B.gs1 Grammar Summary 2ascd

INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE ENGENHARIA DO PORTO
SUPERIOR TECHNICAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

LAPR2 MDULO DE COMPETNCIAS LINGUSTICAS 2006 | 2007
MDULO DE
COMPETNCIAS LINGUSTICAS
GRAMMAR SUMMARY | RESUMO DE GRAMTICA
(BOOKLET GS1)
Ana Margarida Barata (ABT) 2006|2007

Grammar Summary Booklet GS1
Contents:
Present Tenses Form and Use 3

Present Simple 3
Present Continuous 4
Present Perfect 5
Past Tenses Form and Use 7
Past Simple 7
Past Continuous 7
Past Perfect 8
Future Time Form and Use 9
Modals Meaning / Use / Form 12
Passive Voice Use and Form 14
Expressing Time and Place 15

Time prepositions and expressions 15
Place prepositions 16
Adjectives followed by prepositions Form and Use 19
Verbs followed by prepositions Form and Use 21

Prepositional verbs 21
Phrasal verbs 22
Making Comparisons Form and Use 23
Formation 23
Use in sentences 24
Relative Clauses and Relative Pronouns Form and Use 26
Bibliography 27
DEI | LAPR 2 Mdulo Competncias Lingusticas 2 Ana Barata | 2006-2007

Present Tenses Form and Use
PRESENT SIMPLE:
FORM: Present Simple is formed with the bare infinitive form of the verb:
Example: I like You like We like They like
We add s in the third person singular he / she / it. Verbs ending in o, s, ch, sh, x add es:
Examples: She likes He goes She watches
She misses He wishes It relaxes
Questions: Present Simple questions are formed with do and the bare infinitive form of the verb.
Third person singular is formed with does and the bare infinitive form of the verb.
Examples: Do you like? Does he like?
Negatives: Present Simple negatives are formed with do not and the bare infinitive form of the verb.
Third person singular is formed with does not and the bare infinitive form of the verb.
Examples: I do not like / I dont like She does not like/ She doesnt like
USE / MEANING: We use the present simple to describe:

Habitual actions:
E.g.: He needs his computer every day.
He never uses his calculator.
Natural, scientific or permanent truth:

E.g.: Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade.
Personal facts:
E.g.: We like working with computers.
Frequency Adverbs are often used with present simple. They explain how often someone does an action, or
something happens.
always DDDDD
often; frequently DDDD
usually; normally DDD
sometimes; occasionally DD
rarely; hardly ever; seldom D
never
Note: The frequency adverb goes between the pronoun (I, she, he, etc.) or the person and the verb.
Example: She always has classes at 8 oclock in the morning.
Frequency adverbs used with the verb be come after the verb.
Example: Jim is usually late.

State verbs: some verbs are usually used in the present simple and not in the present continuous.
Examples:
hear recognize remember like wish
see believe know love seem
smell feel (that) mean dislike belong to
taste (often used with can) think (that) suppose hate contain
notice forget understand want matter
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
FORM: Present Continuous is formed from the verb be +verb (bare infinitive) +-ing
Example: I am relaxing. She is relaxing. We are relaxing. They are relaxing.
Spelling:
Verbs ending e drop the e when they add ing.
E.g.: like liking. decide deciding.
Verbs with one syllable, ending in one vowel and one consonant, double the consonant when they add ing.
E.g.: sit sitting. swim swimming.
Verbs ending ie change ie to y.

E.g.: lie lying. tie tying die dying
USE / MEANING: We use the present continuous to describe

Actions happening at the moment:
E.g.: I am reading now.
Note: with now and already and time phrases such as: at the/this moment; at the present moment;
Certain future:
E.g.: They are arriving at 2 p.m..
Temporary habit:
E.g.: She is studying computer languages this semester.
Repeated annoying Actions:

E.g.: My computer is always breaking down!
Plans for a near future:

E.g.: I cant forget Im having an important meeting with the director tomorrow.

PRESENT PERFECT
Present Perfect Simple:

FORM: Have / Has + Past Participle (main verb):
Example: I have decided to leave tomorrow. She hasnt written to her mother yet.
USE / MEANING: Present perfect simple generally describes past events which are connected to the present:
An event in the past but without a definite time.
E.g.: Helen has bought a palmtop.
We dont know when this happened, and she still has got the palm top. There is no time expression.
A state or repeated event lasting until the present, and still happening. There is a time expression,
describing how long or how often something has happened.
E.g.: Ive lived here for ten years. Ive often seen Jim with his laptop in the park.
Explaining a present situation when an exact time is not mentioned:

E.g.: Whats the matter? Why are you walking like that?
Ive hurt my foot.
Experiences in the past when an exact time is not mentioned.

E.g.: Have you visited any other countries? Yes, Ive been to Italy and France.
Completion: we often use the present perfect when we describe how many things are completed so far
and an exact time is not mentioned.
E.g.: Mary has read a hundred pages of her History book.
Other common uses (with time expressions):

ever / never: when we ask or talk about our experiences in life.
E.g.: Have you ever eaten Japanese food? No, Ive never eaten it.
yet / already / so far

We use yet in questions and negative sentences. It has a similar meaning to so far. We used so far
in positive sentences.
E.g.: Have you finished this book yet? No, Im on page 56.
How many pages have you read so far? Ive read 56 pages.
We use already to describe an action which happened before.
E.g.: When are your classes going to start?
They have already started.
just is used to refer to a very recent event.

E.g.: Cathy has just entered the room.
Frequency adverbs: always / often.

E.g.: He has always loved computer games. (a state)
We have often visited Spain. (a repeated event)
for / since :
for describes a period of time. since describes when the period of time started
E.g.: Tom has worked here for three months. E.g.: Tom has worked here since July 10th.

Present Perfect Continuous

FORM: Have / Has + been (Past Participle of be) + Present Participle (-ing):
Example: I have been waiting here all morning.
What have you been doing lately?
USE / MEANING:
Present perfect continuous, like present perfect simple, generally describes past events which are connected
to the present. The continuous form gives a number of different meanings:
It can emphasize the length to time and action.
E.g.: I have been waiting here all morning. (The person speaking isnt happy with this situation!)
It can emphasize that the action is recent.

E.g.: Youre very dirty! What have you been doing?
Ive been fixing my bike. (This action is recent because we can see the result.)
It can emphasize that the action is temporary.

E.g.: Ive been staying in a hotel for the past month.
Common uses:
Recent activities:
E.g.: What have you been doing lately?
Ive been working a lot.
James has been feeling ill for weeks.
Continuing actions:
E.g.: How long have you been studying English?
He has been living in Barcelona for 3 years.
Repeated actions
E.g.: I have been phoning her for days, but shes never at home.
Time expressions with present perfect continuous

E.g.: all day; all morning; , for days; for ages; ; lately; recently
Contrasts with present perfect simple:

Present perfect simple often emphasizes that an action is finished, but present perfect continuous can
emphasize that it is still going on:
E.g.: I have written five letters.(Present Perfect Simple)
The number stresses that the action is completed.
I have been writing letters. (Present Perfect Continuous)
This suggests that the writer has not finished.

Past Tenses Form and Use
PAST SIMPLE:
FORM:
Regular Verbs
Past Simple regular verbs add ed to the bare infinitive. Verbs ending in e simply add d. All persons have the
same form.
Example: I enjoyed the film. I entered in University.
Irregular Verbs
It is necessary to learn irregular forms. You have a list available in this anthology.
Examples: eat ate drink drunk forget forgot
USE / MEANING: We use the Past Simple to describe:

Definite events in the past; a definite time expression can be used with these events.
Examples: I enjoyed the film we saw last night.
James bought a new computer two weeks ago.
Habitual actions in the past.

Example: Every day we got up early and went to the beach.
PAST CONTINUOUS:
FORM: Present Continuous is formed from the verb be (past) +verb (bare infinitive) +-ing
Examples: I was sitting by the door. He was sleeping. She was playing computer games.
You were laughing. We were discussing an important topic.
USE / MEANING:
Past continuous describes a continuing situation. This is often contrasted with a sudden event.
Examples: Continuing situation Sudden event
They were doing a research work when the lights went out.
While he was waiting for the beginning of the class, he met a new classmate.
Past continuous is used to describe a number of continuing situations, as background description.

Example: The corridor was full of students. Some were talking, some were writing notes, and others were simply
standing there. Everyone was waiting for the final grades to come out.
It is also used to describe two continuing situations, which are happening at the same time.
Example: While Jim was cooking, David was checking the news on the Internet.
Time expressions:
With Past Simple: two hours ago / in September / last week / at 6.00 / for 3 years
With Past Continuous: While / When

PAST PERFECT
Past Perfect Simple:
FORM: Had + Past Participle (main verb):

Examples: I had decided to leave tomorrow. She had left. They hadnt eaten.
USE / MEANING: Past perfect simple is used when we need to make clear that one event in the past happened
before another event in the past.
Examples: Sue left at 7.00. We arrived at her house at 8.30. When we arrived at Sues house, she had left.
Note: it is not necessary to use past perfect simple just because an event happened a long time ago. We use
past simple:
E.g.: The Chinese built the great Wall over two thousand years ago.
Common uses:
With realise:
E.g.: When I got home I realised I had lost my wallet.
With verbs of thinking:

E.g.: think, know, be sure, remember, suspect, understand, etc.

Future Time Form and Use
We can refer to future time in English by using will / shall, be going to or by using present tenses.
These forms dont have all the same meaning, so its necessary to choose the most suitable one. Read the
explanations that follow attentively:
Will and Shall
FORM: Will future is formed with the infinitive without to.

Shall is used in formal situations with I and we.
Negative of will = wont / Negative of shall = shant
USE / MEANING:
Will describes a prediction or what we think will happen in the future. There is usually a time expression. We
can use perhaps when we are uncertain, probably when we are almost certain, or definitely when we are
certain:
Examples: Perhaps itll rain tomorrow.
In the next century, most people will probably work from home, using only the Internet.
On the 10th June I will definitely not have classes.
If they test the computer, they will find the malfunction.
Thatll be John at the door. (This means that I suppose it is John.)
Will is also used to express an immediate decision:

Examples: Ill take this bag.
(Decisions expressed with going to refer to a more distant point in the future.)
Be going to
FORM: Be going to future is formed with the verb be + going + the infinitive.
USE / MEANING: there are two very similar meanings:

1. Plans or intentions It is a plan, so it may not happen:
Im going to do lots of work this evening.
2. Present cause It is a prediction based on something we can see or know about.
Look out! Those CDs are going to fall on the floor!
Present Continuous with future meaning
FORM: Be +verb +-ing
USE / MEANING: We can use the present continuous to refer to the future when we talk about events which are
arranged for the future. It is often used when we talk about social arrangements.
Example: I cant forget Im having an important meeting with the director tomorrow.

Future Continuous
FORM: will or shall +be + verb +-ing

Example: This time tomorrow Ill be eating lunch on the plane.
(Note: shall is used in formal situations with I and we; it is considered to be restricted in British English and
declining in use.)
USE / MEANING: Future continuous describes a temporary situation or activity in the future. We often use it when
we compare what we are doing now with what we will be doing in the future. We usually use a
time expression (e.g.: in five yeas time; tomorrow)
We also use the future continuous to describe something which will definitely happen because
an arrangement has already been made.
Example: Well be holding a meeting soon, so we can decide then. (This means that the
meeting will happen anyway.)
Future Perfect
FORM: will or shall +have + past participle (of the main verb)
Example: By the time we get to the cinema, the film will have begun.
USE / MEANING:
Future perfect describes a situation which has not happened yet. At a time in the future it will happen.
Example: By the time we get to the cinema, the film will have begun. (This means that when we arrive at the
cinema we can say, The film has begun. We often use by or by the time.)
It can also be used to express an assumption on the part of the speaker:

Example: You wont have heard the explanation, of course. (This means that I assume you have not heard
what has been explained.)
Other ways of referring to the Future
Using the Present Simple: when we talk about events which are fixed and cannot be altered (they arent simply the
wishes of the speaker); and when describing timetables.
Examples: Jims presentation is at 11 a.m.. (Timetable; calendar reference)
Our head teacher retires next year. (Fixed, unchangeable event).
Future time clauses: in a future time clause, we can refer to the future with the form of the present simple after a
time word (e.g.: when, until / till, as soon as); we can also use the present perfect, when we emphasize that an
action is complete.
Examples: When I see her again, Ill tell her your news. (Present Simple)
Please, wait here until Mrs. Seymour comes back. (Present Simple)
As soon as were ready, well phone you. (Present Simple)
Lets run home before it rains. (Present Simple)
Hand in your paper as soon as you have finished. (Present Perfect)

Is / are to be: this form is used to describe formal arrangements:

Example: All students are to meet in the school hall at 4 p.m..
Be about to, be on the point of, be due to:

Be about to and be on the point of refer to the next moment
Examples: The class is about to start. The President is on the point of resigning.
Be due to refers to scheduled times.
Example: Students are due to deliver their research work on 24th November.
Other future references:
Hope: this can be followed by either the present or future tenses.

Examples: I hope it doesnt rain tomorrow.
I hope the exam wont be difficult.
Other verbs followed by WILL:

Most verbs of thinking can be followed by will if there is future reference.
These include: think, believe, expect, doubt
Examples: I expect the train will be late.
I doubt whether the students will be on time.
Just / just about to: these expression can be used to express something on the point of happening:
Example: Hurry up! The test is just starting! / The test is just about to start!

MODALS MEANING / USE / FORM
Modal auxiliaries do not change their form they do not have the third person present simple s and do not form
tenses.
Modal auxiliaries are always followed by a verb infinitive (without to).
The meaning of modal auxiliaries depends on the context they are used. Read the explanations that follow
attentively:
MEANING / FUNCTION MODAL AUXILIARY USE: EXAMPLES

Ability can / cant / cannot (Present) Sofia can speak French and English fluently.
Can you lift a 19 monitor alone, Alice? Of course I can!
could / couldnt (Past) Jane could already swim very well when she was 9.
Paul couldnt play the guitar when he was 6.
be able to (used instead of can to Will you be able to teach Joan how to play that game? (Future)
form other tenses) Jim had never been able to dance so well before! (Past Perfect)
Permission can / cant Can I leave earlier, please? (Neutral)
You cant go out tonight. End of discussion!, his father pointed.
(asking for, giving and
refusing permission)
could Could I leave earlier? (Polite) - No, you cant.
may May I leave earlier? (Very Polite) Yes, you may.
allowed / not allowed to (used You wont be allowed to go camping in summer if you fail. (Future)
instead of can to form other tenses)
Possibility or may / might (Present) Joan might go to Sweden next year. (It is possible)
I may/might have some news for you next week. (Perhaps I will; it
uncertainty is uncertain)
could (uncertainty, specially when He could be stuck in the traffic (Perhaps he is.)
used with be) (Present)
might have/ may have/ could have Maria might/ may/ could have taken the bus. (Its possible,
+ past participle (Past) perhaps she did.)
Impossibility or must / cant (Present) President Bush cant win the next election. (Its impossible.)
He must be at an important meeting. (Im sure he is.)
certainty She cant be in Greece! I saw her today! (Im sure she isnt.)
must have / cant have + past Charles cant have bought a new car. He is completely broken! (Im
participle (Past) sure he didnt.)
Obligation must / have to 1. When explaining that something is necessary:

I must finish this information sheet before 8 p.m.. = I have to
finish this information sheet before 8 p.m..
2. When describing official rules or any rule from an external
authority: If the traffic lights are red, you have to stop.
3. Emphasis to show that an action is very important: You must be
here by 8.00, or the bus will leave without you.
mustnt (describes something that is You mustnt smoke in a gas station.

forbidden)
dont have to (describes an You dont have to turn on the central heating. Its automatic.
unnecessary action)
had to / didnt have to (used to When I was in kindergarten we had to wear uniform.
express the past) Joseph didnt have to do any homework yesterday.

Advice and should / shouldnt (Present) Advice: (I think) you should talk to your teacher about it.
Opinion: I think the police shouldnt be soft with criminals.
opinion Expectation: They should arrive at 10 a.m..
ought to / ought not to (Present) The same use as should / shouldnt (more formal):
The police ought not to be soft with criminals.
had better (non-modal) (Present) In my opinion youd better stay at home and rest. You look tired.
Wed better not forget to turn off the computer!
should have / shouldnt have + Used in the past, they often describe a criticism:
past participle (Past) You should have worked harder!
= ought to have / ought not to have You shouldnt have eaten so much yesterday!
+ past participle (more formal)
Asking, accepting can / will / would Can you help Joan? Sorry, I cant/ Of course I can. (neutral)
and refusing Will you wait a few minutes? (formal)
Would you wait a moment, please? (formal)
Asking for can / could / would Can you tell me the time were having exam? (neutral)
information Could you tell me? (more polite)
Would you mind telling me? (most polite)
Making an offer to shall Shall I carry this suitcase for you?
do something
Offers and would Offering: Would you like a soft drink?
Asking preferences: Do you prefer westerns or sci-fi films?
preferences
would rather (+ verb infinitive) Id rather watch a western today.
would prefer (+ gerund / noun) Id prefer watching a western.
Id prefer tea, please.
Promises will / will not = wont Ill be back in a few minutes.

I wont do anything silly, dont worry!
Requests can / could / would Can you turn on the lights, please? (neutral)
Could you turn on the lights, please? (more polite)
Would you mind helping me? (most polite)
Suggestions shall / could Shall we go to the cinema tonight?
We could go to the cinema.
Other expressions used with this meaning:
How about going to the theatre?
Lets go to the caf.
Why dont we visit Joan next weekend?

Passive Voice Use and Form
USE:
The passive structure is not a tense of the verb but a very common verb form; it has several uses and it is specially
found in formal, scientific, technical and academic English.
It can have a wide range of time references, either past, present, future or conditional. The most used passive
tenses are present simple and continuous, past simple and continuous, present perfect simple, past perfect simple,
will future, and future perfect. There are also present and past passive infinitives.
The uses of the passive forms in English do not necessarily correspond to the uses in other languages. Some
languages may use passive forms where English uses active forms and vice versa.
Your written work will certainly be improved if you adopt this so-called impersonal style whenever appropriate, so
pay attention to the following example and to the passive structure presented below.
Example:
The advantages of computers as an aid in language learning can be demonstrated by a very simple experiment in
the context of a school. Last year computers were used by a group of children in their English learning classes in a
villages primary school. the verbs in bold/italic are in the passive.
FORM:
Verb to be in the appropriate verb tense + Past Participle of the main verb in the sentence.
Examples:
Active: They play computer games everyday. (Present Simple)
Passive: Computer games are played (by them) everyday. (Present Simple)
Active: Last month people held a manifestation against the rise in taxes. (Past Simple)
Passive: Last month a manifestation against the rise in taxes was held. (Past Simple)
Active: Someone has brought that computer to be fixed. (Present Perfect)

Passive: That computer has been brought to be fixed. (Present Perfect)
Active: Someone is leaving a computer to be fixed next door. (Present Continuous)

Passive: A computer is being left to be fixed next door. (Present Continuous)
Verbs with two objects can be made passive in two ways (idiomatic passive) it depends on the
subject you want to emphasize.
Examples: James was given a present. A present was given to James.
Common verbs of this type: bring, give, lend, pass, pay, promise, sell, show, send, tell

Expressing Time and Place

Time prepositions and expressions
in Years in 2005 Parts of the day in the morning

Months in November in the afternoon
Seasons in the autumn in the evening
Centuries in the 21st Century
on Days on Thursday on my birthday
at Times at 4.00 at midday at midnight

Night at night
during Periods of time I didnt feel nervous during the performance.
Calendar We say: the seventeenth of September or September the seventeenth

references We write: 7 September 7th September September 7th
Dates are written DAY/MONTH/YEAR in British English: 07/09/2005
Day references If TODAY is 29th October: tomorrow (30th October)

the day after tomorrow (31st October)
yesterday (28th October)
the day before yesterday (27th October)
Periods of the this morning this afternoon tonight

day yesterday morning yesterday afternoon last night
tomorrow morning tomorrow afternoon tomorrow night
For For refers to a period of time:

e.g.: I have lived here for two years. She studied German for three years.
Since Since refers to a point at the beginning of a period of time:
e.g.: I have lived here since 2003. She has been waiting since 3.30.
Ago Ago refers to a point in the past:
e.g.: We arrived four hours ago. I knew that ages ago!
Once Once refers to a state in the past:

e.g.: Once Jim owned a motorbike. (He doesnt own it anymore.)
One day One day can refer to PAST or FUTURE:
e.g.: One day Kathy was walking in the garden when she met Brian.
One day you will be successful computer science engineers!
Now Now refers to an exact moment, or a general state:

e.g.: You have to finish now!
John used to study civil engineering but now hes studying computer science.
Nowadays Nowadays is used when we generalize about the present:
e.g.: Nowadays almost all types of jobs are dependent on computers.

Then Then refers in the past to the following moment

e.g.: We had a pizza in a nice restaurant, and then we went to the cinema.
Afterwards Afterwards can be used in the same as then is used:
e.g.: We had a pizza in a nice restaurant, and afterwards we went to the cinema.
After When after is used there is an object (1) or a gerund (2):

e.g.: (1) After dinner we went to the cinema. After that we went home.
(2) After having dinner went to the cinema. After that we went home.
Later Later means at a later time:
e.g.: Mr. Smith isnt here at the moment. Can you come back later?
Until Until refers to the latest point in a period of time:

e.g.: She waited for Alex until 6.00, and then she left.
Ill be here until the end of December.
By By means at a time before:
e.g.: John studied the whole afternoon, so by 7.00 he was exhausted.
(not exactly at 7.00, but not later than that time.)
At last We use at last when we are pleased that a long wait has ended:
e.g.: At last Jane arrived!
In the end In the end describes the final result:
e.g.: I studied a lot for maths but in the end I failed.
At the end At the end describes a point at the end of something:
e.g.: At the end of the semester well have exams.
On time On time means at the hour which was arranged:

e.g.: The conference started exactly on time.
In time
In Time means with enough time to do something:
e.g.: We arrived in time to have a cup of coffee before the conference started.
Place prepositions
in in and inside
In generally describes things contained by something else.
inside
e.g.: There are some cups in that cupboard.
out We use inside to emphasize the idea of containing.
e.g.: Luckily there was nobody inside the blazing house.
Compare:
Kate is in. (she's at home)
Kate is out. (she's not at home)
Kate is inside. (in the house, not outside in the garden)
There are many expressions with in. This is a selection.
a country My parents are in Canada at the moment.
a city My sister lives in Madrid.
street Jack lives in Garden Avenue.
road She was walking in the road, not on the pavement.
mirror Tony could see his face in the mirror.
hole l crack There was a hole in my shoe.
hand Ellen had a bunch of flowers in one hand.
armchair She sat in an armchair.
country Paul and Mary live in the country, not in the city.
hospital Sally is ill, and is in hospital.
prison Keith stole some money and ended up in prison .

on on
On generally describes a thing on the surface of another thing.
Don't leave your bag on the floor.
Expressions with on.
transport There were few passengers on the plane l bus l train.
chair She sat on a chair.
television What's on television l the radio this evening?
wall Let's hang this picture on that wall.
injuries Tim cut his foot on a piece of glass.
left/right There's a cinema on the left.
side There are small houses on this side of the street.
pavement She was walking in the road, not on the pavement.
at At and in are used to describe a person's position.

At describes position at a point or place.
in
In describes position in a place which has walls (like a building). lt is also used with cities and towns,
to etc.
The difference between at and in is clear in these examples:
We met at the airport. (the place in general)
We met in the airport building. (inside the building)
I'll see you at the cinema. (the place in general)
I'll see you in the cinema. (inside the building)
At and in are used with arrive.
e.g.: We arrived in Prague. (the city) We arrived at Prague Airport. (the place
To is used with verbs of motion.
e.g.: Last night we went to the cinema.
At
Expressions with
There's a caf at the end of the street.
at and to Do you sit at the front or at the back of the class?
John isn't at school. He's at home.
Mr King wasn't at work yesterday.
To
Could you take this letter to the post office?
I sent a parcel to my sister.
above above and over
over above means higher than.

e.g.: You can see the top of the tower above the trees.
over means higher than, but in the same position.
e.g.: The alien spaceship hovered over the building.
It also means across or covering.
e.g.: There was a plastic sheet over the hole in the roof.
There is a footbridge over the motorway.
below below and under

below means lower than.
under
e.g.: From the mountain, I could see the lake below.
under means lower than, but in the same position.
e.g.: I keep my suitcase under my bed.

next to next to and near
near Next to means exactly at the side of

e.g.: Maria sits next to Paula.
Near means close to.

e.g.: Tom's house is near the sports centre.
by beside and by
beside Beside means the same as next to

e.g.: Maria sat beside Paula in the class.
By means the same as near

e.g.: There was a table by the window.
He was standing by the door when his sister arrived.
opposite Opposite means exactly on the other side of a space:

e.g.: There is a caf opposite ISEP.

Adjectives + Prepositions Form and Use
Study these groups of ADJECTIVES AND PREPOSITIONS. Sometimes other prepositions are possible.
nice/ kind/ good/ generous/ mean/ stupid/ silly/ intelligent/ clever/ sensible/ (im)polite/ rude/ (un)reasonable OF
someone (to do something):
E.g.: Thank you. It was very nice / kind of you to help me dealing with this program.
BUT: (to be) nice/ kind/ good/ generous/ mean/ stupid/ silly/ intelligent/ clever/ sensible/ (im)polite/ rude/
(un)reasonable TO someone:
E.g.: My boss has always been very nice / kind to me.
angry/ annoyed/ furious ABOUT something

WITH someone FOR doing something
E.g.: Im really annoyed about my Internet server! Its running too slowly.
Im furious with you, John, for not keeping up with the timetable! I hope youll hurry up; otherwise Ill look for another
web designer.
delighted/ pleased/ satisfied/ disappointed WITH something

E.g.: They are delighted with the incredible tasks their computer is able to accomplish.
surprised/shocked/ amazed/ astonished AT/ BY something

E.g.: My teacher was really surprised at my research work about the History of Computers.
excited/ worried/ upset ABOUT something

E.g.: Some people are worried about what might happen if technological development surpasses human control.
afraid/ frightened/ terrified/ scared OF someone/something

E.g.: People neednt be frightened of technological improvements, but some are.
proud/ ashamed/ jealous/ envious/ suspicious OF someone/something

E.g.: Im very proud of my son! He has just become an engineer in Computer Science.
aware/ conscious OF something

E.g.: Are you conscious of what a hacker can do?
good/ bad/ excellent/ brilliant/ hopeless AT (doing) something

E.g.: A good professional in computing must be brilliant at solving any kind of problems in that area.
impressed BY/ WITH someone/something

E.g.: Im really impressed with/by the Internet world!
famous/ responsible FOR something

E.g.: A hacker was responsible for breaking the codes in our company system and for the loss of thousands of
important files.

different FROM someone/ something

E.g.: An HP-DeskJet 840C printer is very different from an HP Office Jet R45 printer.
similar TO something
E.g.: This monitor is very similar to the one I had before, but it offers a much sharper image.
interested IN something
E.g.: Im interested in knowing more about the new Microsoft products.
capable/ incapable OF something

E.g.: JavaScript is capable of making pages jump, move, and respond to a site visitors input.
full/ short OF something

E.g.: Hes short of money, so he wont be able to renew his software.
tired OF something
E.g.: Im tired of waiting for you to work out the problem in that disk drive; Ill look for another technician.
keen ON something
E.g.: Young people are keen on picking up all kind of music in Internet sites.
crowded WITH (people)

E.g.: The conference room was crowded with experts in computing.

Verbs + Prepositions Form and Use

Study this list of PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
Verbs + Prepositions Examples:

To accuse of He was accused of cheating on the exam.
To advertise for That student wants to advertise for selling his old computer.
To aim at The new educational measures aim at improving the learning/teaching system.
To apologise for (+ing) James apologized for having been rude to his classmate.
To apply for At the end of their degree, students will apply for a job.
To approve of She didnt approve of him working till midnight.
To blame for Sometimes students blame the system for their bad results.
To beg for The baby is begging for his parents attention.
To believe in Adults usually dont believe in fairy tales.
To belong to That book belongs to Joana, not to Miguel.
To borrow from Miguel has borrowed this book from Joana. She lent it to him two weeks ago.
To care for It is very important to care for the environment.
To congratulate on The professor congratulated his students on their results.
To complain about / of He is always complaining about having long classes.
To concentrate on You should concentrate a little more on your work.
To consist of (be made of) Bolognaise sauce consists of minced beef, onion, tomatoes, garlic and seasoning.
To consist in (be based on) The beauty of Porto consists in the life by the Douro river and in the downtown.
To convince about He was trying to convince me about the importance of having another digital camera but I
didnt buy it.
To crash into / against John crashed into his neighbours garage last night. He made quite a damaged!
To depend on Every working machine depends on a power supply to keep on working.
To dream of / about James dreams of having a new and more powerful laptop. He dreamt about it last night.
To fight for There still are many people around the world that have to fight for their freedom.
To happen to Jane happened to have been present when the car crash occurred.
To hear about / of I heard about the launching of Garcia Marquezs new book. I heard of it last on the news.
To hinder from He is hindering his iPod from his younger brother.
To insist on They insisted on offering me a new cellular phone.
To listen to He is listening to music, so he cant hear the phone ringing.
To live on He will live on the memory people have of him..
To look at I love looking at the stars.
To object to I dont object to the adoption of a new book, but I prefer this one.
To pay for He is paying for the mistakes he made in the past.
To refer to You have to refer to Babbages work when writing about the History of computers.
To rely on Not always can you rely on technology.
To search for He is searching for information on network typologies.
To separate from Some people separate their private life completely from their professional activities.

To speak to She doesnt speak to Michael about politics.

To spend on She spent a lot of money on books.
To talk to Im talking to you, please, listen to what Im saying.
To think of / about John was thinking about his last summer holidays in Japan. He is thinking of travelling to
India for the next holidays.
To wait for They have been waiting for their teacher since 2 p.m..
To write to Paul is writing to his mother asking for a new mobile phone.
Study this list of PHRASAL VERBS
Phrasal Verbs Meaning:

To account for To justify
To ask for When you make a request
To back up To save; to make a copy of a file or computer program / To agree with what someone is saying
To be done for To be broken, damaged
To be up / over To end
To break off To interrupt
To bring about To lead to something, to cause something to happen
To bring in To introduce
To carry out To conclude, to accomplish something
To come across To meet or to find unexpectedly
To get over To recover from an illness or problem
To go on To continue
To go up To rise, to ascend
To lay off To fire someone
To make out To understand an idea after considering some evidences
To take on To accept something
To switch off To disconnect
To switch on To connect
To take to To dedicate to doing something
To turn on (a light or the heating)
To turn off (the radio, the TV, the computer / the lights)
To work out To plan, organize
To write out Write in full

Making Comparisons Form and Use
Formation
The regular comparative and superlative forms of descriptive words (adjectives and adverbs) are shown below:
1. Words of one syllable add the ending er (in the comparative) and est (in the superlative).
Examples:
Absolute Comparative Superlative
Adjectives new newer newest
old older oldest
big bigger biggest
Adverbs soon sooner soonest
late later latest
2. Words with three or more syllables are preceded by more and most.
Examples:
Adjectives interesting more interesting most interesting
convenient more convenient most convenient
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Adverbs easily more easily most easily
carefully more carefully more carefully
3. Adjectives with two syllables may be like 1 or 2 above in that they will add the ending er (in the
comparative) and est (in the superlative) if they end in y or ly, -ow, -le and er.
Examples:
-y tiny tinier tiniest
speedy speedier speediest
-ly early earlier earliest
friendly friendlier friendliest
-ow shallow shallower shallowest
narrow narrower narrowest
-er clever cleverer cleverest
4. Most of the remaining two-syllable adjectives take more (in the comparative) and most (in the superlative)
in front of them.
Examples:
careful more careful most careful
careless more careless most careless
boring more boring most boring
awful more awful most awful
complex more complex most complex

5. Some common two-syllable adjectives can have either type of formation.

Examples:
common commoner/ commonest/
more common most common
gentle gentler/ gentlest/
more gentle most gentle
quiet quieter/ quietest/
more quiet most quiet
6. Two-syllable adverbs ending in ly take more and most.

Examples:
careful more careful most careful
careless more careless most careless
boring more boring most boring
awful more awful most awful
complex more complex most complex
7. A small number of adjectives and adverbs have an irregular comparative and superlative form.
Examples:
Adjectives bad worse worst
far further/ farther furthest/ farthest
good better best
many more most
Adverbs badly worse worst
far further/ farther furthest/ farthest
little less least
much more most
well better best
Use in sentences
Comparisons may show equivalence, non-equivalence, the highest degree of something, and parallel increase.
1. Equivalence: the following words/constructions are used to show that things or people are similar in
some way.
as as are similar each
as many as equal to either
as much as is like all
the same as similar/ ly both and
similar to equal/ ly alike
the same compared to/ with
Examples:
1. Here, the term processor is equivalent to the central processing unit.
2. Laptops are as powerful as microcomputers.
3. Some companies have as many computers as employees.
4. Some companies are both disks and conventional filing systems for storing data.

2. Non-equivalence: the following words/constructions are used to compare or contrast things or people
that are separate from each other.
not as as greater than unequal / ly
-er than not as many as unlike
more than not as much as not the same as
fewer than not equal to not all
less than
Examples:
1. Learning to use a computer is not as difficult as learning to program
2. A fax board costs less than a fax machine.
3. Unlike factory-sealed software, pirated versions may contain viruses
4. You can save money with a network because you will need fewer printers.
3. The highest degree: the following words/constructions are used to compare one member of a group with
the whole group (superlative).
the -est the most the least
Examples:
1. This is the most popular package on the market today.
2. BASIC is the least difficult programming language to learn.
3. The best programs are those adapted specifically to your own needs.
4. Parallel increase: the following words/constructions are used to show parallel increase (two
comparatives).
the -er, the more the more , the -er thet -er, the less
Examples:
1. The more memory your computer has, the more data it can store.
2. The bigger your computer system, the less time you spend waiting.
3. The more training you give to your employees, the better they will perform.

Relative Pronouns and Relative Clauses

1. A geek is a computer expert who is extremely intelligent and devoted to his profession.
2. The computer (which / that) you bought has got a large hard disk capacity!
3. Bill Gates, who is the main responsible for the development of Microsofts products, is one of
the richest men in the world.
4. Internet, which is an extraordinary source of information, is used by almost everyone around
the world.
Relative Pronouns:
WHO (subject)
WHOM (object; obligatory after a preposition)
WHICH refers only to things
THAT refers to things and people
WHOSE (possession) refers to both things and people
Defining Relative Clause

It is essential to the meaning of the sentence; it defines the subject.
It is not between commas.
E.g.: The girl who was sitting next to you in the English class is very nice.
Contact Clause:
The relative pronoun may be omitted if it is not the subject of the relative clause:
E.g.: They didnt have the computer program I wanted.
When the preposition is entirely independent from the verb, it always precedes the relative:
E.g.: The speaker asked a question to which I didnt know the answer.
The relative pronoun that can only be used in defining relative clauses instead of who, whom,
which.
A preposition can never be placed before the relative that:
Defining relative clauses occur both in spoken and in written English.
Non-Defining Relative Clause

It gives additional information, which is not necessary to the grammatical sense of the sentence;
It is enclosed by commas;
The relative pronoun cannot be omitted;
The relative pronoun that can never be used;
The preposition governing the relative is usually placed just before the relative and not at the
end:
E.g.: He promised to support my position, for which I was profoundly grateful.
Non-defining relative clauses are rarely used in spoken language, but are quite used in written
English.

Bibliography:
Eastwood, John. 1992. Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford University Press.

Hewings, Martin. 1999. Advanced Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press.
Vince, Michael. 2003. Advanced Language Practice. Macmillan Heinemann.
Vince, Michael. 1998. Intermediate Language Practice. Macmillan Heinemann.

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INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE ENGENHARIA DO PORTO

SUPERIOR TECHNICAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

GRAMMAR SUMMARY | RESUMO DE GRAMTICA

Ana Margarida Barata (ABT) 2006|2007

Present Tenses Form and Use 3

Modals Meaning / Use / Form 12

Passive Voice Use and Form 14

Expressing Time and Place 15

Verbs followed by prepositions Form and Use 21

DEI | LAPR 2 Mdulo Competncias Lingusticas 2 Ana Barata | 2006-2007

Present Tenses Form and Use

USE / MEANING: We use the present simple to describe:

Natural, scientific or permanent truth:

DEI | LAPR 2 Mdulo Competncias Lingusticas 3 Ana Barata | 2006-2007

Verbs ending ie change ie to y.

USE / MEANING: We use the present continuous to describe

Repeated annoying Actions:

Plans for a near future:

DEI | LAPR 2 Mdulo Competncias Lingusticas 4 Ana Barata | 2006-2007

Present Perfect Simple:

Explaining a present situation when an exact time is not mentioned:

Experiences in the past when an exact time is not mentioned.

Other common uses (with time expressions):

yet / already / so far

just is used to refer to a very recent event.

Frequency adverbs: always / often.

DEI | LAPR 2 Mdulo Competncias Lingusticas 5 Ana Barata | 2006-2007

Present Perfect Continuous

It can emphasize that the action is recent.

It can emphasize that the action is temporary.

Time expressions with present perfect continuous

Contrasts with present perfect simple:

DEI | LAPR 2 Mdulo Competncias Lingusticas 6 Ana Barata | 2006-2007

Past Tenses Form and Use

USE / MEANING: We use the Past Simple to describe:

Habitual actions in the past.

Past continuous is used to describe a number of continuing situations, as background description.

DEI | LAPR 2 Mdulo Competncias Lingusticas 7 Ana Barata | 2006-2007

Past Perfect Simple:

FORM: Had + Past Participle (main verb):

With verbs of thinking:

DEI | LAPR 2 Mdulo Competncias Lingusticas 8 Ana Barata | 2006-2007

Future Time Form and Use

Will and Shall

FORM: Will future is formed with the infinitive without to.

Will is also used to express an immediate decision:

USE / MEANING: there are two very similar meanings:

Present Continuous with future meaning

FORM: Be +verb +-ing

DEI | LAPR 2 Mdulo Competncias Lingusticas 9 Ana Barata | 2006-2007

FORM: will or shall +be + verb +-ing

It can also be used to express an assumption on the part of the speaker:

Other ways of referring to the Future

DEI | LAPR 2 Mdulo Competncias Lingusticas 10 Ana Barata | 2006-2007

Is / are to be: this form is used to describe formal arrangements:

Be about to, be on the point of, be due to:

Other future references:

Hope: this can be followed by either the present or future tenses.

Other verbs followed by WILL:

DEI | LAPR 2 Mdulo Competncias Lingusticas 11 Ana Barata | 2006-2007

MODALS MEANING / USE / FORM

MEANING / FUNCTION MODAL AUXILIARY USE: EXAMPLES

Obligation must / have to 1. When explaining that something is necessary:

mustnt (describes something that is You mustnt smoke in a gas station.