EOST 2015 JP - Pdf.new

28/03/2015
Basics of seismic exploration
Objectives and implementation - EOST
I-Basics of seismic exploration
II-Seismic basics
III-Land operations
IV-Processing overview
EOST 2015
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28/03/2015
Overview
Objective of the method
Implementation
Seismic chain
Seismic experiment description
Seismic acquisition
Seismic processing
Overview
Implementation
Seismic chain
Seismic acquisition
Seismic processing
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Search for commercially economic subsurface deposits of

crude oil, natural gas, and minerals by the recording,
processing, and interpretation of artificially induced shock
waves in the earth.
Model Seismic

Seismic reflection,
WHERE TO DRILL ? one of the most-used geophysical methods,
is deployed by CGG
to help the client answer this question.
Anticline
Fault
Salt Dome
Pinch out
Unconformity
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Overview
Implementation
Seismic chain
Seismic acquisition
Seismic processing
The seismic chain
Full fold
Surface to image
Acquisition limits
Processing
Survey Design Acquisition
Reservoir Interpretation
characterization
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The seismic experiment
A seismic experiment merely involves:

detonating a source (at or close to the surface)
deploying seismic sensors (at or close to the surface) to observe the
ground motion.
The energy emitted by the source propagates into the sub-surface

as acoustic waves. Each time the wavefront encounter changing
conditions at interface between sub-surface layers, one part of the
energy is reflected toward the surface, the other part continues
downward.
Seismic acquisition principle

Land Acquisition Marine Acquisition
3 1
1. Signal emitted by vibrator truck 1. Airgun (source)

2. Reflected waves received by geophones 2. Hydrophones
Source : TOTAL
3. Data transmitted to recorder 3. Seismic vessel
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Reflection theory
3
Surface
2 3
Ai Ar
Depth Z qi qr
V1 Reflector
qt
V2 A
t
Source : TOTAL (Odysee)
Snell-Descartes law:
1. Seismic vessel
Reflexion:
2. Airgun source
qi=qr 3. Streamer with hydrophones
Transmission:
sin q i/V1 = sin q t/V2
Implementation
q = angle V = velocity
The seismic trace
RECEIVER
Source SOURCE
Source Receiver Receiver
0
CMP 0
1
1000
2000 2
3000
Depth 3
4000
CMP = Common
mid point t(s)
Depth (m)
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Field operations
What equipment do we need to implement the seismic method?
Seismic sources
Seismic sensors
Recorder - Cables, Steering device
Geometry configuration
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Seismic Acquisition - Sources
Impulsive sources
Controlled source
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Seismic Acquisition Sensors and recording system
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2D acquisition geometry
Air gun source

Streamer length = 8 km and 640 channels
marine streamer = acoustic receivers
One Receiver = One trace
Direct
Sea bed wave
Reflective
wave
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3D acquisition Geometry
Gun 2
Gun 1
Gun 2 Gun 1
Cable 1
Cable 2
Cable 3
Cable 4
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2D - 3D seismic acquisition geometry

Offset (m)
2D
Traces
CMP Line
Time (ms)
Offset (m)
3D
Starboard
source
Streamers
Port
source
CMP Lines
Sub surface
coverage Time (ms)
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2D 3D Land Acquisition
2D
Offset (m)
Front Crew Back Crew
Time (ms)
3D
Offset (m)
Time (ms)
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Other acquisition methods OBS* (OBC/OBN)
Ocean Bottom Cable Ocean Bottom Node
* Ocean Bottom Seismic
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Classical acquisition methods
2D acquisition
3D acquisition
4D acquisition
CMP azimuthal distribution in 3D & 4D
From seismic image to geological attributes

Geophysical attributes Geological attributes
Velocity (travel times) Structure position

Reflectivity (amplitudes) Rock properties (,,,porosity,
AVO (amplitudes, angles) permeability)
Fluid/gas content
Fractures
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Seismic basics
Fundamentals of seismic reflection
OVERVIEW
Seismic waves
Seismic signal
Seismic travel paths
Traces and amplitude
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OVERVIEW
Seismic waves
Seismic signal
Seismic Fundamentals
Method: Physics: Measure:
Seismic reflection Wave propagation through Seismic trace

an elastic medium
1 V1
2 V2
TIME
We will mostly present

reflection of seismic P-wave
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WAVES PROPAGATION - Rocks Velocities
P-WAVES (Vp) S-WAVES (Vs)
Sand 1000-1800 m/s 400- 500 m/s
Chalk 2100- 4200 m/s 1000- 1150 m/s
Granite 5500- 6000 m/s 2800- 3100 m/s
Limestone 3400- 6400 m/s 2400- 3100 m/s
WAVES PROPAGATION
A medium is characterised by its acoustic impedance Z
Zs = rVs = density
Zp = rVp V = propagation velocity
We will consider only the P-Waves, mostly used.
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The seismic energy
The seismic waves propagate downward in all directions
Surface
Reflection Theory
Snell laws:
Surface
reflection
i = r
V1
q q
i r
Reflector transmission
q2 sini sin 2
V2 =
V 1 V 2
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The seismic trace
SOURCE RECEIVER
Source Receiver
0 0
1
1000
2000 2
3000
3
4000
t(s)
Depth (m)
The seismic trace fundamental assumptions
- Earth is isotropic Constant velocity within each layer

- Reflectors are horizontal
SOURCE RECEIVER
CMP
Depth
CMP = Common mid point
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Reflection on a Seismic Record
Depth
time
Unfortunately, reflected waves are not the only events recorded during acquisition.
OVERVIEW
Seismic waves
Seismic signal
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Fourier : Time and Frequency Domain
Amplitude
Concentrated emission as explosive
generates a wavelet close to a Dirac
impulse e
Time
t0
Amplitude
This impulse can be decomposed into a series
t of properly scaled sinusoidal harmonics =>
Fourier Analysis
to
Amplitude
constant
The corresponding spectrum in
Frequency domain is ...
Frequency
Time and Frequency Domains
Time Domain Frequency Domain

Amplitude Amplitude
constant
Time
t0 Frequency
Amplitude Amplitude
Wide
Short spectrum
signal
t f
10 100
Amplitude
Amplitude
Narrow
Long spectrum
signal
t
f
20 40
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Earth convolutional model
Reflection contribution
Geologic Model by interface
Source Function
Velocity Refl.
amplitude
(m/sec) coeff
Interface
time
2000
0.9 1
3000
0.6
3500 2
0.5
3
amplitude
3800
-0.5 4 time
0 1 2 (sec)
3500 Earth Function
0.7 (reflectivity series)
5
4200
amplitude
time
1 2 (sec)
Combined reflection
time series
In theory, the seismic trace, t, is obtained by the convolution of the reflection coefficient
time series (r) with the wavelet (w)
t = (r * w )
Useful frequency bandwidth in seismic record
In conventionnal seismic, the useful frequencies go

usually from 5-10 Hz to 60-70Hz.
Sensor response
Coherent noise Field absorption
Frequency
5 / 10 Hz 60-70Hz 300 Hz
High-resolution = up to 150-200 Hz
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OVERVIEW
Seismic waves
Seismic signal
Reflection & transmission

Wave propagation in a simple 2D model
Amplitude
0 Offset, x
DT DT
DT
T0
DT
DT
DT
Z1
Time
Z2
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WAVE AND RAY PATH - REFLECTION
0 Offset, x
Surface DT DT DT
Velocity V1 T0
DT
DT
DT
Reflector
Velocity V2
Time
X (offset) = distance source-receiver
S G
X SG2=SS2+SG2
Velocity V TX2=T02+X2/V2
DT=TX-T0
T0
Reflector
TX
S'
WAVE AND RAY PATH - REFRACTION
Incident ray
qC
At one particular angle (qc critical angle),
V1
a very energetic wave is refracted on the Interface
Refracted ray
interface (q2=90) q2 V2
Incident ray Emergent ray

q qC Following the Huygens principle,
C
V1
Interface
on each point of the wave
Refracted way
front, an emergent ray (head
q2 V2
wave) is generated then
propagated back to the
surface
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WAVE AND RAY PATH - REFRACTION
Si Si+n
P
Z Refractor
T=X/V + I
REFRACTION-TX DIAGRAM
V0
V1
V2
X(m)
l1 Direct Arrival
V0-V1 Refraction
l V1-V2 Refraction
2
T(ms)
XCRITICAL XCROSSOVER XCROSSOVER
For small X, direct arrival is T=X/V0

At Xcritical appears refracted arrivals
Beyond Xcrossover, refracted arrivals are first arrivals.
At X=0, the intercept time is: I =2h0cosc/V0
h0=IV0/2cosc
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SURFACE WAVES
l
Propagation
RAYLEIGH WAVES = GROUND ROLL

The particules move in the vertical plane. The waves are propagated
along the surface with a very low velocity.
The ground-roll is considerated as an organised NOISE in seismic.
SURFACE WAVES
S R
Land SP Gather Dominated by Ground-Roll
0
Surface-wave energy
which travels along or
near the surface of the
ground (.) Rayleigh -
1
type waves are usually
Time (s)
the main source.

(Sheriff)
Ground-Roll amplitude can be significantly

higher than signal amplitude.
-500 -250 0 250 500 750

Offset (m)
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Seismic waves
Signal and noise definition
SIGNAL = required data to produce a seismic image

mainly the reflected waves
NOISE = everything else

Ambient noise
Direct wave, air-wave
Refraction
Swell noise
Ground-roll, guided waves
Multiple
In general: The seismic source is the greatest cause of noise!
It has been estimated that typically only 6% of seismic source energy is

returned as primary reflection energy the rest is lost or returned as noise!
Seismic Record Monitoring (Marine)
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Seismic Record Monitoring (Land)
Ambiant Noise
Refraction
Reflection
Ground roll (Noise)

Air-wave
OVERVIEW
Seismic waves
Seismic signal
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The Seismic trace
The trace is the reflectivity convolved with the wavelet (plus

noise)
t = (w * r ) + n
seismic wavelet reflectivity seismic trace
fire command
( a more complete description also includes noise)
noise
Attenuation
In reality, the amplitudes decrease with travel time

A
3 main causes of
attenuation
Geometric attenuation Absorption Reflection
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Geometrical Attenuation
The seismic energy is

distributed over a spherical
surface of increasing area as
the wave propagates away
from the source
As the seismic energy travels away from the source

its amplitude decays, so that deeper events and
further offsets become weaker. This effect is
compensated for in true amplitude recovery
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Key words
P and S wave propagation

Reflection theory based on Snells law
Trace attributes: offset, arrival time, amplitude
Acoustic impedance
Reflectivity coefficient
Frequency and vertical resolution
Reflection, refraction, surface waves, multiples
Signal and noise
Amplitude decay
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From surface to sub-surface geometry
From 2D to 3D geometry basic concepts
Overview
Definitions
Trace gathering
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Reflection point First approximations
X = offset
S X R
Surface
- Reflector // Surface
X/2 - V constant within each sub-surface layer
Reflection point
Reflector
Reflection point is the mid-point
Spread
Spread
S
e = E/2
CMP interval is half the receiver interval
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Fold definition
Number of times a mid point is explored with different

seismic travel paths
S3 S2 S1 R1 R2 R3
Surface
rV
1 1
Reflector
Depth rV
2 2
Outline
Definitions
Trace gathering
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2D Marine acquisition geometry

Off-end spread
1 2 3 N
Traces
Source center 12.5m
1 N
CMP
2D CMP population increase
source
movement
Planar View - expanded axis
cmp
Binfold
Increase
Common Mid-Point (CMP)
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2D Land acquisition geometry

Symmetrical split-spread
Acquisition way Spread: 16 receivers
Fold
2D Acquisition - Fold
Fold
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Fold
Fold
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Fold
Taper in Nominal Taper out

Fold
Outline
Definitions
Trace gathering
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Continuity of coverage
A
A/2
X/2 E/2
Continuity of coverage
S/2
E/2
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CMP vs BIN 2D 3D
S S S R R R
3 2 1 1 2 3
2D = Number of times a
mid-point is explored with
different seismic travel
paths.
3D = Number of times a
bin is explored with
different seismic travel
paths.
Bin interval Bin grid
Shot point line
"Bin" E/2
kE
kE/2
E Receiver line
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3D Land Geometry - Multiple coverage
INLINE FOLD
INLINE FOLD
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In-line
INLINE FOLD
INLINE FOLD
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INLINE FOLD
INLINE FOLD
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3D Land Geometry - Multiple coverage 2 2 1 1

2 2 1 1
4 4 2 2
4 4 2 2
INLINE FOLD
3D Marine acquisition geometry: multi-streamer / dual source

2 Sources + 8 Streamers - Crossline View
Approx 380m
paravane
100m
S1 S2
file x 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
cmp- lines
file x+1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
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2 Source + 8 Streamers vertical view
15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
x x x x x x x x
S1
Source
Streamers
Nominal Program Bin-Line
Nominal down-going energy
(port source S1)
x Source-near offset midpoint
Nominal up-coming energy
2 Source + 8 Streamers vertical view (2)
15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
x x x x x x x x
Source
S2
Streamers
Nominal down-going energy
(port source S1)
x Source-near offset midpoint

(starboard source S2)
Nominal up-coming energy
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Seismic spread (8km * 1km)
Sacr-Coeur
Eiffel Tower
Montparnasse 8km* 1km
3D Marine Geometry
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3D Marine Geometry
3D Marine Geometry
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3D Marine Geometry
3D Marine Geometry
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3D Marine Geometry
3D Marine Geometry
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3D Marine Geometry
Binfold/ fill
F.S.P. L.S.P.
Swathe seam
Sail-lines
L.S.P. F.S.P.
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Real-time full-fold map (real case)
Fold calculation - (Nominal Fold)
The nominal fold, F, depends on two parameters

N - Number of receivers in the spread
(number of channels per shot record)
SPI: shot-point interval

SPI/E
E: receiver interval
N
F=
2(SPI/E)
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3D seismic display: Inline / Crossline / Time-slice
Northing
Easting
AZX
AZY
Crossline numbers
increasing
Line numbers (Lines Direction)
increasing
(Crosslines direction)
Key words
Spread
CMP/Bin interval
Bin size
2D/3D fold computation
Trace gathering
Spatial sampling
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Examples of raw records (shot gather)
Examples
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2D shot gather (split spread geometry - LAND)
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3D shot gather (LAND)
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3D shot gather (LAND)
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2D shot gather (off-end geometry - marine)
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3D shot gather (MARINE)
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Land operations
Land acquisition principles
1. Signal emitted by vibrator truck

2. Reflected waves received by geophones
3. Data transmitted to recorder
Source : TOTAL
Land
Acquisition
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Land crew operations
Initial phase
Crew preparation
Camp set up QHSE
Operations
Permitting
Surveying Planning and Quality Control

Drilling/Loading
Recording
Initial phase
Crew preparation
Camp set up QHSE
Operations
Permitting

Drilling/Loading
Recording
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Contract full fold area

Full fold
Area
Client
parameters
Acquisition area
Full fold
Area
Acquisition
Area
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Theoretical prospect
Land Crew operations Camp
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Operational Constraints
Field conditions (desert, inhabited area, jungle, montains )
Weather conditions (rain, wind, snow ) - Permitting constraints
Logistics
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Initial phase
Crew preparation
Camp set up QHSE
Operations
Permitting

Drilling/Loading
Recording
Permitting Surveying Drilling Loading Recording
Negociate permit
Pay damages
Relationship with local

Authorities, farmers,
Assist operations
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Field
operation
DGPS method in open area - such as desert
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Seismic point lay out
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Front Crew Back Crew
2
1
8
7
0
7
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UNI VERSA LVI BRAT OR UNI VERSA LVI BRAT OR UNI VERSA LVI BRAT OR
3 3 3 3
Vibroseis source
UNI VERSA LVI BRAT OR UNI VE RSALVI BRA TOR UNI VERSA LVI BRAT OR UNI VE RSALVI BRA TOR
3 3 3 3
Vibroseis source
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UNI VERSA LVI BRAT OR UNI VERSA LVI BRAT OR UNI VERSA LVI BRAT OR
3 3 3
Vibroseis source
Vibroseis source
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Seismic processing overview
What is seismic processing ?
Processing:
Changing data, usually to improve the signal-to-noise ratio to facilitate
interpretation. Processing operations include applying corrections for
known perturbing causes, rearranging the data, filtering it according to
some criteria, combining data elements, transforming, migrating,
measuring attributes, display, etc.
[Sheriff: Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Geophysics (4 ed)]
The seismic processing consists of a suite of tasks to:
Improve signal
Attenuate noise
Obtain an accurate reflection time and position
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Turn raw field data to into final seismic image (Migration)
Interpretation of processed image
Data courtesy of BP
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3D seismic volume
PROCESSING SEQUENCE STEP
CMP Gather
Acquisition
Raw Shot
Geofile
BINNING
XY
Final Stack SPS Files
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Variations in the processing sequence
Why?
Different Terrain
Different Sources
Different Receivers
Different Field Geometry
Depth and Type of Target Structure
Behaviour of Seismic Generated Noise
Presence of Ambient Noise
Preferences of the Interpreter
Basic processing sequence
Noise attenuation
Reformatting, geometry, amplitude recovery
Common Mid Point gather Deconvolution

velocity analysis
Dynamic (NMO) corrections and Mutes Static corrections

(mostly land)
Stack
Multiple attenuation
(mostly marine)
and
MIGRATION
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Noise attenuation

velocity analysis

(mostly land)
Stack
(mostly marine)
and
MIGRATION
Amplitude Recovery
Called amplitude attenuation curve, the
curve shows how the amplitude decreases with
time
The inverse curve is the amplitude recovery

curve
The application of an amplitude correction,

based on the recovery curve amplitude,
removes unwanted amplitude variations.
After correction, the amplitude differences are

those used for the interpretation
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Spherical divergence (amplitude) recovery
Before Recovery After Recovery
Building a sub-surface section image

(from shot-point gathers to the stack image)
Noise attenuation

velocity analysis

(mostly land)
Stack
(mostly marine)
and
MIGRATION
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NMO Correction and stack
Common Midpoint CMP GATHER

OFFSET
0
V1
V2
Common depth point
T
Application of the NMO Correction to remove the propagation effects
Common Midpoint CMP GATHER And stack

OFFSET0
0
V1
+ + =>
V2
Common depth point
T
T
Signal & Noise STACK

S S S R R R
3 2 1 1 2 3
Surface
r1V1
Reflector
Depth
r2V2
Stack attenuates random noise
signal
Constructive
+ + =
Interference
Random
Noise Destructive
Interference
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Signal & Noise STACK
S S S R R R
3 2 1 1 2 3
Surface
r 1V1
Reflector
Depth
r 2V2
signal
Random Constructive Interference

Noise + + =
Destructive Interference
Velocity analysis based on velocity scan
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CMP gathering and Stack
CMP
CMP gathering and Stack

CMP
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Statics
Noise attenuation

velocity analysis

(mostly land)
Stack
(mostly marine)
and
MIGRATION
Static corrections principle
Weathered
Layer
DATUM PLANE
Reflector
X
Desired
Time-Distance
Curve
Distorted
Time-Distance
Curve due to
Time statics
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STATIC CORRECTION
Shot-point before/after primary static corrections
Before Static Correction After Static Correction
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Land Data: Before Statics Correction
From the model of the near surface velocity-depth variations,

we compute and apply time shifts to correct for the delays
caused by the slow shallow material near the surface.
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Land Data: After Statics Correction
Noise attenuation

velocity analysis

(mostly land)
Stack
(mostly marine)
and
MIGRATION
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Definition of Signal & Noise
SIGNAL = required data

NOISE = everything else
Noise can be:

Random - dissimilar on all traces and cannot be predicted
Coherent - suggesting that it can be followed across at least a few traces
Signal / Noise separation in F-K domain
Organised noise and signal are separated in F-K

domain (k = wavenumber)
F
Signal
Noise
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Noise attenuation Land , Groundroll
Before attenuation After attenuation
Deconvolution
Noise attenuation

velocity analysis

(mostly land)
Stack
(mostly marine)
and
MIGRATION
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Purpose of Deconvolution
Improves temporal resolution by compressing the wavelet

Attenuate short-period multiples
Compensate for source/receivers effects
Ultimate purpose - to extract the reflectivity series
Earth Convolutional Model
Earth Reflection Combined

Geologic Model Function Source contribution reflection
(reflectivity Function by interface time series
series)
(m/sec)
Velocity
source receiver
refl. coeff.
amplitude amplitude
interface
amplitude
0
2000
0.9 1
3000
1
time
0.6 2 convolved
3500
with
0.5 3
3800
0.5 4 2
2
3500
(sec)
time
0.7 5
4200
(sec)
time
s(t) = w(t) * r(t) + N(t)
Deconvolution
S: seismic trace
R: reflectivity series
W: source wavelet
N: random noise
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Deconvolution
Improvement of resolution & De-multiple
Before deconvolution After deconvolution
Multiple
Noise attenuation

velocity analysis

(mostly land)
Stack
(mostly marine)
and
MIGRATION
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Multiple Definition
Primary reflection: one upward reflection in the subsurface

Multiple reflection: at least one downward reflection
Water Bottom multiples before attenuation
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Water Bottom multiples after attenuation
MIGRATION
S S
Mid-Point R R
Surface
Distance
Reflector
Depth Reflection
Points
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Necessity of migration
Reflector are not flat and horizontal !
Mid Point
Distance
Apparent
Migration is the
reflectormost
Actual
reflector
important processing
position step position
of the flow. Migration is
Time
the process which moves
the imaged point into its
correct position in both
space and time.
From time imaging to depth imaging
V0
V1
V2
V3
V4
Time migration model Depth migration
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Migration Example 1: before migration
Migration Example 1: after migration
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Migration Example 2: before migration
Migration Example 2: after migration
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Depth Imaging Dilemma
Depth imaging requires knowledge of the model
the dilemma
knowledge of the model requires depth imaging
Velocity variation dictate imaging technique
Reverse-Time migration
Kirchhoff
Pre-stack depth migration
Image Quality
Post-stack depth migration
Pre-stack time migration
Post-stack time migration
TZO
Work Load ~ velocity
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Summary of Time imaging vs. Depth imaging

Time imaging Depth imaging
Travel times hyperbolic modelled

assumption rays
Velocity field RMS Velocities Interval Velocities
Apply to laterally smooth any media

media
Sensitivity to Average to high High

velocity model
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28/03/2015

Basics of seismic exploration

Objectives and implementation - EOST

I-Basics of seismic exploration

Objective of the method

Search for commercially economic subsurface deposits of

Objective of the method

The seismic chain

The seismic experiment

A seismic experiment merely involves:

The energy emitted by the source propagates into the sub-surface

Seismic acquisition principle

1. Signal emitted by vibrator truck 1. Airgun (source)

The seismic trace

What equipment do we need to implement the seismic method?

Seismic Acquisition - Sources

Seismic Acquisition Sensors and recording system

Air gun source

marine streamer = acoustic receivers

One Receiver = One trace

2D - 3D seismic acquisition geometry

Other acquisition methods OBS* (OBC/OBN)

Ocean Bottom Cable Ocean Bottom Node

* Ocean Bottom Seismic

Classical acquisition methods

CMP azimuthal distribution in 3D & 4D

From seismic image to geological attributes

Velocity (travel times) Structure position

Fundamentals of seismic reflection

Seismic reflection Wave propagation through Seismic trace

We will mostly present

WAVES PROPAGATION - Rocks Velocities

P-WAVES (Vp) S-WAVES (Vs)

Sand 1000-1800 m/s 400- 500 m/s

Chalk 2100- 4200 m/s 1000- 1150 m/s

Granite 5500- 6000 m/s 2800- 3100 m/s

Limestone 3400- 6400 m/s 2400- 3100 m/s

A medium is characterised by its acoustic impedance Z

We will consider only the P-Waves, mostly used.

The seismic energy

The seismic waves propagate downward in all directions

The seismic trace

The seismic trace fundamental assumptions

- Earth is isotropic Constant velocity within each layer

CMP = Common mid point

Reflection on a Seismic Record

Fourier : Time and Frequency Domain

Time and Frequency Domains

Time Domain Frequency Domain

Earth convolutional model

Useful frequency bandwidth in seismic record

In conventionnal seismic, the useful frequencies go

Reflection & transmission

WAVE AND RAY PATH - REFLECTION

X (offset) = distance source-receiver

WAVE AND RAY PATH - REFRACTION

Incident ray Emergent ray

WAVE AND RAY PATH - REFRACTION

For small X, direct arrival is T=X/V0

RAYLEIGH WAVES = GROUND ROLL

the main source.

Ground-Roll amplitude can be significantly

-500 -250 0 250 500 750