Fundamentals of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering
EEE-209 Lecture Notes

A. Prof. Dr. Murat Fahrioglu

METU Northern Cyprus Campus

References:
Lecture notes by Prof. Dr. O. Sevaiolu, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, METU
Electrical Circuit Analysis 3rd Ed. by Johnson, Johnson, Hilburn, and Scott
G. Rizzoni, Principl. and Appl. of Electrical Engineering (4th Ed.), McGraw Hill, 2003.
Electric Circuits 8th Ed. by Nilsson & Riedel
Engineering Circuit Analysis 7th Ed. by Hayt, Kemmerly, and Durbin
 Energy Storage Elements
(Introduction to AC Circuits)

Lecture 8-10

Murat Fahrioglu 2
 What is Direct Current (DC) ?

Definition Switch is turned on at: t = 1 sec

Direct Current (DC) is a current with a
constant time characteristics

Switch Current (Amp)

80
Current, I

R1= 5 Ohms 60

+ 40
Vs=600 V R2= 5 Ohms
I = 60 A
20 DC (Constant) Current

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (Sec)

Murat Fahrioglu 3
 What is Alternating Current (AC) ?

Definition
Alternating Current (AC) is a current with
time varying characteristics
Sinusoidal AC Non - Sinusoidal AC
5.0

Current (Amp)
Current (Amp)

10
4.0

Angle (Radians) 3.0

0 /2 3/2 2
2.0

1.0

- 10
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
t (sec)

Murat Fahrioglu 4
 Basic Parameters of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Definition Sinusoidal Voltage

Voltage (Volt)
Sinusoidal voltage is a voltage with
waveform as shown on the RHS 312
300
^
V(t) = V sin ( wt + ) 200
Phase angle
Amplitude
where 100
V(t) is the voltage waveform, Angle (Radians)
^ /2 3/2 2
V is the peak value (amplitude), 0

w is the angular frequency,

is the phase shift, i.e. angle of the
voltage at t = 0, (phase angle)
f = 50 Hz
w = 2 f = 314 rad/sec

Murat Fahrioglu 5
 Basic Parameters of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Voltage Waveform
V (Volts)

312
300

200
Peak Value = 312. V
100
Time (msec)
0
0 5 10 15 20

-100

-200

-300
-312

Murat Fahrioglu 6
 Basic Parameters of a Sinusoidal Waveform

I (Amp)
Period and Frequency
V (Volts)

300

200

100
Time (msec)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
-100

-200

-300

Full period = T = 20 msec 360 o Frequency = 1/ T = 1/(20 x 10 -3) = 50 Hz

Murat Fahrioglu 7
 AC (Alternating Current) Circuit

Positive half cycle Negative half cycle

I (Amp) I (Amp)
25 I(t)
25
25
I(t)
20 20
20
15 15
15
10 10 10
5 V(t) + 5 5
V(t) +
0 5 10
0
0 5 10 0,015
0
Load 0 Load
-5 -5
0 0,005
-5
-10 -10 -10
-15 -15 -15
-20 -20
-20

-25 -25 -25

Time (msec) Time (msec)

Murat Fahrioglu 8
 Introduction to Energy Storage Elements

So far only considered circuits with resistors and sources (and op-amps)
Terminal characteristics are simple algebraic equations

Next, will study dynamic elements which can store energy to be retrieved
at a later time. Hence they are called energy storage elements.
Terminal equations involve derivatives and integrals

Capacitor: Inductor:

i i

v C v L

Murat Fahrioglu 9
 Elements of AC Circuits: Capacitor

+
Definition Positive conductor
Insulating Layer
Capacitor is a device that can store
electrical charge Negative conductor
The simplest configuration consists of two
parallel conducting plates separated by _
an insulating layer
Insulating Layer provides dielectricity

+
(prevents current flow) between positive Symbolic
and negative conductors representation
_

Murat Fahrioglu 10
 Capacitance

Definition Small Capacitance Large Capacitance

Capacitors store electrical charge
Storage capacity of a capacitor is Capacitance = C1 C 1 < C2 Capacitance = C2
called capacitance

+
+
__ _

Water (hydroulic) example

Murat Fahrioglu 11
 Capacitor-Practical Configuration

Geometry
Capacitor plates are packaged in a roll
form in order to have smaller size
+

+ _

Alminum cover

Murat Fahrioglu 12
 Capacitor-Practical Configuration

Geometry
Capacitor cylinders are then connected in
parallel in bank form

Murat Fahrioglu 13
 Capacitor-Practical Configuration

Geometry
Capacitor banks
Control relay

Murat Fahrioglu 14
 Capacitor-Practical Configuration

Geometry Single Phase Three Phase

Single and three-phase capacitor

banks

Murat Fahrioglu 15
 MV (Medium Voltage) Shunt
Capacitor Banks

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 MV (Medium Voltage) Shunt
Capacitor Banks

Murat Fahrioglu 17
 MV (Medium Voltage) Shunt
Capacitor Banks

Murat Fahrioglu 18
 Electronic Capacitors on a
Motherboard

Murat Fahrioglu 19
 Basic Q-V Relation

Basic Principle Voltage Source V Capacitance C

Charge stored in a capacitor is
proportional to the capacitance C,

+
Charge stored in a capacitor is +
C
proportional to the voltage V applied V

_
or
Q=CV Symbolic Representation
where, Q is charge stored (Coulombs),
V is voltage (Volts),
C is capacitance (Farads) + C = 1 Farad

+
1 Volt
1 Farad is the capacitance with a charge _ Q = 1 Coulomb
of 1 Coulomb at a voltage 1 Volt between
the plates

Murat Fahrioglu 20
 Voltage - Current Relation (Terminal Law)
for a Capacitor

Definition I(t)
The relation;
Q=CV
+ C

+
may be written in time domain as;
V(t)
Q(t) = C V(t)
_
or differentiating both sides with respect to time

dQ(t)/dt = C dV(t)/dt
And remembering that
dQ(t)/dt = I(t) ,

I(t) = C dV(t) / dt

Murat Fahrioglu 21
 Voltage - Current Relation (Terminal Law)
for a Capacitor

Definition Switch is turned on at: t = 0 sec

The above equation may be integrated with
respect to time, yielding the following Switch I(t)
Voltage - Current Relation for a Capacitor

V(t) = (1/C) I(t)dt + V(0) + C

+
V(t) Vc (0)
where V(0) is the initial voltage across the _
capacitor, representing the initial voltage
due to the initial charge stored in the
capacitor

Murat Fahrioglu 22
 Capacitor
i
Terminal law for a capacitor:

v dv
C i C
dt

Note as the symbol implies, a capacitor behaves like an open circuit when
voltage is constant (DC).
The only time there is current through a capacitor is when the voltage is
changing (dv/dt 0).
Continuity Principle: The voltage across a capacitor is always continuous.
Total charge cannot change instantaneously.
Voltage in terms of current can be formulated by integrating both sides in
the above equation:
1 t 1 t
v
C t0 i ( ) d v (t0 ) C i ( ) d
Murat Fahrioglu 23
 Capacitor Power and Energy
i
Using the definition of power, if v is known:

dv dv
v P v i v C Cv
C dt dt
Alternatively if i is known,

1 t
P i
C
t0 i ( ) d v(t )
0

Using the relationship of energy (work) with power:

dw dv
P Cv dw Cv dv
dt dt
Integrating both sides to get energy:
1 [The integration assumes a reference of
w Cv 2 zero energy at zero voltage.]
2
Murat Fahrioglu 24
 Example - 1

A 0.2 F capacitor has a charge of 20 C.

Find its voltage and energy.

Murat Fahrioglu 25
 Example - 1

A 0.2 F capacitor has a charge of 20 C.

Find its voltage and energy.

q 20
v 100 V
C 0.2

1 2 0.2 1002
w Cv 1 mJ
2 2

Murat Fahrioglu 26
 Example - 2

I(t)

Problem
+ C

+
C = 0.1 F
Calculate the time waveform of the current flowing in V(t)
the circuit shown on the RHS by assuming that the _
capacitor is charged by the exponential voltage V(t)
shown in the figure
V(t) = 5 (1 - e-t) (Volts)
V(t) = 5 (1 e -t) Volts 5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

Vmax = Maximum voltage that can be reached = 5 Volts 0.0

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Qmax = C x Vmax = Maximum charge that can be stored

Murat Fahrioglu 27
 Example - 2

V(t) = 5 (1 - e-t) (Volts)

Solution I(t)
5.0

4.0
I(t) = C dV(t)/dt 3.0
+
C 2.0

+
V(t) = 5 (1 - e-t) Volts V(t)
1.0
Hence, _
0.0
I(t) = C d V(t) / dt 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

I(t) (Amp)
t (sec)
= C d/dt 5 (1 e -t)
0.5
= 0.1 x 5 e -t
0.4
= 0.1 x 5 e -t
0.3
= 0.5 x e -t Ampers
0.2

0.1

0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

Murat Fahrioglu 28
 Example - 2

Charge Stored in a Capacitor Qmax = C x Vmax = Maximum charge that can be stored

Now, determine the time waveform of the I(t)

C = 0.1 F
charge stored in the capacitor in the same +

+
circuit V(t)
_
Charge stored in the capacitor starts from
Q(t) (Coulombs)
zero and gradually increases to its final value
0.5

0.4
Q(t) = C x V(t)
= 0.1 x 5 (1 - e-t) 0.3

= 0.5 x (1 - e-t) Coulombs 0.2

0.1

0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 t (sec)

Murat Fahrioglu 29
 Example - 3

Problem Switch is turned on at: t = 0 sec,

off at: t = 1.0 sec.
Current source shown in the circuit shown
on the RHS provides 10 A constant current Switch
I(t) (Amp)
14.0
within the time interval;
I(t) 12.0

10.0
t 0, 1 sec C

+
8.0
I(t)
Capacitor is initially charged to 2 Volts _
6.0

voltage 4.0

2.0
Determine the voltage across the
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
capacitor within the time interval; t (sec)

t 0, 1 sec
C=1F Vc(0) = 2 Volts

Murat Fahrioglu 30
 Example - 3

I(t) (Amp)

I(t) 14.0
Solution 12.0
10.0
Voltage across the capacitance is C

+
8.0
expressed as I(t) 6.0
_
V(t) = (1/C) I(t)dt + V(0)
4.0
2.0

where, 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
V(0) = 2 Volts t (sec)
V(t) (Volts)
is the initial voltage across the capacitor C=1F 14.0
Hence; t 0, 1 Vc(0) = 2 Volts 12.0
10.0

V(t) = (1/C) I(t) dt + 2

8.0
6.0
V(t) = 10 t +2 4.0

V(t) = 1 x 10 dt + 2 Volts 2.0

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
= 10 t + 2 Volts

Murat Fahrioglu 31
 Example - 4 (Nilsson & Riedel)
The voltage pulse described by the following equations is impressed
across the terminals of a 0.5 F capacitor:
0, t 0 s;

v (t ) 4t , 0 s t 1 s;
4e t 1 , t 1 s.

i) Derive the capacitor current, power and energy. Sketch all as a function of
time.

Murat Fahrioglu 32
 Example - 4 (Nilsson & Riedel)
The voltage pulse described by the following equations is impressed
across the terminals of a 0.5 F capacitor:v (V)
0, t 0 s; First voltage: 4

v (t ) 4t , 0 s t 1 s;
4e t 1 , t 1 s.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t (s)

i) Derive the capacitor current, power and energy. Sketch all as a function of
time.

Murat Fahrioglu 33
 Example - 4 (Nilsson & Riedel)
The voltage pulse described by the following equations is impressed
across the terminals of a 0.5 F capacitor:v (V)
0, t 0 s; 4

v (t ) 4t , 0 s t 1 s;
4e t 1 , t 1 s.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t (s)

i) Derive the capacitor current, power and energy. Sketch all as a function of
i (A)
time. 0.5 0 0 A, t 0 s;
2

dv
i (t ) C 0.5 4 2 A, 0 s t 1 s;
2 3 4 5 6
t (s)

0.5 4e 2et1 A, t 1 s.
dt t 1
0 1

-2

Murat Fahrioglu 34
 Example - 4 (Nilsson & Riedel)
The voltage pulse described by the following equations is impressed
across the terminals of a 0.5 F capacitor:v (V)
0, t 0 s; 4

v (t ) 4t , 0 s t 1 s;
4e t 1 , t 1 s.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t (s)

i) Derive the capacitor current, power and energy. Sketch all as a function of
i (A)
time. 0.5 0 0 A, t 0 s;
2

dv
i (t ) C 0.5 4 2 A, 0 s t 1 s;
2 3 4 5 6
t (s)

0.5 4e 2et1 A, t 1 s.
dt t 1
0 1

-2

p (W)

00 0 W , t 0 s; 8

p(t ) v i 4t 2 8t W , 0 s t 1 s; 2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
4e t 1 2e t 1 8e 2 t 1 W , t 1 s.
0 1

-8

Murat Fahrioglu 35
 Example - 4 (Nilsson & Riedel)
The voltage pulse described by the following equations is impressed
across the terminals of a 0.5 F capacitor:v (V)
0, t 0 s; 4

v (t ) 4t , 0 s t 1 s;
4e t 1 , t 1 s.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t (s)

i) Derive the capacitor current, power and energy. Sketch all as a function of
i (A)
time. 0.5 0 0 A, t 0 s;
2

dv
i (t ) C 0.5 4 2 A, 0 s t 1 s;
2 3 4 5 6
t (s)

0.5 4e 2et1 A, t 1 s.
dt t 1
0 1

-2

p (W)

00 0 W , t 0 s; 8

p(t ) v i 4t 2 8t W , 0 s t 1 s; 2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
4e t 1 2e t 1 8e 2 t 1 W , t 1 s.
0 1

-8

w (J)
0, t 0 s;
1 2
4

w(t ) Cv
1
0.5 16t 2 4t 2 J , 0 s t 1 s;
2 2
1 0.5 16e 2 t 1 4e 2 t 1 J , t 1 s. t (s)
2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 36
Murat Fahrioglu
 Example - 4 (Nilsson & Riedel)
The voltage pulse described by the following equations is impressed
across the terminals of a 0.5 F capacitor:
0, t 0 s;

v (t ) 4t , 0 s t 1 s;
4e t 1 , t 1 s.

ii) Interval of time when energy is being stored in the capacitor ?
i (A)
2

2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
0 1

-2

p (W)
8

2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
0 1

-8

w (J)
4

t (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 37
Murat Fahrioglu
 Example - 4 (Nilsson & Riedel)
The voltage pulse described by the following equations is impressed
across the terminals of a 0.5 F capacitor:
0, t 0 s;

v (t ) 4t , 0 s t 1 s;
4e t 1 , t 1 s.

ii) Interval of time when energy is being stored in the capacitor ?
i (A)
2

2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
0 1

Energy is being stored when the power -2

is positive (based on original p (W)

8
assumptions): i 2 3 4 5 6
0s < t < 1s 0 1
t (s)

-8

v C w (J)
4

t (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 38
Murat Fahrioglu
 Example - 4 (Nilsson & Riedel)
The voltage pulse described by the following equations is impressed
across the terminals of a 0.5 F capacitor:
0, t 0 s;

v (t ) 4t , 0 s t 1 s;
4e t 1 , t 1 s.

iii) Interval of time when energy is being delivered by the capacitor ?
i (A)
2

2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
0 1

-2

p (W)
8

2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
0 1

-8

w (J)
4

t (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 39
Murat Fahrioglu
 Example - 4 (Nilsson & Riedel)
The voltage pulse described by the following equations is impressed
across the terminals of a 0.5 F capacitor:
0, t 0 s;

v (t ) 4t , 0 s t 1 s;
4e t 1 , t 1 s.

iii) Interval of time when energy is being delivered by the capacitor ?
i (A)
2

2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
0 1

Energy is being delivered when the -2

power is negative (based on original p (W)

assumptions): 8

t > 1s i 2 3 4 5 6
t (s)

0 1

-8

v C w (J)
4

t (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 40
Murat Fahrioglu
 Example - 4 (Nilsson & Riedel)
The voltage pulse described by the following equations is impressed
across the terminals of a 0.5 F capacitor:
0, t 0 s;

v (t ) 4t , 0 s t 1 s;
4e t 1 , t 1 s.

iv) Evaluate the following integrals and comment on their significance:
i (A)
2

1
pdt ?
2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
0 1
0
-2

p (W)
8

pdt ? 2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
0 1
1
-8

w (J)
4

t (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 41
Murat Fahrioglu
 Example - 4 (Nilsson & Riedel)
The voltage pulse described by the following equations is impressed
across the terminals of a 0.5 F capacitor:
0, t 0 s;

v (t ) 4t , 0 s t 1 s;
4e t 1 , t 1 s.

iv) Evaluate the following integrals and comment on their significance:
i (A)
2 1

0 pdt 0 8 10 t dt 8 10 2
2
1 1
6 t
6
2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
0 1
0

4 J
-2
This is the energy stored in the
capacitor during 0s < t < 1s. p (W)
8

2 3 4 5 6
t (s)
0 1

-8

This is the energy delivered by w (J)

4
the capacitor during t > 1s.

t (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 42
Murat Fahrioglu
 Capacitor Phase Shift between Current and
Voltage Waveforms

V (Volts), I (Amp)
I(t) = C d V(t) / dt 25
= C d Vmax sin wt dt 20
= Cw coswt Vmax
15
= Imax coswt
10
Imax
I(t) 5

0
0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
-5
+ C
+

-10
V(t)
-15
_
-20

-25
Time (Sec)

Murat Fahrioglu 43
 Capacitor Phase Shift between Current and
Voltage Waveforms

I leads V by 90 in a Capacitor.
V lags I by 90 in a Capacitor.
V (Volts), I (Amp)
I(t) = C d V(t) / dt 25
= C d Vmax sin wt dt 20
= Cw coswt Vmax
15
= Imax coswt
10
Imax
I(t) 5

0
0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
-5
+ C
+

-10
V(t)
-15
_
-20

-25
Time (Sec)

Murat Fahrioglu 44
 Series and Parallel Capacitors

Series connected capacitors Series connected capacitors are

combined in the same way as for
V1(t) = (1/C1) I(t)dt shunt connected resistors
V2(t) = (1/C2) I(t)dt
+ +
----------- = ----------------------
I(t) +
V (t) = [ (1/C1 ) + (1/C2) ] I(t)dt + C1 V1 (t)
= (1/Ctot ) I(t)dt
V(t)
Hence, +
C2
V2 (t)
1
Ctot = ----------------------
(1/C1 ) + (1/C2 )

Murat Fahrioglu 45
 Series and Parallel Capacitors

Shunt (Parallel) connected capacitances Shunt connected capacitances are

simply added
I1(t) = C1 d V(t) / dt
I(t)
I2(t) = C2 d V(t) / dt
+ +
----------- = ---------------------------- + I1 I2

I (t) = (C1 + C2) d V(t) / dt V(t) Vc(t)

C1 C2
= Ctot d V(t) / dt

Where,
C tot = C1 + C2
is the total capacitance

Murat Fahrioglu 46
 Series and Parallel Capacitors
i
The equivalent of a chain of series-

v1 C1 connected capacitors is a single capacitor

i whose inverse capacitance is the sum of
v2 C2
inverses of the series capacitances:
v
N
1 1

v CS

CS n 1 Cn

vN CN

C1C 2
In the case of 2 series
CS
capacitances: C1 C 2
i
i

i1 i2 iN
v C1 C2 CN v CP


The equivalent of a parallel capacitors is a single n
capacitor whose capacitance is the sum of capacitances CP Cn
of the parallel capacitors:
n 1
Murat Fahrioglu 47
 Example
Find the equivalent capacitance for the following circuit:

2 F 2 F

1 1 1
F F F
3 3 3

1 1 1 1
F F F F
3 3 3 3

Murat Fahrioglu 48
 Example
Find the equivalent capacitance for the following circuit:

1 1 1 1
2 F 2 F
C eq 4F 1F 4 F
3
1
1 1 1 C eq F
F F F 2
3 3 3

1 1 1 1
F F F F
3 3 3 3

Murat Fahrioglu 49
 Example
iR iC

+ 1 M
AC

100 sin(2t ) -
20 F
V

i) Find the current through the resistor and the capacitor

ii) Energy stored in the capacitor as a function of time

iii) Energy dissipated in the resistor as a function of time

Murat Fahrioglu 50
 Example
iR iC

+ 1 M
AC

100 sin(2t ) -
20 F
V

i) Find the current through the resistor and the capacitor

v
iR 104 sin(2t ) A
R
dv
iC C 20 106 (200 cos(2 t)) 4 103 cos(2t ) A
dt
ii) Energy stored in the capacitor as a function of time

iii) Energy dissipated in the resistor as a function of time

Murat Fahrioglu 51
 Example
iR iC

+ 1 M
AC

100 sin(2t ) -
20 F
V

i) Find the current through the resistor and the capacitor

v
iR 104 sin(2t ) A
R
dv
iC C 20 106 (200 cos(2 t)) 4 103 cos(2t ) A
dt
ii) Energy stored in the capacitor as a function of time
1 2 20 1002 sin 2 (2t )
wC Cv 0.1sin 2 (2t ) J
2 2
iii) Energy dissipated in the resistor as a function of time

Murat Fahrioglu 52
 Example
iR iC

+ 1 M
AC

100 sin(2t ) -
20 F
V

i) Find the current through the resistor and the capacitor

v
iR 104 sin(2t ) A
R
dv
iC C 20 106 (200 cos(2 t)) 4 103 cos(2t ) A
dt
ii) Energy stored in the capacitor as a function of time
1 2 20 1002 sin 2 (2t )
wC Cv 0.1sin 2 (2t ) J
2 2
iii) Energy dissipated in the resistor as a function of time
102 102 sin(4t )
1 cos(4t ) dt
t t t
wR pR dt 10 sin (2t ) dt
2 2
t J
0 0 0 2 2 4
Murat Fahrioglu 53
 Example
iR iC

+ 1 M
AC

100 sin(2t ) -
20 F
V

Notes:
The energy stored at the capacitor increases to maximum at t=0.25s and
then decreases back to zero at t=0.5s (energy is never consumed for the
ideal capacitor.)
During the same 0.5s interval, the resistor consumes 2.5 mJ of energy.
ii) Energy stored in the capacitor as a function of time
1 2 20 1002 sin 2 (2t )
wC Cv 0.1sin 2 (2t ) J
2 2
iii) Energy dissipated in the resistor as a function of time
102 102 sin(4t )
1 cos(4t ) dt
t t t
wR pR dt 10 sin (2t ) dt
2 2
t J
0 0 0 2 2 4
Murat Fahrioglu 54
 Elements of AC Circuits: Inductor

Definition Coil Core Toroidal Coil Toroidal Core

Inductance is a winding or coil

of wire around a core
Core may be either insulator or
a ferromagnetic material
Symbolic representation
+

Murat Fahrioglu 55
 Ferrite Core Toroidal Inductor

I
I
Definition
Ferriet core inductor has a toroidal
ferrit core inside

Ferrite core
Toroidal coil

Murat Fahrioglu 56
 Air Core Inductor

Configuration Air core inductor has no core inside

Murat Fahrioglu 57
 Inductor
An inductor is a two-terminal device that consists of a coiled conducting wire
wound around a core.
Current flowing through an inductor produces magnetic flux . If the coil that
makes up the inductor contains N turns, the total flux linked by the N turns of the
coil is:
Flux Linka ge : N [Unit : Weber (Wb)]
i N
The magnitudes of the flux and the coil current are related
N
by: Ni
v Turns
Where N is the number of turns on the coil and P is the
permeance of space occupied by the flux (magnetic
property of this space.)
The law of electromagnetic induction: The induced voltage is equal to the time rate
of change of the total magnetic flux:
d N d
N PNi N P
d d di di
v N 2
v L
dt dt dt dt dt dt
Also Li for a linear inductor. The terminal law for a inductor
Units of L: Wb/A or Henry (H)
Murat Fahrioglu 58
 Basic I-V Relation (Terminal Law)

Definition Voltage Source V(t) Inductance L

Voltage across an inductor is proportional to
the rate of change of current I(t)

V(t) = L d I(t) / dt
where, V(t) is the voltage across the L

+
inductance, + V(t)
I(t) is the current flowing
through,
L is the inductance (Henry)

1 Henry is the value of inductance defined as _

1 Henry = 1 Volt x 1 second / 1 Amp

Murat Fahrioglu 59
 Inductor
i
Terminal law for an inductor:
v di
v L
dt
Note as the symbol implies, an inductor behaves like a short circuit when
current is constant (DC) (i.e. it is nothing but a wire).
The only time there is voltage across an inductor is when the current is
changing (di/dt 0).
Continuity Principle: The current through an inductor is always continuous.
Current in terms of voltage can be formulated by integrating both sides in
the above equation:

1 t 1 t
i v( )d i (t0 ) v( )d
L t0 L
Murat Fahrioglu 60
 Current in an Inductor

Definition Voltage Source V(t) Inductance L

The equation;
I(t)
V(t) = L d I(t) / dt
can be written in inverse form as

+
I(t) = (1/L) V(t)dt + I(0)
+
where I(0) is the current initially flowing in V(t) L
the inductor

Murat Fahrioglu 61
 Inductor Power and Energy
i Using the definition of power, if i is known:
di
p v i Li
v dt
Alternatively if v is known,
1 t
p v
L
t0 v( )d i(t0 )
Using the relationship of energy (work) with power:
dw di
p Li dw Li di
dt dt
Integrating both sides to get energy:
1 2
w Li [The integration assumes a reference of
zero energy at zero current.]
Murat Fahrioglu
2 62
 Example (Johnson&Johnson)

Derive an expression for the energy stored in a linear

inductor in terms of the flux linkage and the inductance L.

Murat Fahrioglu 63
 Example (Johnson&Johnson)

Derive an expression for the energy stored in a linear

inductor in terms of the flux linkage and the inductance L.

2

2
1 1
w Li L
2

2 2 L 2L

Murat Fahrioglu 64
 Example (Johnson&Johnson)
A 2mH inductor has a voltage v=2cos(1000t) V with i(0)=1.5 A.

Find the energy stored in the inductor at t=/6 ms.

Murat Fahrioglu 65
 Example (Johnson&Johnson)
A 2mH inductor has a voltage v=2cos(1000t) V with i(0)=1.5 A.

Find the energy stored in the inductor at t=/6 ms.

1 t 1 ( / 6 ) ms
i v ( )d i (t0 ) 2 cos(1000t )dt i (0)
L 0 2mH 0

( / 6 ) ms
1 2 sin(1000t )
1.5 2.024 A
2mH 1000 0

1 2 1
w Li (2mH )(2.024)2 4.1 mJ
2 2

Murat Fahrioglu 66
 Inductor Phase Shift between Current and
Voltage Waveforms

V (Volts), I (Amp)
I(t) = (1/L) V(t) dt 25
= (1/L) Vmax sin wt dt 20
= - (Vmax / wL) coswt
15
= - Imax coswt Vmax
10 Imax
I(t) 5
0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
0

V(t) + + Inductance -5
-10

-15
-20

-25
Time (Sec)

Murat Fahrioglu 67
 Inductor Phase Shift between Current and
Voltage Waveforms

V leads I by 90 in an Inductor.
I lags V by 90 in an Inductor.
V (Volts), I (Amp)
I(t) = (1/L) V(t) dt 25
= (1/L) Vmax sin wt dt 20
= - (Vmax / wL) coswt
15
= - Imax coswt Vmax
10 Imax
I(t) 5
0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
0

V(t) + + Inductance -5
-10

-15
-20

-25
Time (Sec)

Murat Fahrioglu 68
 Series and Parallel Inductors

Series connected inductors are added Series connected inductances

V1(t) = L1 d I(t) / dt I(t) +

V2(t) = L2 d I(t) / dt L1 V1 (t)
+ +
----------- +--------------------------
V(t)
V(t) = (L1 + L2) d I(t) / dt +
L2
= L tot d I(t) / dt V2 (t)
where
L tot = L1 + L2
is the total inductance

Murat Fahrioglu 69
 Series and Parallel Inductors

Shunt connected inductances are Shunt connected inductances

combined in the same way as in shunt
connected resistances
I(t)
+
I1(t) = (1/L1) V(t)dt + I1 I2
I2(t) = (1/L2) V(t)dt Vc(t)
V(t)
+ L1 L2
-------- +--------------------
I(t) = [ (1/L1 ) + (1/L2) ] V(t)dt
= (1/Ltot ) V(t)dt

Hence,

1
Ltot = ----------------------
(1/L1 ) + (1/L2 )

Murat Fahrioglu 70
 Series and Parallel Inductors
i
The equivalent of a chain of series-connected
v1 L1
inductors is a single inductor whose inductance is
the sum of the individual inductances.
i
v2 L2

v N
LS Ln
v LS

n 1

vN LN

i i
i1 i2 iN
v L1 L2
... LN
v LP

The equivalent of parallel inductors is a single inductor N

1 1
whose inverse inductance is the sum of inverses of the
parallel inductances: LP n 1 Ln
Murat Fahrioglu 71
 Example
Find the equivalent inductance for the following circuit. Then
find v.
3/2 H 1H

6t A v 5/3 H 2H 1H

Murat Fahrioglu 72
 Example
Find the equivalent inductance for the following circuit. Then
find v.
3/2 H 1H

6t A v 5/3 H 2H 1H

22
Leq1 1 H
22
1 1 1
1 Leq 1 H
Leq 5 5
3 2

di d (6t )
v L 1 6 V
dt dt

Murat Fahrioglu 73
 Example-2

I(t)

Problem
+

+
Calculate the voltage across the 100 mH I(t) L L = 100 mH
inductor with the current shown in the figure on
the RHS
I(t) = 0 t<1s
I(t) = 1/((5-1)) (t 1) = (t - 1) 1t5s I(t) (Amp)
I(t) = 1 5t9s 1.0
I(t) = -1/((5-1)) (t 13) = - (t - 13) 9 t 13 s
I(t) = 0 t 13 s
0.5

0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
t (sec)

Murat Fahrioglu 74
 Example-2

I(t)

Solution
+

+
V(t) = L d I(t) / dt I(t) L L = 100 mH

Differentiating the expression for current waveform

d/ I(t) dt = d ( (t - 1)) /dt =
and multiplying by the inductance L (L = 10-1 H); V(t) (Volts)

0.025

V(t) = 0 t<1s
V(t) = 10-1 x = 0.025 V 1t5s 0.0
V(t) = 0 5t9s
V(t) = -10-1 x = -0.025 V 9 t 13 s
V(t) = 0 t 13 s -0.025
10.0 12.0 14.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
t (sec)

Murat Fahrioglu 75
 Example-3

I(t)
Problem
Find the instantaneous energy in the inductor for +

+
the current shown in the figure V(t) L = 10 mH
L
I (t) = 0 t<1s
I (t) = (t - 1) Amp 1t5s
I (t) = 1 Amp 5t9s
I (t) = - (t 13) Amp 9 t 13 s
I (t) = 0 t 13 s I(t) (Amp)

1.0

0.5

0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
t (sec)

Murat Fahrioglu 76
 Example-3

I(t)
Solution
+

+
WL(t) = L I2(t)
V(t) L L = 10 mH
By using the above formula
W(t) = 0 Joule t<1s
W(t) = 10-2 x ( (t - 1))2
= 0.3125 x 10-3 x (t-1)2 Joules 1t5s W(t) (Joule)
W(t) = 0.01 / 2 x 12 = 0.005 Joules 5t9s 0.006
W(t) = 10-2 x ( (t - 13))2 0.005
= 0.3125 x 10-3 x (t - 13)2 Joules 9 t 13 s 0.004
W(t) = 0 t 13 s
0.003

0.002
Please note that 1 Joule = 1 Watt x 1 sec
0.001

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0

t (sec)

Murat Fahrioglu 77
 Mutual Inductance
When inductance relates a voltage to a time-varying current in the same circuit,
it is referred to as self-inductance, L.
When two circuits are linked by a magnetic field, voltage induced in the second
circuit can be related to a time-varying current in the first circuit by a parameter
called mutual inductance, M.

Dots provide information on

the winding in a
magnetically coupled coils
(especially when the
winding mode is not
obvious.)

Linkage formulas can be derived based on Faradays law:

di1
M 21 N 2 N1P21 and v2 M 21
dt
Where M21 refers to the mutual inductance that relates the voltage
induced in Coil 2 due to the current in Coil 1. P21 is the permeance of
space occupied by 21.
M21 = M21 = M for nonmagnetic materials.
Murat Fahrioglu 78
 Mutual Inductance
R1 M R2

L1 L2
i1 i2
vg

Mutual Inductance in terms of Self-Inductance:

Given coefficient of coupling, k where 0 k 1 , M k L1L2

and when there is no flux linkage between coils, M=0.

Murat Fahrioglu 79
 Mutual Inductance
R1 M R2

L1 L2
i1 i2
vg

Dot convention for mutually coupled coils:

When the current enters the dotted terminal of a coil, it induces voltage with +
polarity at the dotted terminal of the second coil (and vice versa).

Murat Fahrioglu 80
 Mutual Inductance
R1 M R2

+
L1 L2 +
i1 - - di i2
di di di L2 2
vg L1 1 M 2 M 1 dt
dt dt dt
- + + -

Dot convention for mutually coupled coils:

When the current enters the dotted terminal of a coil, it induces voltage with +
polarity at the dotted terminal of the second coil (and vice versa).
di1 di2
KVL @ Left Hand Circuit: vg i1 R1 L1 M 0
dt dt

di2 di
KVL @ Right Hand Circuit: i2 R2 L2 M 1 0
dt dt

Murat Fahrioglu 81
 Example (N & R example 6.6)

Write mesh equations for the above circuit with magnetically coupled coils.

Murat Fahrioglu 82
 Example (N & R example 6.6)

Write mesh equations for the above circuit with magnetically coupled coils.

Answer:

KVL @ Mesh 1: 4
di1
8
d
ig i2 20i1 i2 5i1 ig 0 ...(1)
dt dt

KVL @ Mesh 2: 16
d
i2 ig 8 di1 20i2 i1 60i2 0 ...(2)
dt dt

Murat Fahrioglu 83
 DC Steady State

A circuit is in dc steady state if currents and voltages are all

constant in the circuit.

Circuits with inductors and capacitors in dc steady state can

be analyzed using previous techniques by replacing
inductors with short circuits and capacitors with open
circuits.

Murat Fahrioglu 84
 Example
Assume the below circuit is in dc steady state. Find i and v.
i 2 1H 4

36 V
DC 1F v 6A 2H

Murat Fahrioglu 85
 Example
Assume the below circuit is in dc steady state. Find i and v.
i 2 1H 4

36 V
DC 1F v 6A 2H

DC steady-state equivalent:
i 2 4
KVL (Outer Loop):
i6 36 2i 4(i 6) 0
36 V
DC v 6A 36 2i 4i 24 0

6i 12 i 2A

KVL (Left Inner Loop):

36 2(2) v 0 v 32V

Murat Fahrioglu 86
 Example
Assume the switch in the below circuit has been closed for a long time.
It was opened at time 0. Times 0- and 0+ refer to the instants before and
after opening the switch respectively.
- Find a value for the source function v g so that i(0+)=2 A.
- For this v g , find v(0-) and v(0+).

t 0
1H i
vg
1F 4
DC v
12 V

DC

Murat Fahrioglu 87
 Example
Assume the switch in the below circuit has been closed for a long time.
It was opened at time 0. Times 0- and 0+ refer to the instants before and
after opening the switch respectively.
- Find a value for the source function v g so that i(0+)=2 A.
- For this v g , find v(0-) and v(0+).
Answer:
t 0
1H i First note that current through an inductor and
voltage across a capacitor CANNOT change
vg instantaneously i.e. current through an inductor
1F 4
DC v and voltage across a capacitor have to be
12 V
continuous.
i(0+) = i(0-) and v(0+) = v(0-)
DC

In addition, assume the circuit has been in dc steady state (capacitor open
circuit, inductor short circuit) before the switch is opened at t=0 :

Using KVL at t=0- :

v(0) v(0) vg (4) i 12V 4 2 12 4 V
Murat Fahrioglu 88
 Practical Capacitors and Inductors
A practical (real) capacitor has leakage through the dielectric, which can
be modeled using a parallel resistance.
i

v C RC

A practical inductor has significant resistance due to the fact that the
wire in the coil that makes up the inductor is significantly long. In addition
there are core losses due to currents induced in the core by the
magnetic field. The overall loss can be modeled by adding a series
resistance. RL
i

v L

Murat Fahrioglu 89
 RMS Value

Definition: RMS (Root Mean Square) IDC

RMS value of an AC current is the value of DC

current that would dissipate the same amount of
power as the AC current on a resistance R +
+
The above definition is based on the principle of
equating the heating effects of the currents VDC VR R
calculated in both cases.
First, calculate the power dissipated (heating
_
effect) in the resistance R in the DC circuit shown
on the RHS:

VR = R x IDC
PDC = VR x IDC
= R x IDC2

Murat Fahrioglu 90
Murat Fahrioglu 90
 RMS Value

RMS (Root Mean Square) I(t) = Imax sin wt I 2(t) = (Imax sin wt )2
2.5
Now, calculate the power dissipated (the
heating effect) in the resistance R in the 2.0
AC circuit shown below:
1.5
VR (t) = I(t) x R
PAC (t) = V(t) x I(t) 1.0

= R I(t)2 = R ((Vmax / R) sin wt )2 0.5

Angle (Radians)
= R (I max sin wt )2 0
0 /2 3/2 2
I(t) = (Vmax / R) sin wt I(t)
-0.5
V(t) + +

Imax VR(t) R -1.0

_ -1.5

V(t) = Vmax sin wt -2.0

Murat Fahrioglu 91
 RMS Value

Now let us equate the power dissipations

Definition in the above cases
IDC
VR = R x IDC
PDC = VR x IDC +
+
= R x IDC2 R
VDC VR
_
VR (t) = R x I(t)
PAC (t) = V(t) x I(t)
I(t) = (Vmax / R) sin wt I(t)
= R I(t)2 = R ((Vmax / R) sin wt )2 +
V(t) +
= R (I max sin wt )2 R
Imax V(t)
_

V(t) = Vmax sin wt

Murat Fahrioglu 92
Murat Fahrioglu 92
 RMS Value

Definition I2(t) = ( Imax sin wt )2 Irms = ( 1/T ) I(t)2 dt

RMS value of an AC current is the value 2.5

of DC current that would dissipate the
same amount of power as AC current on
a resistance R 2.0

Pavg = R IDC2 = Pavg = R Irms2 1.5

1.0
IDC I(t)
VDC + V(t) + +
+ 0.5

VR R VR(t) R
0
_ _ 0 /2 3/2 2
Angle (Radians)

Murat Fahrioglu 93
 RMS Value

For a sinusoidal signal, RMS value simplifies to: Amplitude/21/2

Definition I2(t) = ( Imax sin wt )2 Irms = ( 1/T ) I(t)2 dt

RMS value of an AC current is the value 2.5

of DC current that would dissipate the
same amount of power as AC current on
a resistance R 2.0

Pavg = R IDC2 = Pavg = R Irms2 1.5

1.0
IDC I(t)
VDC + V(t) + +
+ 0.5

VR R VR(t) R
0
_ _ 0 /2 3/2 2
Angle (Radians)

Murat Fahrioglu 94
 RMS Value of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Voltage (Volts)
Problem
312
Calculate the RMS value of the 220
sinusoidal voltage waveform with 312
Volts peak value as shown on the RHS Vrms = 220 Volts
Angle (Radians)
Vrms = Vmax / 21/2
0 /2 3/2 2
= V max x 0.7071
= 312 x 0.7071 = 220 Volts

- 312

Domestic rms voltage level in Turkey

Murat Fahrioglu 95
 Exercise 1
Derive the voltage division equation for a series of inductors.

Murat Fahrioglu 96
 Exercise 1
Derive the voltage division equation for a series of inductors.

Solution:

i

v1 L1
...(1)

v2 L2
v

vN LN

Murat Fahrioglu 97
 Exercise 2
Derive the current division equation for a parallel set of inductors.

Murat Fahrioglu 98
 Exercise 2
Derive the current division equation for a parallel set of inductors.

Solution:

i
i1 i2 iN
v L1 L2
... LN

...(1)

Murat Fahrioglu 99
 Exercise 3
v (V)

The voltage across 0.1 F capacitor is the 4

triangular wave shown on the right. Find
the current and power for 0 < t < 2 s.
t (s)
0 1 2

Murat Fahrioglu 100

 Exercise 3
v (V)

The voltage across 0.1 F capacitor is the 4

triangular wave shown on the right. Find
the current and power for 0 < t < 2 s.
t (s)
0 1 2
Solution:
8t V, 0 t 0.5 s
8t 8 V, 0.5 t 1 s

From the waveform : vc
8t 8 V, 1 t 1.5 s
8t 16 V, 1.5 t 2 s

0.8 A, 0 t 0.5 s

dvc 0.8 A, 0.5 t 1 s
ic C
dt 0.8 A, 1 t 1.5 s
0.8 A, 1.5 t 2 s

6.4t W, 0 t 0.5 s
6.4t - 6.4 W, 0.5 t 1 s

p c ic v c
6.4t - 6.4 W, 1 t 1.5 s
6.4t - 12.8 W, 1.5 t 2 s
Murat Fahrioglu 101
 Exercise 4
The current through a 0.2 H inductor is i=12 cos 20t mA. Find:
a. The terminal voltage,
b. The power,
c. The stored energy,
d. And the maximum value of the power being absorbed.

Murat Fahrioglu 102

 Exercise 4
The current through a 0.2 H inductor is i=12 cos 20t mA. Find:
a. The terminal voltage,
b. The power,
c. The stored energy,
d. And the maximum value of the power being absorbed.
Solution:

a.

Murat Fahrioglu 103

 Exercise 4
The current through a 0.2 H inductor is i=12 cos 20t mA. Find:
a. The terminal voltage,
b. The power,
c. The stored energy,
d. And the maximum value of the power being absorbed.
Solution:

a.

b.

Murat Fahrioglu 104

 Exercise 4
The current through a 0.2 H inductor is i=12 cos 20t mA. Find:
a. The terminal voltage,
b. The power,
c. The stored energy,
d. And the maximum value of the power being absorbed.
Solution:

a.

b.

c. Assuming stored energy is 0 J at t=0,

Murat Fahrioglu 105

 Exercise 4
The current through a 0.2 H inductor is i=12 cos 20t mA. Find:
a. The terminal voltage,
b. The power,
c. The stored energy,
d. And the maximum value of the power being absorbed.
Solution:

a.

b.

c. Assuming stored energy is 0 J at t=0,

d. Maximum absorbed power corresponding to the expression in (b) is 288 W

Murat Fahrioglu 106

 Exercise 5
The circuit below has a switch that opens at t=0. The condition of the circuit before
the switch opens is not known (i.e. cannot assume steady state.) Given the current
through the 2 resistor is directed downward at t=0- and has a value of 1 A,
calculate the following parameters for both (i) t=0- and (ii) t=0+:
a.The charge of the capacitor,
b.The current in 4 directed to the right,
c.The current in the capacitor directed downward,
d.dvc/dt (time rate of voltage chage across the capacitor).

t=0 4

10 V 0.5 F
2

Murat Fahrioglu 107

 Exercise 5
The circuit below has a switch that opens at t=0. The condition of the circuit before
the switch opens is not known (i.e. cannot assume steady state.) Given the current
through the 2 resistor is directed downward at t=0- and has a value of 1 A,
calculate the following parameters for both (i) t=0- and (ii) t=0+:
a.The charge of the capacitor,
b.The current in 4 directed to the right,
c.The current in the capacitor directed downward,
d.dvc/dt (time rate of voltage chage across the capacitor).

t=0 4
Solution:
a.

10 V 0.5 F
2

(continuity of capacitor voltage)

Therefore,
qC (0 ) qC (0 ) CvC (0 ) (0 ) 1 C

Murat Fahrioglu 108

 Exercise 5
The circuit below has a switch that opens at t=0. The condition of the circuit before
the switch opens is not known (i.e. cannot assume steady state.) Given the current
through the 2 resistor is directed downward at t=0- and has a value of 1 A,
calculate the following parameters for both (i) t=0- and (ii) t=0+:
a.The charge of the capacitor,
b.The current in 4 directed to the right,
c.The current in the capacitor directed downward,
d.dvc/dt (time rate of voltage chage across the capacitor).

t=0 4
Solution:
b.
t=0-:
10 V 0.5 F
2

t=0+: i4 (0 ) 0 A

Murat Fahrioglu 109

 Exercise 5
The circuit below has a switch that opens at t=0. The condition of the circuit before
the switch opens is not known (i.e. cannot assume steady state.) Given the current
through the 2 resistor is directed downward at t=0- and has a value of 1 A,
calculate the following parameters for both (i) t=0- and (ii) t=0+:
a.The charge of the capacitor,
b.The current in 4 directed to the right,
c.The current in the capacitor directed downward,
d.dvc/dt (time rate of voltage chage across the capacitor).

t=0 4
Solution:
c.
t=0-:
10 V 0.5 F
2

t=0+:

Murat Fahrioglu 110

 Exercise 5
The circuit below has a switch that opens at t=0. The condition of the circuit before
the switch opens is not known (i.e. cannot assume steady state.) Given the current
through the 2 resistor is directed downward at t=0- and has a value of 1 A,
calculate the following parameters for both (i) t=0- and (ii) t=0+:
a.The charge of the capacitor,
b.The current in 4 directed to the right,
c.The current in the capacitor directed downward,
d.dvc/dt (time rate of voltage chage across the capacitor).

t=0 4
Solution:
d.
t=0-:
10 V 0.5 F
2

t=0+:

Murat Fahrioglu 111

 Exercise 6
If the circuit provided is in dc steady state at t=0-, find v1 and v2 at t=0- and
t=0+.
3

1
1 1
+ 16/5
v1
1F +
-
25 V v2
1H
-
t=0

Murat Fahrioglu 112

 Exercise 6
If the circuit provided is in dc steady state at t=0-, find v1 and v2 at t=0- and
t=0+.
3 Solution:
Steady state equivalent at t=0-:
3
1
1 1
+ 16/5
i2
v1
1 1 1
1F +
- +
16/5
25 V v2
1H v1
- +
- v2
t=0 25 V
-

i1

since inductor is a short-circuit for DC.

Current division:

KVL:
Murat Fahrioglu 113
 Exercise 6
If the circuit provided is in dc steady state at t=0-, find v1 and v2 at t=0- and
t=0+.
3 Solution:
Steady state equivalent at t=0+:
3
1
1 1
+ 16/5
v1 1
1 1
1F +
-
+
25 V v2 v1
1H
1F +
- -
v2
t=0 1H
-

Principle of continuity: through the inductor

across the capacitor

KVL: = 8 6 5 = -3 V
Murat Fahrioglu 114