ATTEMPERATORS

temperature control it was business as usual.

They worked reasonably well in large base-load

Tight specs, good

steam plants, so why not combined-cycle facili-
ties? Owners assumed that off-the-shelf solutions
were fine.
engineering, quality Today, its difficult to find a new combined-
cycle plant in base-load service. Most cycle daily,
manufacture ensure some twice a day. And many ramp up and down
during service hours. Such operating conditions
reliable control of challenge the conventional wisdom in steam-
temperature regulation. Attemperators serving

steam temperature heat-recovery steam generators (HRSGs) cycle far

By Dr Sanjay V Sherikar, PE, Control Components
Inc, and Peter Borzsony, CCI International Ltd
more frequently and spray much more water than
designers of those devices ever anticipated. Fail-
ures experienced by combined-cycle plants already
have prompted the industry to review the demand-
ing service conditions and make adjustments in
the design and application of critical components
to assure reliable operation over the intended
lifetime. The recommendations for attemperators

A
ttemperatorsdesuperheaters if you pre-
ferhave been around for a long time.
Like many other power-system compo-
nents, they have performed well on large
base-load steam units owned by regulated utilities.
However, the boom in building combined-cycle
plants for merchant service in the early 2000s cre-
ated new hurdles for components that hardly got
a yawn when specifications for these plants were
written. Recall that most of the combined-cycle
plants were designed for base-load operation. So,
when it came to specifying a system for steam
presented in the sidebar are a first step in that
direction.
Attemperators for HRSGs are located between
the primary and secondary superheaters and
reheaters, and sometimes after the final stage
of superheating (Fig 1). They are responsible for
controlling steam temperature in accordance with
startup and steam-turbine-inlet requirements, and
also for preventing thermal damage to superheater
and reheater tubes as well as to outlet steam piping
and downstream equipment.
Interstage attemperators for superheaters typi-
cally see pressures up to 1900 psig, temperatures

Preheater
To drum Drum
outlet tank
Economizer Cold reheat line
Drum outlet valve

Feedwater Reheater
control valve
Spray water
control valve
Superheater Attemperator

Spray water control valve

Reheater
Attemperator To i-p/l-p turbine

Superheater
Feedwater minimum
flow valve Boiler To h-p turbine
feedwater
pump
Boiler

From condenser

Feedwater tank Condensate pump

1. Attemperators for HRSGs are located between the primary and secondary superheaters and reheaters,
and sometimes after the final stage of superheating
COMBINED CYCLE JOURNAL, First Quarter 2005 1
ATTEMPERATORS
to 1020F, and steam flow rates to tion temperature before exiting the nozzles. Flash-
660,000 lb/hr. Reheater attempera- ing contributes to erosion of nozzles and the nozzle
tors experience similar tempera- holder.
tures and flow rates, but pressures Galling of piston rings and related components
normally go to only 450 psig. also is a possibility when temperature swings are
large.
Problems associated Probe-style attemperators of any type are prone
with attemperators to vibration created by vortex shedding and the
high velocity head (kinetic energy) of the steam
Addition of unwanted water to the passing the probe assembly. The vibration induced
steam line as a result of improp- by the vortices, in combination
er attemperator operation, or the with the high temperature, can
inability of the control element cause cracking of the weld joint
to remain leak-tight, is a major between the probes mount-
concern of operators. Failure of ing flange and its lower body.
the attemperator to control the 2. Multi-nozzle probe-type attem- Thermal cycling can initiate
injection of water into interstage perator generally is not recommended cracking of the seal welds con-
lines often results in damage to when the difference in temperature necting the lower probe body
hardware and piping from ther- between the steam and spray water with the nozzle head, thereby
mal shock; in severe cases, the exceeds 450 deg F loosening the nozzle head and
erosion of piping. Forced out- changing spray-angle orienta-
ages and expensive repairs can 3. Variable-area nozzle provides effi- tion.
result. cient primary atomization regardless of Spray-water control ele-
Another problem encountered steam flow ment. The turndown required
with interstage attemperators, for attemperation is quite high
though not as catastrophic, is and often underestimated.
the inability to control final Note that a 20:1 turndown in
steam temperature within speci- attemperation water flow does
fied limits. This occurs when not necessarily equate to a
the installed attemperator lacks 20:1 turndown in capacity for
sufficient turndown, when the the flow-control element, or Cv.
changes in spray-water flow can- The spray-water control-ele-
not be regulated with adequate ment turndown requirement
precision, or when the leakage is influenced by variations in
across the attemperator control supply water pressure, steam
element exceeds the demand for pressure, and nozzle backpres-
spray water. Such failure reduces sure, which varies with flow
steam-cycle efficiency and elec- demand.
trical output. In some cases, the difference
Root causes of the foregoing between supply-water pressure
problems include poor design and interstage steam pressure
of the attemperator and/or spray-water control at low flow is much higher than at high steam flow.
element, poor installation, and improper control In other cases, constant-speed boiler-feed pumps
instrumentation. provide spray water at relatively constant pressure,
but interstage steam pressure slides during start-
Design considerations upparticularly when multiple HRSGs serve one
steam turbine. For both situations, the variation in
The service requirements for interstage desuper- differential pressure across the operating range may
heating are extremely demanding. As the HRSG require a spray-water flow-control element with
cycles, attemperator hardware can remain for extremely high turndown capability.
extended periods at elevated temperatures without The turndown requirement of the spray-water
spray water flowing through it, then be quenched flow-control element also is influenced by variations
instantaneously when the relatively cool spray in pressure drop across the attemperators spray
water is required. nozzles. Such influence is much less pronounced in
Attemperator designs that have flow-control attemperators with spring-loaded nozzles (Fig 3)
elements residing in the steam paththe multi- than in those with fixed-area nozzles.
nozzle probe style shown in Fig 2, for exampleare In addition to providing high turndown, the
particularly susceptible to such damage. Cycling spray-water control element may experience high
causes fatigue and thermal cracks in critical com- delta p at low flow and a low delta p at high flow
ponentsincluding nozzle holder, individual noz- and, therefore, must be able to handle these condi-
zles, lower body, and piston rings. tions.
Multi-nozzle designs also are prone to internal Repeatable, tight shut-off of the control ele-
flashing, which can occur when spray water flow is ment is necessary. This calls for a high plug-to-seat
extremely low and is allowed to heat up to satura- thrust. Specify a sufficient number of pressure-
2 COMBINED CYCLE JOURNAL, First Quarter 2005
 ATTEMPERATORS
reducing stages to achieve a trim exit velocity of less Goal is to create as small a droplet as possible
than 100 ft/sec, which should prevent cavitation regardless of the water spray flow rate. Variable-
and erosion damage. In sum, users should be look- area nozzles offer this capability (Fig 3). They can
ing for a control valve that offers equal-percentage provide good primary atomization at flows down to
characterized trim to maximize resolution during about 220 lb/hr and are self cleaning with regard
low Cv requirements, thereby ensuring tight con- to debris when the nozzle opening is not restricted
trol of spray water and of outlet temperature. Con- prematurely. Nozzle shown incorporates swirl to
trol ValvesPractical Guides for maximize coverage.
Measurement and Control, pub- 400 Fixed-orifice nozzles, by con-
lished by the Instrument Society trast, are sized for the maxi-
of America (ISA), provides guid- 320 mum flow rate and do a progres-
ance that is applicable for the sively poorer job of atomization

Number of drops
Larger droplets
water-flow control element (see to be further as water flow decreases. Reason
240 broken down
Chapter 12). is the inherent reduction in dif-
Proper installation is impor- 160 ferential pressure that is charac-
tant to the success of every attem- teristic of reduced flows through
perator. Three cardinal rules to 80
fixed-area nozzles. They typi-
remember: cally are limited to a 3:1 turn-
Provide a straight run of 0 down.
pipe upstream of the attemper- 34 68 102 136 170 204 All droplets created by
ator of no less than three diam- Drop diameter mechanical atomizers are not of
eters. Installation of a liner in 4. Droplet distribution after primary the same diameter. A typical dis-
the inlet piping is recommend- atomization shows existence of large tribution of droplet sizes is illus-
ed to ensure uniform geometry particles that must be atomized fur- trated in Fig 4. The largest drop-
of the steam flow at the point ther to ensure rapid evaporation lets (color) are subject to further
of spray-water injection. break-up by secondary atomiza-
Provide a straight run of tion. Fig 5 shows that the volume
pipe downstream of the attem- of injected spray encompassed by
perator (more on this later). the large droplets is only a frac-
Insufficient distance between tion of the total.
the attemperator and the first Secondary atomization
downstream elbow can cause refers to the break-up of large
the agglomeration of water droplets by the dynamic force
droplets along the elbow wall, of the steam flow. However, for
a phenomenon conducive to secondary atomization to occur,
water fallout, thermal shock, the dynamic forces acting on a
inaccurate feedback from droplet must be greater than the
instrumentation to the flow- viscous forces holding the drop-
control element, and erosion. 5. Magnified picture of primary let together. This is a function of
Install the temperature sen- atomization 15 in. downstream of the Weber number (We), which is
sor downstream of the attem- injection nozzle shows relative size equal to the dynamic force divid-
perator at a point where all the of water droplets ed by surface tension force. The
spray water has been evapo- equation is:
rated, this to avoid false read-
ings and inaccurate feedback V2 D
We =
to the flow control element.
where, D is the droplet diam-
Importance of eter, the density of steam, V
proper atomization the relative velocity between the
steam and droplet, multiplied
Proper atomization and evapo- by V squared the velocity head
ration of the spray water sup- of steam, and is the surface
plied by an attemperation system tension, which depends on water
is necessary both for good tem- temperature.
perature control and to prevent At Weber numbers greater
water carryover. The complete than 12, the aerodynamic or
integration of injected water into destabilizing force will overcome
superheated steam involves three surface tensionthe stabiliz-
steps: primary atomization, sec- ing forceand the droplet will
ondary atomization, and evapo- break up.
ration. 6. Injection of spray water per- To achieve good secondary
Primary atomization is the pendicular to steam flow improves atomization, design engineers
breakdown of water into droplets atomization and offers other benefits suggest injecting the water spray
by the attemperators nozzles. as well perpendicular to the steam flow
COMBINED CYCLE JOURNAL, First Quarter 2005 3
ATTEMPERATORS
(Fig 6) rather than parallel to it (Fig 2). This maxi-
mizes the relative velocity between the liquid drop-
lets and the steam flow and ensures efficient sec-
ondary atomization under all operating conditions.
An additional benefit of this configuration is that
it enhances turbulence in the steam flow, which
Checklist highlights items to include in attemperator specifications
T
he following recommendations apply to inter-
stage and final-stage attemperators for HRSG
superheaters and reheaters where the differ-
ence in temperature between the steam and spray
water exceeds 450 deg F.
1. Specify spring-loaded variable-area noz-
zles. They provide (a) an excellent spray pattern for
efficient primary atomization regardless of steam
flow, (b) protection against flashing during startup
and sliding-pressure operation when steam pres-
sure is low and spray-water temperature relatively
high, and (c) maintain a relatively constant back-
pressure for better turndown. Nozzles should be
capable of opening at least 0.08 in. to minimize
the possibility of blockage while ensuring proper
atomization.
2. Know the depth of penetration
of spray-water into the steam
pipe. To prevent thermal stresses
resulting from the direct impinge-
ment of spray water on the hot
steam pipe, or liner if applicable, Penetration
(12% diam)
specify a minimum clearance of the
spray boundary from the pipe wall.
Recommendation: 12% of the pipe
diameter, measured at a distance 1 pipe diameter
of one pipe diameter downstream
of the spray injection point (see sketch).
3. Mount spray nozzles circumferentially around pressure operation when delta p is high and the Cv
the steam pipe. Benefits include: (a) a low risk
of nozzle exposure to thermal shock, (b) efficient
secondary atomization because water injection is
perpendicular to steam flow, (c) even distribution
of spray water over the cross section of steam
flow, and (d) increased turbulence, which enhances
droplet evaporation.
4. Specify spray water valve and attemperator
as separate components to protect critical parts
against thermal shock.
5. Require a liner to (a) protect steam pipe against
water impingement, (b) ensure better secondary
atomization, (c) create turbulence for fast evapo-
ration of spray water, and (d) provide geometric
profiling of the steam flow pattern to maximize per-
formance.
6. Keep spray nozzles outside the steam path to
the extent possible, thereby (a) reducing thermal
shock, (b) minimizing steam head loss across the
attemperator, and (c) reducing the risk of probe
4 COMBINED CYCLE JOURNAL, First Quarter 2005
can increase the evaporation rate by as much as an
order of magnitude.
Evaporation. The small droplets produced by
secondary atomization boil and evaporate. The
time to complete the evaporative process depends
on the total surface area of the water volume and is
breakage as a result of the high bending moment
and/or vibration.
7. Incorporate a thermal barrier to reduce ther-
mal stress created in critical areas by quenching of
hot components during cycling operation.
8. Specify a maximum average droplet size for
water exiting the attemperator to ensure timely
evaporation and prevent moisture fallout on to hot
steam piping. Recommendation: 125 microns.
Make sure your supplier determines the water
droplet size for all operating conditions and pro-
vides adequate documentationthat is, calcula-
tions or physical test results.
9. Encourage maintenance-friendly design, spe-
cifically specifying that moving
partssuch as spray nozzles and
valve trim componentsbe easily
removable without having to cut
the steam pipe. This eliminates
the need for cutting, rewelding,
and NDE inspection of critical pip-
ing during busy outages.
10. Specify tight shut-off of the
spray water valve under all con-
ditionsincluding when theres
no steam in the pipe and the
boiler-feed pump is operating and during sliding-
required is low. Recommendation is Class V shutoff
in accordance with Fluid Control Institute standard
70-2 as a minimum. Protecting the seat from high-
velocity leakage ensures repeatable tight shutoff
over the valves design lifetime.
11. Guard against flashing and/or cavitation
across the full range of operating conditions,
this to prevent damage to the control valve, down-
stream piping, and the nozzle assembly.
12. Protect the control-valve trim, by specifying
a sufficient number of pressure-reducing stages to
achieve a low trim exit velocity across the full oper-
ating range. Recommendation for maximum trim exit
velocity: less than 100 ft/sec. Ensure tight control of
spray water flow when desuperheating requirements
are minimal by specifying equal-percentage (or
modified equal-percentage) characteristic.
13. Optimize performance by specifying that the
final steady-state steam temperature must be
with 5 deg F of the set point (plus or minus).

Thermal barrier
7. Thermal barrier separates hot and cold working
elements to mitigate the intensity of thermal cycles
experienced by critical components
0.025 V
L=0.067 sec V max
L=0.2 sec V max
8. Liner protects steam pipe from thermal shock,
helps improve secondary atomization
proportional to the square of the droplet diameter.
Any droplets that do not evaporate before reaching
the temperature sensor may wet the sensor and
make it difficult to control steam temperature as
intended.
Inadequate design of the attemperation system
can result in a combination of poor control and poor
atomization during transients that would permit
carryover of water into the secondary superheater,
damaging headers and tubes.
Design considerations
Attemperators for HRSG service operate during
cold, warm, and hot restarts, as well as during load
transients. During steady-state operation, how-
ever, desuperheating should not be necessary. This
means that the attemperator assembly is exposed
to rated steam temperature without cooling by
injection water for extended periods.
When injection water is required, attempera-
tors are quenched instantaneously from operat-
ing steam temperature to the temperature of the
spray watera difference of between 630 to 810
deg F at most plants. Attention must be paid to
thermal shock at the design stage because desu-
perheating systems for HRSGs may experience
10,000, or more, quenching cycles in their life-
times.
Attemperators with integral control valves, such
as the multi-nozzle unit shown in Fig 2, should be
analyzed carefully before writing your specifica-
tion. Heres why:
COMBINED CYCLE JOURNAL, First Quarter 2005
ATTEMPERATORS
Nozzle head is downstream of the water con-
trol/isolation point and can be at steam tempera-
ture when cool water is admitted.
Thermal fatigue has been experienced at some
plants in less than 500 cycles.
Control element is prone to cracking, sticking,
and leaking.
In addition to thermal shock, probe-style attem-
perators are susceptible to bending moments cre-
ated by the flow of steam and to flow-induced vibra-
tion. If vibration frequency matches the natural
frequency of the probe, there is risk of catastrophic
damage. Multi-nozzle heads are even more suscep-
tible to the effects of thermal shock than simple,
fixed-nozzle probe arrangements because of their
greater mass.
You can avoid thermal-fatigue issues by specify-
ing a desuperheating system that has a separate
spray-water flow-control element located outside
the hot steam environment. Extensive analysis
and field experience indicate that attemperators
with integral control-valve elements should not
be specified when the spray-water and steam tem-
peratures differ by more than 450 deg F.
Another recommendation: Specify a thermal
barrier to separate the hot and cold working
elements to mitigate the intensity of the ther-
mal cycles experienced by critical components
(Fig 7).
Liners. Theres more to designing a liner than
just providing more metal to protect steam piping
against thermal shock. A properly engineered liner
(Fig 8) is also capable of doing the following:
Increasing steam velocity to improve second-
ary atomization.
Creating vortices that improve atomization
and enhance mixing.
Assisting with heat transfer and evaporation.
Controlling the penetration of the spray pat-
tern by flow profiling.
Here are some rules of thumb for liner design in
superheater and reheater interstage attemperator
applications:
Minimum length of straight pipe upstream of
the liner should be three pipe diameters.
Length of the liner downstream from the spray
nozzles should be between 3 and 6 ft, depending
on the particular installation.
Length of straight pipe downstream of the
liner should allow a residence time of 0.067 sec-
onds for spray water to evaporate before the first
elbow.
Location of the temperature sensor should be
at a distance downstream of the liner that allows
0.2 seconds of residence time to ensure complete
mixing of the evaporated water and superheated
steam. However, if the mass flow of spray water
is greater than 15% of the mass flow of super-
heated steam, the residence time should be
increased to 0.3 seconds.
Where performance reliability is critical, precise
estimates for distances to the first elbow and the
temperature sensor can be determined through
detailed thermo-fluid analysis. CCJ
5