line of electric dipole i.e. Eaxial = 2Eequatorial
1
It is interesting to note that dipole field E decreases
r3
much rapidly as compared to the field of a point charge
1
E 2 .
r
Franklin (i.e., e.s.u. of charge) is the smallest unit of charge
while faraday is largest (1 Faraday = 96500 C).
The e.s.u. of charge is also called stat coulomb or Franklin
(Fr) and is related to e.m.u. of charge through the relation
emu of charge
3 1010
esu of charge
Recently it has been discovered that elementary particles
such as proton or neutron are composed of quarks having
exist in free state, the quanta of charge is still e.
Inducting body neither gains nor loses charge.
Dielectric constant of an insulator can not be
For metals in electrostatics K = and so Q' Q; i.e. in
metals induced charge is equal and opposite to inducing charge.
A truck carrying explosives has a metal chain touching the
ground, to conduct away the charge produced by friction.
Coulombs law is valid at a distance greater than 10 15 m.
Ratio of gravitational force and electrostatic force between
(i) Two electrons is 1043/1. (ii) Two protons is 1036/1
(iii) One proton and one electron 1039/1.
Decreasing order to fundamental forces
FNuclear FElectromagnetic FWeak FGravitational
At the centre of the line joining two equal and opposite
charge V = 0 but E 0.
At the centre of the line joining two equal and similar
charge V 0, E 0 .
Electric field intensity and electric potential due to a point
charge q, at a distance t1 + t2 where t1 is thickness of medium
of dielectric constant K1 and t2 is thickness of medium of
dielectric constant K2 are :
1 Q 1 Q
E ; V
4 0 (t1 K1 t2 K 2 )2 4 0 (t1 K1 t2 K2 )
If an electron (charge e and mass m) is moving on a
circular path of radius r about a positively charge infinitely long
linear charge, (charge density ) then the velocity of electron in
Electrostatics

e Radial and non-uniform electric field exists between the

dynamic equilibrium will be v .
2 0m spherical surfaces of spherical capacitor.

A metal plate is charged uniformly with a surface charge Two large conducting plates X and Y kept close to each
other. The plate X is given a charge Q1 while plate Y is given a
density . An electron of energy W is fired towards the charged
metal plate from a distance d, then for no collision of electron charge Q2 (Q1 Q2 ) , the distribution of charge on the four faces
W 0 a, b, c, d will be as shown in the following figure.
with plate d
e
Q1 X Q2 Y X Q1 Q2 Y

It is a very common misconception that a capacitor stores 2
charge but actually a capacitor stores electric energy in the b d
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
electrostatic field between the plates.
a c 2
2 2
Two plates of unequal area can also form a capacitor, but
effective overlapping area is considered.
When dielectric is partially filled between the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor then its capacitance increases but
potential difference decreases. To maintain the capacitance and
potential difference of capacitor as before separation between
the plates has to be increased say by d' . In such case
d
t
K
t d'

In series combination equivalent capacitance is always

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor doesn't depends lesser than that of either of the individual capacitors. In parallel
upon the charge given, potential raised or nature of metals and
combination, equivalent capacitance is always greater than the
thickness of plates.
maximum capacitance of either capacitor in network.
The distance between the plates is kept small to avoid
If n identical capacitors are connected in parallel which are
fringing or edge effect (non-uniformity of the field) at the
charged to a potential V. If these are separated and connected in
boundaries of the plates.
series then potential difference of combination will be nV.

+ Two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 are charged to

+
potential of V1 and V2 respectively. After disconnecting from
+ batteries they are again connected to each other with reverse
+ polarity i.e., positive plate of a capacitor connected to negative
+ plate of other. Then common potential is given by
+
Q1 Q2 C1V1 C2V2
V .
C1 C2 C1 C2
Spherical conductor is equivalent to a spherical capacitor
with its outer sphere of infinite radius.

A spherical capacitor behaves as a parallel plate capacitor if

its spherical surfaces have large radii and are close to each
other.

The intensity of electric field between the plates of a parallel

plate capacitor (E = /0) does not depend upon the distance
between them.

The plates of a parallel plate capacitor are being moved

away with some velocity. If the plate separation at any instant of
time is d then the rate of change of capacitance with time is
1
proportional to .
d2