ISIJ International, Vol. 39 (1 999), No. 8, pp.

747-759
Review
Fatigue of Martensite-Ferrite High Strength Low-alloy Dual Phase
Steels

G WANG
and S. H. Al

State Key Laboratory of Fatigue and Fracture for Materials, Institute of Metal Research. Chinese Academyof Sciences,
Shenyang11001 5, P.R. China. E-mail: zhgwang((, imr.ac.cn
(Recelved on March 23. 1999. accepted In final form on May20. 1999)

Fatigue tests were carried out with as-rolled and heat-treated Si-Mn-Cr-Mo martensite-ferrite dual-phase
steels at temperature in air and 3.50/0 NaCl solution. The effects of duplex microstructural morphologies,
room
martensite contents and environmental conditions on fatigue stress-life, cyclic deformation behavior, fatigue
crack initiation and near-threshold fatigue crack growth were investigated. The influence of prestrain and
ageing on fatigue threshold was also studied.
KEYWORDS:
dual-phase steel, Iow cycle fatigue, microstructure, fatigue crack propagation.

l .
Introduction 2. Fatigue Strength and Cyc]ic Deformation Behavior

In order to gain a good combinatlon of mechanic'al 2.1. Duplex Microstructural Morphology

properties and improve the performance in servlce, the
development of steels consisting of two or multiple phases
has been a subject of considerable interest. Martensite-
ferrite du'ai-ph'ase high-strength low-alioy (HSLA) steels
are typical examples. Like composite materiais in their
general meaning, dual-phase steels 'are ch'aracterized by
a microstructure consisting of a dispersion of a hard
martenslte particles in a soft, ductile ferrite matrix. I ) This
type of steels (called du'al-phase steels for short) has
showna numberof unique properties, which include (a)
continuous yielding behavior (no yleid point), (b) a [ow
ratio of the 0.2 percent offset yield strength to the ultimate
tensile strength (-O.5), (c) a high work-hardening r'ate,
and (d) an unusu'ally high uniform and total elonga-
tion. The combination of these unique properties gives
marteniste-ferrite dual-phase steels a formability equl-
valent to that of muchlower strength sheet, although
conventional HSLA steels are considered to have
poor
formability. As a result, dual-phase steels are an at-
tractive for weight-saving
materi'al applications in
automobile industry. Since manyparts and components
in automobiles are subjected to repeated ioading in
servlce, fatlgue performance is an important considera-
tion in materials selectlon. A detailed and complete
knowledge of the fatigue behavior of dual-phase steels
is therefore absolutely necessary for their further de-
velopment and reliable applications. The authors have
been actively invoived in *" project for deveioping a series
of HSLASi-Mn-Cr-Mo dual-phase steels. Fatigue
behavior of them in both as-rolled and heat-treated states
was systematically investigated. It is the objective of this
paper to summ'arize the main resLrlts.
Effect of
Kim and Thomas2) have studied effects of micro-
structures in dual-phase steels
on the initiation and
~rowth of crack under tensile ioading. They found that
the coarse m'artensite-ferrite duplex structure obtained
by continuously anne'aling from the austenite region
resuits in poor elongation and ductllity with relatlvely
hi_~h strength. The IntenTlediate quenching, whlch
pro-
duced a fine dual-phase structure, gives rise to a sig-
nific'ant improvement in both elong'ation and ductility
without sacrificing st]'ength. However, the investigation
of the influnce of the m'artenslte morphology on fatlgue
properties of dual-phase steeis w'as limited. The material
used in the present work is an as-rolled 5.5mmthick
plate of a steel containing 0.070/0 C, l.51 o/o Si, 1.160/0
Mn, 0.64'~] Cr, 0.47(~) Mo. 0.020/0 Al and the balance
iron.3) All specimen blanks, whlch
were cut from the
plate along the longitudinal rolling direction, were first
heated at 1200'C for 2h in air followed by furnace
coollng. The tre'ated b]anks were then divided into three
groups denoted by A. B and C. Groups and B were A
heated at 980'C for _~ min followed by furnace cooling
and water quenchlng, respectively. After being heated at
C
980'C for 30 min, group was transfered together with
the pre-treated groups A and Binto 'a salt bath at 800'C
for 30mln. All blanks were then quenched into water
concurrently. The resulting morphology of martensite in
the duplex structure after such treatments is netted (A),
fibrous (B) and blocky (C), respectively, as shownin Fig.
l The martensite volume fractions In A. Band duplex
. C
structures were determined by a quantitative metallog-
raphy and found to be 23.1 o/o, 23.40/0 and 22.60/0, re-
spectiveiy. Apparently, there is very little variation in
the martensite content in the three microstructures,

747 ::(:~
1999 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 39 (1999), No, 8

;.~!;,
a' i
L ~
_
\~' th~'
/' "~ *~'
*-1'
I ~1
*F~
~' ~~
/ / '-

~~/~_\_ r'
l/~{
:'~~/'r~~F.:~},~'~'>-'
" ~ _~'"
if'
~'~~~~~50

~t:~;
S~,.!t,S

Fig. l. Optical micrographs showing different morphology of martensite in the martensite-ferrite duplex micro-
structure. (21) netted martensite surrounding ferrite, (b) fibrous martensite in ferrite and (c) isolated martensite
blocks in ferrite.

~ 600f \~ ~\
e- Specimen A l Table 1.

Microstructure
Tensile properties ofthree duplex microstructures.

Volume Flow stress at Ultimate Elongation

- Specimen C fraction of O20/0 Plastlc tenslle in o/o

~ i o- Specimen B
martensite
VMin
straln,

MPa
a0.2 strength aUTs
MPa
'\
~/o in in
*
~
*
*
[ A
B
C
23.1
23.4
22 6
378
436
395
705
800
753
23
26
25
~
'~~ ~\e C~
surrounded by martensite, causing stress concentration
soo
*" In the ferrite. Cleavage was found to be the dominant
fracture modewlth this type of microstructure in fatigue.
Therefore, it is not surprising to find a lower fatigue
105 ~)6 107 strength in the long-1ife regime. Type B microstructure
Numberof Cycle~ to Failure showsthe best combination of ductility and strength (see
Fig. 2. Infiuence of martensite morphology on the stress-life Table l), but shows poor fatigue behavior In the short-
behavior. life regime. This experimental fact does not agree with
the conventional argument that a good ductility of the
becausethe identical time and temperature of intercritical material offers better low cycle fatigue life. Actually,
anneallng were selected. thin fibres of martensite can only provide less resistance to
The tensile properties of specimens with microstruc- the fatigue crack propagation which is the main part in
tures A, B and C are listed in Table l. Fine fibrous determining low-cycle fatigue life. On the other hand,
structure (B) has the highest yield and ultlmate strength martensite in both type A
and structures is a strong C
as well as elongation value. Blocky microstructure (C) obstacle to fatigue crack propagation. Particularly, the
has the intermediate values of strength and elongation blocky martensite in type C
microstructure can arrest,
and the netted structure (A) the lowest. In Fig. 2 are branch and deviate the propagating crack from its path,
shown the stress-life curves for the three duplex giving rise to a better low cycle fatigue life.
microstructures. The fine fibrous structure (B) exhibits Symmetrical push-pull fatigue tests under plastic strain
the samefatigue lirnit of about 515 MPaas that of the control were conducted with specimens of three duplex
blocky structure (C). However, in the short life regime, microstructures. Cyclic stress-strain curves of micro-
the blocky structure Is superior to the fine fibrous structures A, B and are shown in Fig. C by dashed 3
structure. In comparison with structures B and C, the llnes and the corresponding tensile stress-strain curves
netted structure (A) has a compatible fatigue life at high (solid lines) are also included for comparison. It
was
stress amplitude, but a considerab]y low fatigue limit of found that the fibrous structure shows the highest and
about 475MPa. In structure A, the ferrite grains are the netted structure the lowest flow stress during

C 1999 ISIJ 748

 ISIJ International, Vo[. 39 (1999), No. 8

A
C
60 o //-ll B B
///
///
C
/~~ A
o_Z
~OO
/~ p
v~
Lr)
Lu
CK
vl
200
_
---
Monotonic
cyc[ic

a5 1.0
15
TOTAL STRAIN (/,)

Fig. 3. Comparion of cyclic stress-strain curves with tensile

stressstrain curves for three microstructures A,
B and C

A /1, (~ }~ nt
150
cL
~
c Fig. 5. SEM mic]'ographs showing surrace deformation
appearance of specimens cycled at strain amplitude of
100 7,5 x lO~4 fo]- 3OOOcycles, (a) 19volo/, of martensite

v)
and (b) 50vol"/, of martensite,
ul
~ 8
structure, however, allow free gllde in the ferrite and
8 50 causes less hardeing during cyclic deformation.
2.2. Surface Deformation and Crack Initiation
The blocky microstructure with two different martens-
0.2 a~ a6 o.8

TOTAL STRAIN c7.]

ite content
was selected to investigate the appearance of
surface deformation and crack initiation during fatigue
Fig. 4. Influence of martensite morphology on the cyclic
Ioading.4) Figure 5is
hardening potentiaiity. an example which shows the effect
of the martenslte content on the deformation characteris-
tics induced by fatigue.
monotonic defomation. However, the netted structure It
can be seen from Fig. 5(a)
that, when the martensite content
exhibits the highest and the fine fibrous the lowest fatigue was lower, the soft
saturation stress during cyclic loading. The stress ferrite deformed heavily by forming finer and uniformly

response for the blocky structure is in the middle position spaced slip bands. Noslip deformation could be detected
during either monotonic or cyc]ic deformation. The fact in the hard martensite except the accidental occurrence
that all the cyclic stress-strain curves lle above the of mechanical twins. In marked contrast, when the
monotonic ones indicates that all three structures exhibit martensite content increased to 500/0 (Fig. 5(b)), the
cyclic hardening. The cyclic hardening potentiality which relief of the martnsite phase became
more evident by
is defined
as the difference betweencyclic saturation stress cycling although no apparent slip traces were observed
and tensile flow stress is shown in Fig. 4. Apparently, in ferrite.
the cyclic hardening potentiality is closely associated There is no muchwork on fatigue crack initiation and
with the martensite morphology. It is interesting to note growth in dual-phase steels and the reported results do
that the fine fibrous microstructure shows the lowest not agree with each other.5,6). The factors which control
potentiality of cyclic hardening, although it has sig- the behavior of fatigue cracking in dual-phase steels are
nificantly higher monotonlc yleld and tensile strength not yet understood. Figure 6 reveals the role of the
as well as muchbetter ductility (see Table l). In contrast, martensite content in fatigue crack initiation. Whenthe
the netted microstructure which has the poor monotonic martensite content is 19vo]o/o (Flg. 6(a)), most of the
properties exhibits the strongest capability to cyclic fatlgue cracks initiated at the martensite-ferrite interfaces
hardening. Such behavior can be explained below. The and ferritegrain boundaries. As shown in Fig. 6(b),
effect of microstructural morphology on the cyclic however, an increase in martensite content to 50volo/o
hardening capabillty depends on the constraint of mar- promoted most of the microcracks to form along slip
tensite against the plastic flow in ferrlte. In the netted bands adjacent to the martensite-ferrite Interfaces at the
microstructure, the thin martensite shell surrounding ferrite side. These findlngs could be understood if the
the ferrite acts as a barrier against the extensive plastlc strain compatibility is assumedto be assoclated with the

flow in ferrite, giving rise to a greater cyclic hardening. amount of martensite. From a simple viewpoint, both
The disconnected martensite in the fine fibrous micro- ferrite and the martensite phases are strained equally at

749 ((*.~
1999 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 39 (1999), No. 8

Fig. 8. Dislocation structures in the rerrite after cyclically

Fig. 6. SEMmicrogr2lphs t2lkenrrom f~lti_"*ued specirnens with strained to salturation 2tt
a plastic strain amplitude of
(21) 19vol(Vo of' martensitc and (b) 50volo/o of 5.7 x 10~4
milrtens'ite. indicalin~ thc infiuence of' the martensite
contcnl on 1'alli9:uc c]'~lckin~~.
specim:en with 50volo/o martensite is cyclically loaded.
2.3. Dislocation Structures Induced by Cyclic Deforma-
tion
Dual-phase steel specimens of netted martensite sur-
rounding equiaxed ferrite grains (see Fig,1(a)) were cy-
c]ically str'ained at plastic strain amplitudes of 5.7x
lO4, 2.15 x 10~3 'and 3,1 > lO3, which are referred to
10w, mediumand high strain
amplitude, respectively.
The satur'ation dislocation
structures induced by cyclic
deformation were observed by transmission electron
microscropy (TEM).7) The dislocation configuration
before cyclic deformation is shown In Fig. 7(a). The
dislocation density decreases gradually from the
mar-
tnesiteferrite interface to the interior of ferrite. Some
areas in ferrite far from the interface are completely
dislocation free. This configuratlon
was resu]ted from
the expanslon induced by the martensite phase trans-
formation.8) As shownin Fig. 7(b), the martensite
con-
slsted of blocks of laths,8.9)
a structure typical of low-
carbon martensite. The martensite network is actual-
ly composedof small and separate blocks, a]though its
overall morphology appears continuous.
Fig. 7.
TEMmicrographs sllowin_~ (a) dlslocation distribution As shownin Fig. 8(a), whena low strain amplitude is
in ftrrite clos'e to the inte]'1~lce 2lnd (b) block of lath applied, the dislocation
Ll
structure is characterized by
m~lrtensitc bcl'ore nlti~~ue.
clusters which are similar to loop patches in shape,
a
typical dislocation structure of cyclically hardened pure
the interface. The strain decreases in the direction of metals at small plastic strain amplitudes.10) It can be
harder martensite phase and increases in the direction of seen that the clusters are quite uniformly separated by
softer ferrite phase. It is known that the difference in channels rather clear of dislocatlons. Figure 8(b) shows
yield strength and ducti]ity of the two phases becomes a single cluster with hlgh magnification. It can be seen
less signlficant wlth incre'asin_~ the martensite content. that the cluster consists of dislocations with high denslty.
Therefore, the deformation ability of both the ferrlte and Dislocations of such a high density are mostly of edge
the martensite phases becomesmore compatible. As a character because the screws would have been mutually
result, it is not surprisin~: to find that fatigue cracks prefer annihi]ated by cross-sllp during cyclic hardening. It is
to initiate in slip bands rather than at inte]'faces whena reasonabie to conciude that they are dipolars for TEM
O' 1999 ISIJ 750
 ISIJ International, Vol. 39 (1 999), No. 8

!a

+1
~lLl '
/

Fig. 9. Typical saturated dlslocation structurc in thc rcrrite

matrix and near the martensite-lb['rite interface.
The specimen was cyclically Fig, lO. Dislocation cells in ferrite induced by cyclic defor-
straineci at a plastic strain
m:llion at a plastic strain ~lmplilude ol' 3.01 x l0~3.
amplitude of' 2.
15 I
> O~~3.

2.4. Effect of Environments on Fatigue Strength

contrast reasons. Therefore, clusters can be considered
as volume elements of high disloc'ation density material Since manycomponents of dual-phase steels in au-
embedded;n an almost dislocation-free material.11) tomobiles are subjected to cyclic loading in aggressive
Whenthe specimen was cycled to s'aturation at a environments in service, corrosion fatigue performance
medium strain amplitude, the dominant dislocation should be an important consideration in materials
structure was found to be parallel walls of dislocations selection. An as-rolled dual-phase steel contalning
as shownin Fig. 9. It is clear that the walls are built up l5 volo/o blocky martensite was selected for testing. Tap
of high-density edge dislocations. In contrast, the water with pH value of 6.86 and 3.50/0 NaCl solution
dlslocation density between walls is much lower and were selected as the corrosive media in which the
dislocation segments connecting the two neighbouring specimens under fatigue loading were either constantiy
wails have mainly a screw character. The wall spacing immersed or wetted Intermittently. For the constant
is approximately 0.5
,im and shows little dependenceon immersion tests, the specimen was placed in a plastic
the orientation of the ferrite grain. From the TEM madebath filled with w'ater or solution circulating at a
micrograph higher magnificatlon (Fig. 9(b)), it Is
at flow rate of 400m/ per hour. A
spraying chamber was
observed that the dislocatlon wall becomesa little wider specially deslgned to perform the intermittent wetting
and looser when approaching to the interface. As the fatigue test,12.13) A
desired program for wetting and
applied strain amplitude is increased from mediumto drying can be preset and then run automatically and
high level, the dislocation structures give way from repeatedly during the whole fatigue test. In the present
parallel walls to cell structures. A typicai example of cell case, the progr'am wasset in Sucha waythat the aggressive
structures Is shownin Fig. lO(a). Thecell walls themselves water or solution was sprayed into the chamber for
are built of more regular and less tang]ed dislocation l min, then warmair about 30'C was blown for min I
arrangements. Figure 10(b) demonstrates the influence and then natural drying was followed for min. 2
of martensite-ferrite interface on the feature of celis. In In Fig. Il is plotted the stress amp]itude versus the
a ferrite grain surrounded by m'artensite lumps, equiaxed number of cycles to failure (SN
curve) for various
cells are preferentially located In the center and become environmental condltions. In comparison with the results
more elongated in shape near the interfaces. This var- in air, exposure to either tap water or salt water resulted
iation of dislocation structure might be an indication in a substantial reduction in fatigue strength in the
of inhomogeneousstrain distribution over the ferrite long-1ife regime 'and the steel no longer exhibited an
grain. Thls can be explained as fol]ows. Whena two- endurance limit. As seen from Fig. 11, intermittent
phase material is deformed, strain gradients must be wetting in salt water caused further degradation in fatigue
built up in both phases becauseof the strain compatibility strength in comparison with full immersion. In contrast,
at the boundary. Maximum strain wiil be produced in it is
very interesting to note that intermittent wetting in

the center of the softer phase which is surrounded by the showed less detrimental effect fatigue life
tap water on
harder phase. The disiocation structure shown in Fig. than const'ant im:mersion.
lO(b) is therefore expected. Generally, whena steel is contact with aerated water
in

or sea water, Iocallzed corrosion will occur through

751 (~ 1999 ISIJ

 ISIJ International, Vol. 39 (1999), No. 8

1OOO
- Air
~: 800 in TCLp Water
e- Full lrnmersion
~:~
o-Spraying Tap Water
~~600 -Full Immersion in Sa[t Water
~ SOO e-Sprnying Salt Weter
_(u=400
~5~~~,'*='*~

c:L~O -
~~._~\~~
~ 200 ~*
v)

100
10 tO5 10 Irf

Numb8rof Cycles to Fai[ure

,
Nf

Fig. Il.
SNbehavior of an as-rolled dual-phase steel in different environments (R= - 1).

~,~

Fig, 12, SEMmicrographs showing the fracture surfaces ofspecimens fatigued in different enviornmental condi-
tions: (a) salt water spraying; (b) tap water spraying and (c) Iaboratory air.

electrochemlcal reactions, including anodic and cathodic fatigue caused by Intermittent

life spraying of salt
reactions. In fact, two major factors are considered water believedisto be associated with the predominant
responsible for the high corrosion rate in spraying salt intergranular cracking (Fig. 12(a)). As shown in Fig,
water. Firstly, the salinity during the duration of drying 12(b), the intermittent wetting by spraying tap water led
will provide highly concentrated chloride ions which to a large proportion of cleavage fracture. In contrast,
can
nucleate imperfections in the protective film due to transgranular cracking dominated the whole process of
chemisorptlon. Secondly, the oxygen is supplied more fracture when the specimens were fatigued in air (Fig.
easily and cathodlcally consumesthe e]ectrons set free l 2(c)) .

in the anodic reaction, resulting In an accelerted for- In the present investigations, several cracks are often
mation of pits by the local dissolution of iron. How- found running from corrosion pits
parallel and initiated
ever, when tap water is sprayed, the surface layer on (Figs. The crack
13(a), 13(b)).initiation observed in the
the specimen will protect the matrlx from the corrosive corrosion fatlgue experiments wasclearly connected with
attack because no chloride ions concentrate to damage pitting corrosion. Pltting corrosion can always occur
the film and no water exists to promote the reduction whenthe metal surface is covered by a corrosion product
reation during the drying period of each cycle. layer possessing local imperfections. These imperfections
The fracture surfaces of all the failed specimens were are produced under attack of chlorides.
examined as shown in Fig. 12. Clearly, the appearance
3. Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior Near Threshold
of the fracture surface varles wlth the environmental
conditions and is in good agreement with the fatigue Fatigue crack propagation the controlling phase of
is
life shownin Fig,
I l. The most significant reduction in fatigue life in
manycases and represents the final damage

O 1999 ISIJ 752

 ISIJ International, Vol. 39 (1999). No. 8
accumulation process which ultimateiy leads to service signing componentsand in the analysis of components
failure under cyclic loading conditions. Therefore, an failure. Fromboth the sclentific
viewpoints, and practical
understanding of fatigue crack propagation behavior is near-threshold fatigue offers a challenging research topic
of obvious Importance to fatigue life predictions and in that large changes in the values of AKth (and hence in
damagetolerance consideratlon. Fatigue crack propaga- the total fatigue life) c'an be affected by alterations in
tion is generally characterized by the rate of crack material microstructure, Ioad ratio, environment and
advance per cycle, da/dN, as a function of the applied crack size.14)
stress-intensity range AK. For most engineering alloys,
a plot of log da/dN against log AKexhibites a sigmoidal 3.1. Influence of Martensite Morphology on Near-
variation. There exists a threshold stress intensity factor thresbold Fatigue Growth

range AKth below which cracks either remain dormant The role of microstructures in affecting fatiguecrack
or grow at undetectable rates; above the threshold, there growth characterlstics in dual-phase steels has been a
is
a steep increase in da/dN with AK. Information on subject of considerable interest. McEvily and cowork-
fatigue thresholds is often included in the task of de- ersl5,16) developed two dlfferent dual-phase micro-
structures in an AISI 1018 steel. One is a continuous
ferrite matrix with encapsulated islands of martensite
(FEM) and the other is a continuous martensite with
encapsulated ferrite islands (MEF). They found that the
FEMmicrostructure had a lower threshold value and a
higher fatigue crack growth rate than the MEFmi-
crostructure. Kobayashi and Yoshidal7) drew almost
the same conclusion that the fatigue properties of
dual-phase steels with FEM microstructures were similar
to those of conventional mild steels. However, Dutta et
al. 18) reported that microstructures with coarse marten-
site in continuous ferrite (similar to FEM)and those with
fine globular martensite along ferrite boundaries possess
the highest threshold values ever reported, namely 17.l
and 19.5MParnl/2. Therefore, the effect of the mor-
phology on near-threshold fatigue crack growth behav-
ior has notbeen fully understood yet.
The apparent contradlctions in the reported relation-
shlps between near-threshold fatigue crack growth be-
havior and morphologies can perhaps be attributed to
the fact that the different microstructures lacked typical
morphological feature. The present study was designed
Fig. 13. SEMmicrographs taken from a specimen cycled at
to develop three well characterized dual-phase structures
d: 240 mpain salt water, showing the multiple origins
of cracking (a) and their associated corrosion pits on
through careful heat treatments, and an as-rolled dual-
specimen (b). phase steel was also adopted for comparisonl9~21) As

'~*!~~/i
'

if:,'/ff~ \ Y1-~t~~:
~ .
* : __ *
'(L
,'
~s~~~
1~ s
~
, .
/,
IF~ *.~
..*

:~~~"t '~ ' ~: '

1)
{r~\J'
:'
"__
' '
/~' d,~~
'C~~;
:~ L- ~(-
)
~\ .

~~
~*,~',

~~" ~
=
J
tL_'~
~-I~,~~i 1.
I)
""::,,
~' '!:.

(
Y
,._
=1:

~ .*,

Fig. 14. Optical micrographs showing microstructures of (a) specimen A. (b) specimen B, (c) specimen C
and (d) specimen The magnification of (a) and (b) is the sameas that of (c).
as-rolled

753 O 1999 ISIJ


shown in Fig. 14, a morphology of' acicular martensite
in ferrite
matrix c'an be found in specimen A, the mi-
crostructure of specimen B is characterized by netted
martenslte along ferrite boundarles and specimen C
consists of granular martensite islands surrounded by
ferritc matrix. Specimen A, B and show the same
grain size of about 50/amwhich is muchlarger than that
(about 10/ml) of the as-rolled specimen. Table 2 shows
the volLune fractions of martensite and the mechanical
properties for all specimens. It can be seen that there is
no muchdifference in the volume rraction, elongation,
yield strength and ultim'ate tensile strength of specimens
A, B and C. Thus, it provides a reasonable basis for
comparing the effect of morphologies on near-threshoid
fatigue crack propagation behavior. From Table 2 it Is
noted that, although the volume fraction of martensite
in thc as-rolled specimen is iess than that in heat-treated
specimens (A. B and C), the yield strength, ultimate
tensile strength and elongation for the as-rolled specimen
are larger than those for the heat-treated specimens. Thls
is due to the sm'aller grain size of the as-rolled specimen.
Figure 15 showsthe variation in near-threshold fatigue
crack growth rates c/alc/N with stress intensity range
for dual-phase steels with different morphologies of
m'artenslte, both in laboratory
solution. The stress ratio
threshold values AKth in different cases are listed in Tabte
3. It
can be seen from Flg, 15 and Table 3 that the
morphologies of martensite have qulte a slgnificant effect
on the fatigue crack growth rates and threshold values.
Specimens A and B have higher threshold values and
10wer near-threshold fatigue crack growth r'ates than
specimen C either in alr or in 3.50/0 NaCI so]ution.
However, in the corrosive environment, the threshold
values of specimens are muchhigher than those in the
laboratory air for both the as-rolled and the heat-treated
specimens. These experlmental resLrlts can be well
ISIJ International, Vol. 39 (1999), No. 8
exp]ained terms of the crack shielding effect.14) It is
in
thought the contlnuous (or netted) martensite
that
microstructure can promote crack closure. Firstly, such
a martensite microstructure will shield the crack by
bearing a larger part of the load and thus reduce the
C driving force tlt the crack tip. Secondly, 'as martensite
constrains plastic deformation in the ferrite, the crack
tip opening displacement (CTOD)
necessary for the
accumulation of damageand for the occurrence of crack
growth will increase. In the contlnuous ferrite (or
granular martensite) microstructure, the shielding effect
is mereiy due
to crack defiections.22) In the corrosive
environrnent SLlch as _3.5 o/o NaCl so]ution, crack surface
corrosion products may enhance crack closure and a
higher value of fatigue threshold is expected. In addition,
as seen from
Figs. 16(a), 16(c) and 16(e), the fatigue
fractLu'e surfaces at the near-threshold region in air are
characterized by cycllc cleav'age facets. However, the
corrosive environment led to Intergranular fracture in
the near-threshold region (see Figs. 16(b), 16(d) and
16(f)). The roughness Rz of the near-threshold fracture
surface was determined and shownin Table 4. All these
AK results are in excel]ent agreement with the variation in
threshold values indicated in Table 3. Therefore, it is
'air and 3.50/0 NaCl
in believed that the enhancementof threshold values of
R is
zero. The associated dual-phase steels in air is mainly due to a large degree
of fracture surface roughness which results in strong
cr'ack closure. However, the increase in the threshold
values in the 3.5 o/o NaC1solLrtion is part]y owing to the
higher fracture surface roughness and partly attrlbuted
to the strong wedgeeffect of corrosion products.
The experimenta] results mentioned above a]so
indicated that the threshold values for all heat-treated
specimens are muchhigher than those for the as-rolled
specimen. This result shows the effects of graln size and
yield strength on threshold value. Numerousexperi-
mental and theoretical investigations have indicated that

Table 2. Volume fractions 2lnd mechanical propertles of Table 3. Threshold v21lues (K*h) of dual-phase steels with
dual-phase steels with di ITerent microstructu]'es. dif~brent morpholo_~ies of martensite The strcss

specimen
ratio Ris equal to O.
v*,("/*)
a MPa) a MPa 6 */*

A 12.3 333 548 28 S ecime~ A B C as-roned

B 12 6 327 528 28 AK,h i~ Iaboratory air (MPam*'2) 16 o 17,0 12.8 81
C 12.l 311 51(, 30 AK in
35'/. Naasotution MPaml'2 23,0 214 17 5 9.7
As-rolled 50 406 566 38

da/dN, m/cycle da/dN, mlcycle

*G -6
10 10
Lab air 3
OA
-7 OB -7
10 oC
As ro[Ied
10

.8 .8
10 e 10

e
.9 .9
10 , 10

-1
o
a -10
b
10 10
10 20 30 40 50 10O 10 20 30 40 50 1oO
l/2 112
AK, MPam AK, MPam
Fig. 15. Variation of'
nca r-th resho]d fa tigue crack growth rates with stress intensi ty range for specimenswith di ~lerent
morphologies of m2lrlensite in both laboratory air (a) and 3.5"/o NaCl solution (b).

:~(~)
1999 ISIJ 754
 ISIJ International, Vol. 39 (1 999), No. 8

i *-~~ F--~ ,,*S

Fig. 16. Fali_~ue fracture surfaces in near-threshold regimes

for as-]'olled and heat-treated specimens in air (a, c,

e, g) and in
35(Vo NaCl solution (b, d, r, h). (a, b),
(c, d). (e.
O and (g, h) arc for spccimens A, B. Cand
as-]'olled, res pectively.
Fig. 17. Optical micrographs of the microstructures of
dual-phnsc steels with dlfflerent volume rraction of
Table 4. Roughncss values of thc ncar-lhreshold r]acturc
martensite
surface

with increaslng martensite content and a martenslte-

Secimen
R, in laboratory air (~tm)
R. in 35~/o NaCl solution m)
the fatigue crack growth threshold value increases with
increasing gr'ain slze and decreasing yield strength.23.24)
The as-rolled specimen in the present study has a much
smaller graln size and higher yield strength than the
heat-treated specimens. As a result, the threshold value
of the as-rolled dua]-phase stee] is much lower in
comparison with that of the heat-treated specimens.
3.2. Effect of Martensite Content on Fatigue Crack
Threshotd
The effect of martensite content on fatlgue crack
growth behavior Is of technologlcal importance in the
selection of optlmum heat-treatment conditions for
dual-phase steels. McEvily and coworkersl6) found that
'a smaller martensite content and a iarger martensite
connectivity c'an promote crack closLu'e, Ieading to a
higher fatigue threshold. However, Shanget a/.25) found
a reverse trend of the martensite effect in two types of
dual-phase microstructures. Further more, Kim and
Hwang26)reported that the fatigue threshold increases
A B C as-rolled
12 5 13 2 l05 61 containing microstructure only resulted in a maximum
23 o 26 3 20 2 60 value of the fatigue threshold. Obviously, the publlshed
information on the effect ofmartensite content on fatigue
crack threshold is controversial. This maypartly be due
to a too narrow range of martensite content investigated.
In our studles,27~29) various Intercritical heat treat-
ments were selected to create different volume frac-
tions of martensite in a steel with chemical compo-
sition of 0.07C, 1.46Si, O.70Mn, 0.47Mo, O.61 Cr. As
shown in Fig. 17, the volume fraction of m'artensite
varies from 5.1 to 82.00/0 with a similar morphology.
The mechanical propertles are presented in Fig. 18 as
functions of the martensite content. It can be seen that
with increasing volume rraction of martensite V~, the
yield strength and ultimate tensi]e strength increase,
however, this incre'ase does not obey 'a simple law of
mixture.
Figure 19 showsthe variation of near-threshold fatigue
crack growth behavior and fatigue crack growth behavior
and fatigue threshoid with the volume fraction of
martensite under stress ratios of R=0(a) and R=0.5
(b). The fatigue threshold AKth as a function of the
volume fraction of martensite V,,, is shownin Fig. 20. It

755 *~:~
1999 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 39 (1999), No. 8
3s
AKth, MPaml/2
I 30 ~9
s 2s
~ 17
20 ~
,s 15
o
800 to
(yu 13
Q
- 600
11
C'

c~, 400
Oy 9
2ao
O O.
2 OA 0.5 0,8 1.O 7
Vr~ 0,0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.O
Vm
Fig. 18. Variation of yield strength, ultimate tensile strength
and elongation with the volume fraction of Fig. 20. Variation of the fatigue threshold with the martensite
martensite. content under the stress ratios of R=0and R=0.5.

da/dN, m/cycle da/dN, m/cycle

-G
10 10
Laboratory air a Laboratory air b
R=0 R=0.5
*7 .7
10 10

.3 .8
10 Vm ('/.) 10
o
e- 512i 1
o- 21 O o Vm(o/o)
G- e
-- 21 5.1
.9 o- 31 4 -g o 12.1
10 o- 82 O 10 e
-- 82.0 .O
o- 47 4 e 31 .4
e- 76 O o
-
-1
o

- As ro ied
-1
o
10 10
7 89io 20 30 40 5060 80 6 10 20 30
1/2
40 50 70
112
AK, MPam
AK, MPam
Fig. 19. Near-threshold fatlgue c]'ack g]'owth behavlor of dual-phase sleels with different volume rractions of
martensite under two different stress ratios.

can be seen from Figs, 19 and 20 that, up to V~=35olo, to higher threshold values. Whenthe martensite con-
the fatigue crack growth rate decreases and AKth in- tent above -350/0, the effect of yield strength on
is

creases with increasing the volume fraction of martensite. AKth becomesa major factor, and a decrease in AKth
However, the threshold value decreases whenthe volume is expected. The total influence of V~ on AKth in
fraction of martensite is larger than about 350/0. The ferrite/martensite dual-phase steels Is controlled by both
increase in stress ratio Rweakensthe dependenceof AKth the reslstance to crack growth and the yield strength.
on V~particularly in the intermediate range of martensite Thenear-threshold fatigue crack propagation
closely is

content. Obviously, the variation of fatigue threshold related to the microstructure-induced crack deflection
wlth martensite content does not display a linear relation and roughness-Induced closure.14) With the stimulatlon
reported either for ferrite/pearlite30) or for granular of experimental results above, an attempt of theoretical
bainite/martensite.31) The result that V* of about 35 o/o analysis has been made to establish the relationship
produces the maximum of fatlgue threshold is consistent between the crack closure stress intensity K.1 and the
with experimental data in literature.4'32) It
was reported volume fraction of martensite.33) It is shown that the
that cyclic hardening appears in dual-phase steels with extent of crack closure increases as the volume fraction
less than 30-500/0 volume fraction of martensite only. of martensite increases. The experimental data are found
When the martensite content exceeds these values, cyclic to be consistent with the model prediction. However, the
softening occurs. proposed model is only suitable for the case where the
Thevariation of fatigue threshold with vo]umefraction volume fraction of martenslte is less than lr/6 = 52 o/o). (
of martensite can be understood as follows. It is seen Otherwise, the martensite islands wil] touch with each
from Fig. 18 that whenthe volume fraction ofmartensite other.
is less than about 350/0, it has almost
no effect on the
yield strength. However, the connectivity of martensite 3.3. Infiuence of Prestrain and Ageing
and therefore the resistance to crack propagatlon in- It is
knowhowthe service properties of
important to
creases with increasing martensite content, giving rise materlals are influenced by prior mechanical and thermal

O 1999 ISIJ 756

 ISIJ International, Vol. 39 (1999), No. 8

~~:

E E E
E E ~
Z Z ~
:,
~'1
~! ~
~' ~ =,

10 10 10
S 810 20 30 AO 60 80 6 8 10 20 30 40 SO 80 S 6 78910 20 30 40s060 8a

aK(HPtTJfi ) A'( tMPaifi ) ~ (h(PaJ?Fi '

Fig. 21 Variation of f,atigue crack growth rate dalc/N with AKin an as-rolled dual-phase steel. (a) prestrain 10 "/o,
(b) ageing 175'C/30 min and (c) a combination of prestraining with ageing.

a) b)

O~s ~. ,~s
~2
u:* 1 o
~: o ">
\e
E ,
a
E
E o
Z; ~
1:'
15 e o V~=25.6Q/. ~;~
o v~=28.30/0
~ ~'
=:
I 820'C Ia) ( ~:'
10 860'C
(IGL)
' =0'prestrainlO'/. . = o*prestrainlO/.

*ageing 175'C *ageingl75'C

3amin 30min
12
s 8 76 1( 02

ct'
79 -?
10
1
5 6 78910 20 30 SO 70 5 8 10 20 40 60 80

AK MPO(
JTfi
) (
AK MPa J7i~
l
Fig. 22. Influence of 10"/* prestrain plus 170'C/30 min ageing on fatigue threshold of a heat-treated steel with fine

acicular martensite in fcrrite produccd by intercritical quenchlng (IQ) (a) marlensite content .
is about 25 .6 "/~

and (b) martensite content is about 28.~_ "/.

treatments. Such treatments are performed on a large more than 370/0. In order to explain the difference in
scale in the automotive industry where plastic forming fatigue threshold sensitivity to prestraining and ageing
of sheet or strip products is followed by annealing during between these two dual-phase steels, the reverse plastic
furnace painting (bake-hardening). Little is known of zone size ahead of the crack tip in near-threshold region
how prestraining and ageing affect the near-threshold wascalculated. It is interesting to find that a combination
fatigue crack propagation. Basedon the work mentioned of prestralning and ageing brought the reverse plastic
above, the influence of prestraining, ageing and a com- zone size of both steels to the same level of 6-7 ~m,
bination of both on the near-threshold fatigue-crack although the original values of the reverse plastic zone
growth rate in as-rolled and heat-treated dual-phase steeis size were about 60
~mfor theis heat-treated steel and pm 16
believed that the different
was studied.34) The microstructure of heat-treated for the as-rolled steel. It

specimens was characterized by fine acicular martensite variation of the plastic zone size ahead of crack tip in
in the ferrite matrix, which was produced by intercritical both steels by prestraining and ageing is responsible for
quenching (IQ). the experimental findings.
In Fig. 21 are demonstrated the influences of pre-
straining, ageing and their combination on near-thre- 3.4. Mixed-modeI and 11 Fatigue Threshold
shold fatigue crack propagation in as-rolled dual-phase Comparedwith conventional HSLAsteels, dual-phase
steel. It is clear that either prestraining or ageing or their steels usually exhibit extremely high mode fatigue I
combination gave little influence. However, as can be threshold levels because of the strong crack closure
seen from Fig. 22, a prestraining fo]lowed by ageing induced by crack surface roughness. However, the pure
strongly affected the fatigue crack propagatlon behavior I
mode case seldom occurs in practice. In manycom-
of the heat-treated dual-phase steels. For example, the ponents cracks are not normal to the maximum prin-
threshold values decreased from 12.6 to 7.9 (Fig. 22(a)) cipal stress direction and crack growth may not be
and from 14 to 8.8 MPa ml/2 (Fig. 22(b)), a reduction of in the plane of the initial crack. Therefore, mode11 may

757 Cc',
1999 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 39 (1999), No. 8
Table 5. Volume rractions of martenslle ( V*,,) and me- roughness-induced crack closure reduces the driving
chanlcal propertics. force of modeI crack growth. If the crack closure is
taken into account and the effective stress intensity factor
Speeimen Vm(o/o) (T ' MPa) c~ MPa So/o
A 48 3 656 l044 7.8 range AK*ff is used to characterize fatigue crack growth,
B 68 9 880 1182 68 AK*ff/AKth[ reduces to about 0.4 which is much lower
than AKl[/AKth[ (see Table 6).
Table 6. Experimental parameters and data of mixed I/II
fatigue crackgrowth lests for dual-phase steels 4. Concluding Remarks
a S ecimen rou A From the report above, it is evident that the f'atigue
No AI A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 behavior of engineering materials such as dual-phase
P,,,..(KN) 0.86 252 432 2~4 12 50 16 85 kl.lO 25.0
steels is a complex and often paradoxial problem and
P,,,h(KN) O17 O50 O85 425 250 334 2.23 5.0
the existing knowledge on the fatlgue of metallic systems
AP(KN) O69 202 347 17 IS lOOO 13 51 8.87 20.0
ln
is
not enough to solve them. This is special true for the
AKl(MPam ) 7.08 6.58 6.37 S38 436 296 170 OO
currently developing ultra- or super-steels with double
AKl[(MPam*)
l!'
OO O99 l 70 353 547 832 lO 62 l3.48
AKl[ /AK OO O. 15 O27 O66 l .25 281 365 higher strength as compared to the
and service life

AK IAKllT
l
10 O96 O90 O76 0.6_-
O42 O24 OO traditional Newfatigue phenomenaassociated
steels.

AKI /AKlll OO O14 O24 O50 0.77 l 18 l 50 l 90 with special microstructures such as ultra-fine grains of
O72 O73 0.74 0.74 O74 O77 O78 0.80 l /tm diameter and newtype of martensites containing
in
AKI efr 198 l 78 l .66 l 40 .
l.13 O 68 O37 OO c'arbide-free boundaries are expected to emerge con-
AKI erf OO O27 044 O92 l .42 l .9 l 2.34 270 stantly. There are unlirnited research and development
AKI crr /AKth l O28 0.25 O24 O20 O16 OlO 0.05 OO opportunlties for the fatigue research of non-tradltional
AKll elT
/AKlll
l OO O04 0.06 0.13 O20 O27 O33 0.38
structural steels.
It generally accepted that without a baslc under-
is
(b) Speci]nen group B standing of the fatigue process on the microscopic
No. Bi B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 level, without 'a systematic study of the nature of the
P,
nux
(KN) 0.7S 2 18 110 9.20 ll.lO 7.38 920 whole fatigue process and Its individual stages, no fur-
Pmh'(KN) O15 0.44 2. 18 186 226 1.50 l 81
AP(KN) O60 l 74 8.82 7.34 8S4 588 7.39 ther progress in the safe design against fatigue is pos-
l 12 607 5.65 498 352 250 l .2 l
AKl(MPam ) OO sible. There is ample evidence that subtle changes in the
l'
AKl[(MPam ~) O.O O85 l 81 4Ol 5.44 704 82
IAKl OO O15 O36 l 14 2.
18 S82 microstructure by cyclic loading can lead to drastic
,e$Kl!
"
AK[ /AKtl* l lO a93 0.82 0.58 041 O20 OO 'alter'ation in the extent of fatigue damageand failure 1lfe.
AK[] /AKlh
l OO O. 14 0.30 O66 O90 l 16 137 In order to estlmate the service iife and the degree of
P.lP
c max
O.43 0.46 051 O59 0.63 O67 0.70
AKI efr 3.46 305 2.44 l .44 O93 0.40 OO fatigue damagesuccessfully, somebasic infonTlation of
AKl[ crr OO 0.46 0.89 164 2.02 2.32 249 the essence, physlcal basis and micromechanism of
AKI *ff /AKth l O57 0.50 0.40 O24 0.15 0.07 OO
AK /AK .
OO 0.08 0.15 O27 0.33 0.38 OA1 Fatigue failure are desirable. better understanding of A
fatigue process wil] render notable contribution to
materials design, materials evaluation, process control,
be involved and affect the fatigue crack growth, especially failure analysis and life assessment and meet the in-
the near-threshold behavior. In the present study 35)
creasingly higher demandson reliability and durabi]ity
dual-phase steels with island or blocky martensite were
of sophisticated machines and structures.
used. Specimenswere divided into group A and Bwith
different martensite contents. The mechanical properties
and volume fractions of martensite (V~) are listed in
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759 *'_c)
1999 ISIJ