ent Theory

The origin of scientific management theory is considered to be a major breakthrough in industrial management.
With the growing expansion and consolidation of large-scale industries in the wake of the Industrial Revolution,
the Western world had witnessed a resultant crisis of management. The problem was further aggravated by
events like the First World War. The growing scarcity of resources, competition, and complexity in managing
business had demanded an efficient science of management. The scientific management theory was the outcome
of such a need. It had drastically redefined the science of management by ensuring maximum efficiency with
the consequent economization of time and resources. In other words, it had revolutionized industrial relations
by proposing to revamp the age-old managerworker relationship by standardization of work procedure,
improvement in the working conditions, and so on, and also by making managers equally responsible for overall
productivity. It suggested that the application of scientific technology would maximize the overall productivity
in an industry, which in effect would increase the earnings of both the workers and employers and minimize the
friction between them. Frederick W. Taylor has been considered as the father of scientific management theory,
though the term scientific management was coined much later by Louis Brandeis in 1910, reflecting on the
ideas of Taylor. Taylor believes that in every trade there is one best way of doing a job, and the objective of the
manager is to explore that best way to expedite the situation optimally. Taylors own words better convey the
essence of scientific management
theory: [A]mong the various methods and implements used in each element of each trade there is always one
method and one implementwhich is quicker and better than any of the rest. And this one best method and best
implement can only be discovered or developed through a scientific study and analysis of all the methods and
implements in use, together with accurate, minute, motion and time
study. (Taylor, quoted in Nigro and Nigro 1983) The major works of Taylor include A Piece-rate System
(1895), Shop Management (1903), The Art of Cutting Metals (1906), and The Principles of Management
(1911).13

Aims of Scientific Management

The major objectives of scientific management theory, as articulated
by the advocates of this school, may be summarized as:
To gauge industrial tendencies and the market, in order to
regularize operations in a manner which will conserve the
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investment, sustain the enterprise as an employing agency,
and assure continuous operation and employment;
to assure the employee, not only of continuous operation
and employment by correct gauging of the market, but also
assure by planned and balanced operations, a continuous
earning opportunity while on the payroll;
to earn through a waste-saving management and processing
technique, a large income from a given expenditure of human
and material energies, which shall be shared through
increased wages and profits by workers and management;
to make possible a higher standard of living as a result of
increased income of workers;
to assure a happier home and social life to workers through
removal (and by increase of income), of many of the disagreeable
and worrying factors in the total situation;
to assure healthy as well as individually and socially agreeable
conditions of work;
to assure the highest opportunity for individual capacity
through scientific methods of work analysis and of selection,
training, assignment, transfer, and promotion of workers;
to assure by training and instructional foremanship the opportunity
for workers to develop new and higher capacities,
and eligibility for promotion to higher position;
to develop self-confidence and self-respect among workers
through opportunity afforded for understanding of ones
own work specifically, and of plans and methods of work
generally;
to develop self-expression and self-realization among workers
through the simulative influence of an atmosphere of research
and valuation, through understanding of plans and
methods, and through the freedom of horizontal as well as
vertical contacts afforded by functional organization;
to build character through the proper conduct of work;
to promote justice through the elimination of discrimination
in wage rates and elsewhere; and
to eliminate factors of the environment which are irritating
and the cause of frictions, and to promote common
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understandings, tolerances and the spirit of teamwork
(H.C. Person, quoted in Sapru 1996).
Principles of Scientific Management
The distinguishing features of Taylors scientific management theory
can be enumerated as follows:
1. The development of a true science of work: Scientific management
theory seeks to discover a true science of work, which
in effect will benefit both the workers and managers alike.
The basic objective of this principle is to replace the rule of
thumb by application of scientific methods. Taylor claimed
that there was one best way to perform almost any task.
This can be done by observing and analysing the work assigned
to a worker with respect to each element and the time
involved in it. This procedure will decide the ideal working
method or the best way of doing a job. Taylor considers this
organized knowledge as science of work.
2. The scientific selection, training, and progressive development of
the workman: This theory has put a lot of emphasis on scientific
selection and proper grooming of the workforce. It believes
that vibrant workforce can bring about rapid increase in productivity.
Scientific selection involves selecting a right person
for a right job. For this, some standard selection procedure
must be there. Workers skill and experience must be matched
with the requirements of the respective jobs they are to perform.
The workmen so selected must be given training for the
specific tasks assigned. This would help worker to accept
new methods, tools, and conditions willingly and enthusiastically.
Taylor holds that it is the managements responsibility
to implement appropriate selection and training systems and
to see to it that the workers intellectual, psychological, and
physical traits match the requirements of these jobs.
3. The close coordination between the science of work and the
scientifically selected and trained men: The theory advocates
a close coordination between the science of work and the
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trained workforces for smooth functioning of an organization.
Taylor says that in order to get the best results, someone
has to bring the science and workmen together. He felt
that it is the exclusive responsibility of the management to
do this job. He believes that workers are always willing to cooperate
with the management but there is more opposition
from the management side. He suggests mental revolution
for a change in this perception.
4. The division of work and responsibility between the management
and workers: This is another important hallmark of the
scientific management theory. It put the onus of industrial
productivity equally on the management and workers. That
is, industrial well-being is a joint responsibility, which needs
to be shouldered by both of them.
None of the above mentioned principles could be isolated and
called scientific management. Collectively, they contribute as scientific
management. In The Principles of Scientific Management
(1911), Taylor states that scientific management is no single element,
but a combination summarized as:
Science, not rule of thumb
Harmony, not discord
Cooperation, not individualism
Maximum output, in place of restricted output
Development of each man to his greatest efficiency and prosperity
(Taylor 1947: 140).
These characteristics constitute the philosophy of scientific management.
Taylor employs a number of techniques to facilitate the application
of the principles of scientific management. These include
functional foremanship, motion study, time study, piece-rate plan,
exceptional principle, standardization of tools, and so on. In order
for scientific management to succeed, Taylor urges a complete
mental revolution in the attitude of managers and workers as to
their duties, towards their fellow workers and towards all of their
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problems. Mental revolution or we can say a new outlook requires
the realization on part of both the parties (workers and managers)
that their mutual interest is not contradictory and both can
prosper only through cooperation, not conflict. Taylor believes
that without this great mental change and new outlook on both
sides, scientific management cannot exist. Taylor suggests that in
any organization both workers and employers should cooperate
with each other and work towards increasing the productivity. Increased
organizational output would give better wages to workers
and high profit to management and the atmosphere of conflict will
be replaced by peace and harmony.
Critique of Scientific Management
Scientific management led to a reform movement which offered
the hope of minimizing industrial problems. However, it was
equally opposed by many people. The anger of the labour community
was so harsh that, early in his career at Midvale Steel, Taylor
received death threats for trying to speed up work, and when he
later worked at Bethlehem Steel, the planning room was mysteriously
burned. The application of Taylors mental revolution resolves
all the disputes between the employers and the workers and
establishes effective cooperation between them and thus makes the
role of trade union unnecessary. Thus, labour leaders considered
Taylorism as not only destroying trade unions, but also destroying
the principle of collective bargaining. They also had a fear that
it would increase in unemployment. Taylorism was also attacked
by the managers. Their workload increased due to the application
of equal division of work and responsibility. Those who wanted
promotion to high managerial positions also opposed Taylors
stand, which advocated training and assessment of managers by
highly trained experts. It was because of the differences with the
company managers that Taylor had to resign from Midvale Steel as
well as Bethlehem Steel companies. Human relation theorist criticized
Taylors principles for being impersonal and undermining
the human factor. Behaviourist also charged that Taylors methods
scarificed the initiative of the worker, his individual freedom, and
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the use of his intelligence and responsibility. Herbert Simon and
James G. March described the scientific management principles
as the physiological organization theory. Taylors theory is also
criticized for oversimplifying human motivation in terms of economic
rewards and neglecting the social and psychological aspects
of motivation. Likewise, the assumption that an individual existed
in isolation from his social environment is erroneous.