Switching Concepts in Computer Network

Hub and repeater works at Layer 1 ( Physical layer ). These devices only
understand the signals. Signals received on incoming port are forwarded from
all available ports.
Bridge and switch work at layer 2 ( Data Link Layer). Bridge and switch both
are capable to read frames. Switching is a method of dealing with frames.
Switching is described in Layer 2 of OSI model. Switch is the upgraded version
of bridge. Bridge was the earlier implementation that has been replaced by
the switch.
Switching concept was developed to solve two major issues of Ethernet;
bandwidth and collision.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the data (in data unit such as Kb, Mb, Gb etc) transferred through
the media in particular time unit (such as second, minute, hour). It uses a
measurement of bits per second or multiples of it to measure the consumed
or available data.
Bandwidth is the critical resource for network. Bandwidth is limited by media
type and technology. In WAN, bandwidth is the costly resource. To save
bandwidth different switching approach are used such as packet switch, circuit
switch and frame really. We will cover these approaches later in this article.
Collision
In LAN network multiple devices can share the same segment that create the
collision. Collision is the effect of two devices sending transmissions
simultaneously in Ethernet. When they meet on the physical media, the
frames from each device collide and damaged.
Collision domain
Group of devices that share same collision effects over the Ethernet network.
CSMA/CD
It is mechanism of removing collision from network. When two or more nodes
simultaneously sense the wire and found no frame, and each device places its
frame on the wire. These frame would be collide in wire and a collision will
occur. NIC (Network Interface Card) actually examine wire before placing any
frame on it, this collision detection method is known as CSMA/CD.
If the NICs see a collision for their transmitted frames, they have to resend
the frames. In this situation, each NIC that was transmitting a frame when a
collision occurred creates a special signal, called a jam signal, on the wire,
waits a small random time period, and examine the wire again. If no frame is
currently on the wire, NIC will retransmit its original frame again.
The more devices you place on a segment, the more likely you are to
experience collisions. More devices means more random time interval,
creating even more collisions, greatly slowing down a devices access when
trying to transmit data.
Switch
Switches are data link layer devices that switch frames between different layer
2 cables or segments. Each port connected to switch has a separate collision
domain.
When a frame entered into a port of switch, switch checks FCS ( Frame
checksum sequence) field of frame and process it only if it is valid. All invalided
frames are automatically dropped. All valid frames are processed and
forwarded to their destination MAC address.
Switch makes their switching decisions in hardware by using application
specific integrated circuits (ASICs). Unlike generic processor such as we have
in our PC, ASICs are specialized processors built only to perform very few
particular tasks. In cisco switch ASICs has single task, switch frames blazingly
fast. For example an entry level catalyst 2960 switch has frame rate of 2.7
million frames per second. Higher end switches have more higher FPS rate
such as Catalyst 6500 has a rate of 400 million FPS rate.
Basically switch perform three main tasks
1. Learn where the devices are located and store their location in
MAC table.
2. Forward frame intelligently based on MAC address of frame
3. Removing layer 2 loops.

Learning Address function of switch

Switch stores MAC address in MAC address table.
MAC table is also known as port or CAM address table.
When a frame enters into the port, switch examines the source MAC
address and compares it with its CAM (Content Addressable Memory)
table.
If switch doesnt see a corresponding entry in the CAM table, it will add
the source MAC address to the table, including the source port identifier.
If switch found address in CAM table, then it compare associated entries
and update them.
Whenever the switch updates an entry in the CAM table, the s witch also
resets the timer for the specific entry.
Switch uses timer to remove older information automatically. Switches
may have different default timer.
MAC address table can be built statically or dynamically.
All dynamic entries are automatically flushed when you turn off the switch.
 When you power on a switch it has an empty CAM table or static entries
in it ( if you have configured any ).
All identified frames are forwarded only from specific ports that have
corresponding addresses.
All unidentified frames ( frames those MAC address are not available in
CAM table ) are flooded from all ports.
Three types of frames; Unknown Unicast address frame ( Unidentified
frame), broadcast frame and multicast frame are always flood out from all
possible ports except to the port on which the frame came in.
How cisco switch learn MAC address
Switch can build CAM table either statically or dynamically. Static method is
used with critical resources for security purpose. In static method we have to
update CAM table manually. With regular devices dynamic method is
sufficient. In dynamic method switch can automatically build CAM table by
incoming frames. In following example, four PCs are connected via switch.
When we power on the switch, it has a blank MAC Address table

PC0 sends a frame to PC2. Switch received this frame on Ethernet0/1. Switch
takes three steps here Learn, Decision and Forward.
In first step Switch updates MAC Address Table with source address and
learning interface. It looks in MAC Address Table for entry of source address.
MAC Address Table is currently empty so obviously it would not find an entry
for it. In will make a new entry for this address.
In second step it will make forward decision based on destination address.
This frame has a single destination PC2. Single destination frame is known as
Unicast. Switch has no entry for this destination address in MAC Address
Table, so it would treat it as unknown Unicast. Switch floods unknown Unicast
from all possible ports.
In third step Switch takes action based on the decision made in second step.
This frame would be flood from all possible ports except from the incoming
port.
Now MAC Address Table look like as following

This frame would be received by PC1,PC2 and PC3. PC1 and PC3 will drop this
frame as it is not intended for them. Only PC2 will process this frame, as frame
has its address in destination address field. Our first frame has reached on its
destination.
PC2 sends a frame back to PC0 in respond of receiving frame.
Switch received this frame on Ethernet0/3. Now we know that Switch takes
three steps when it receives a frame on its interface.
In learning process, Switch checks MAC Address Table for entry of source
address. It is the first frame from PC2. Switch has no entry for this source
address so it would update MAC Address Table with the MAC address of PC2.
In decision making process, Switch compares destination address with MAC
Address Table. This frame has destination address 0000.0000.0000. Switch
has entry for this address. By looking at MAC Address Table Switch can easily
figure out that its Ethernet0/1 port has the destination address.
In forward process, Switch will only forward this frame from its Ethernet0/1
port.
Switch repeats these steps every time whenever it receives a frame. You can
view MAC Address Table entries from show mac-address-table command.

Methods of Switching
Cisco Switches support three methods of switching.
1. Store and Forward
2. Cut and Through
3. Fragment Free
Store and Forward
This is a basic mode of switching. In this mode Switch buffers entire frame
into the memory and run FCS (Frame Check Sequence) to ensure that frame
is valid and not corrupted. A frame less than 64bytes and higher than
1518bytes is invalid. Only valid frames are processed and all invalid frames
are automatically dropped. Among these three methods, this method has
highest latency. Latency is the time taken by device in passing frame from it.
Cut and Through
Cut and Through method has lowest latency. In this method Switch only read
first six bytes from frame after the preamble. These six bytes are the
destination address of frame. This is the fastest method of switching. This
method also process invalid frames. Only advantage of this method is speed.
Fragment Free
This is a hybrid version of Store and Forward method and Cut and Through
method. It takes goodies from both methods and makes a perfect method for
switching. It checks first 64 bytes of frame for error. It processes only those
frames that have first 64bytes valid. Any frame less than 64 bytes is known
as runt. Runt is an invalid frame type. This method filters runt while
maintaining the speed.
Removing Layer 2 loops
To insure redundancy network engineers usually create backup routes for
critical resources. This creates network loops. Switch uses STP ( Spanning
Tree Protocol) to remove loops.

Main functions of STP are to prevent loops and automatically activate backup
link in case of failure of main link. STP automatically finds the backup
[duplicate ] links and disable them, leaving a single active path between any
two nodes. Whenever a main link goes down STP enables the backup route.
STP is explained with example in following article.
http://computernetworkingnotes.com/ccna-study-guide/stp-spanning-tree-protocol-explained-
with-examples.html

Type of Switching
In the starting of this article we have divided switching concept in two terms
LAN and WAN. So far we have explained switching in LAN terms, now in
remaining article would focus on WAN terms.
WAN supports a number of switching types, among those following are the
most popular and covered in CCNA Exam objectives.

Dedicate Line
This is usually known as leased line or point to point connection. In this type
of connection, lines remain always open. You have to pay for all times whether
you transmit data or not. HDLC and PPP encapsulations are used for this type
of connection. This is the most expensive method of data transmission. It uses
synchronous serial lines.
Circuit Switching
It uses asynchronous serial lines. You only need to pay when actual data
transmits. It works like a telephone call where you only need to pay for call
duration. In circuit switch, we need to established connection every times
whenever we have data to transmit. Circuit switching uses dial-up modems or
ISDN. It is suitable for low-bandwidth data transfers.
Packet Switching
In this method you share bandwidth with other companies. This is cost
effective simulation of lease line. It is suitable for bursty type data
transmission. VPN and frame really are two popular implementations of this
method.
VPN
VPN (Virtual Private Network) is an extended private network over the public
network such as internet. VPN enables us to transmit data across the shared
public networks. We need to implement data encryption and security polices
to ensure data integrity. Major implementations of VPN include OpenVPN and
IPsec.
Frame Relay
Frame Relay is the cost effective switching method. Frame relay breaks data
in variable size units, known as frames. It does not implement any error
correction solution in carrier. In this technology any necessary error correction
methods need to be setup on end devices. This speeds up over all data
transmission.