Microchim Acta
DOI 10.1007/s00604-015-1609-2
REVIEW ARTICLE
Gold nanoparticle based optical and electrochemical
sensing of dopamine
Norazriena Yusoff 1 & Alagarsamy Pandikumar 1 & Ramasamy Ramaraj 2 &
Hong Ngee Lim 3 & Nay Ming Huang 1
Received: 6 August 2015 / Accepted: 10 August 2015
# Springer-Verlag Wien 2015
Abstract This review (with 110 refs.) gives an overview on the
progress that has been made in the past few years on the use of
gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for use in sensors and analytical
tools for the determination of dopamine (DA). Both AuNPs
and their composites with other organic and inorganic materials
including noble metals are treated. Following an overview on the
clinical significance of DA, we discuss the various analytical
methods that are (a) electrochemiluminescence (ECL); (b) sur-
face enhanced Raman scattering (SERS); (c) colorimetric prob-
ing and visual detection; and (d) the large class of electrochem-
ical sensors. Subsections cover sensors based on plain AuNPs,
bimetallic NPs, AuNP-metal@metal oxide nanocomposites,
AuNP nanocomposites with organic polymers, AuNP nanocom-
posites with carbon nanotubes or with graphene, and finally sen-
sors based on ternary materials containing AuNPs. The review
ends with a conclusion on current challenges of sensors for DA
and an outlook on future trends.
Keywords Dopamine . Gold Nanoparticles .
Electrochemistry . Electrochemiluminescence . Colorimetry .
Surface enhanced Raman scattering
* Alagarsamy Pandikumar
pandikumarinbox@gmail.com
* Nay Ming Huang
huangnayming@um.edu.my
1
Low Dimensional Materials Research Centre, Department of
Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
2
Centre for Photoelectrochemistry, School of Chemistry, Madurai
Kamaraj University, Madurai 625021, India
3
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Introduction
Neurotransmitters are important for a large array of functions
in both the central and the peripheral nervous systems as it
delivers the message in the form of a nerve impulse from the
brain. DA can be produced only in a few, very specific regions
of the brain such as at the substantia nigra and the ventral
tegmental area. An abnormal DA level in the brain cause
several disease conditions, such as pleasurable, rewarding
feelings, and sometimes even euphoria. Depression, stress,
mental exhaustion, fatigue, low sex drive and low motivation
are some of the symptoms of low DA level in human body. A
deficiency of DA in motor area of the brain may lead to mus-
cle rigidity commonly known as Parkinsons disease which
involves uncontrollable muscle tremor. The neurological dis-
orders such as schizophrenia and social anxiety or social pho-
bia associated with the presence of excessive amounts of DA
in human body [1]. Besides that, the disorder of DA in the
prefrontal cortex and frontal lobes of the brain contribute to
attention deficit disorder and decline in neurocognitive func-
tions, especially memory, attention, and problem-solving, re-
spectively. The development of a sensor for the precise and
selective measurement of DA in the presence of potential bio-
molecules interference at the abnormal levels characteristic of
living systems can make a great contribution to disease
diagnosis.
Although many sensor materials reported showed good
potential in detecting neurotransmitters [2], this review will
emphasize on AuNPs and their hybrids with bimetallic,
metal/metal oxide, polymer, carbon nanotubes (CNT), and
graphene. These AuNPs-based composites are used as the
main material for detecting DA in various detection tech-
niques. AuNPs have recently drawn an increasing attention
of many researchers in the field of sensors especially biosen-
sor attributed to its novel chemical, optical and physical
 N. Yusoff et al.

properties. Some of its unique properties are high effective

surface-to-volume ratio, excellent electrical and heat conduc-
tivity and strong absorption in the visible and near infrared
wavelength region (380750 nm). AuNPs also exhibit high
chemical stability and inertness under physiological condi-
tions as well as possesses excellent electrocatalytic properties.
All these properties make AuNPs an attractive material in
multifunctional applications especially in electrochemical
and biological devices. More interestingly, the properties of
AuNPs can be controlled by tuning the shape and size of gold
[3]. Some interesting properties of AuNPs are summarized in
Fig. 1. Being one of the important plasmonic nanoparticles,
AuNPs has shown excellent properties and has been used in a
wide range of practical applications (Fig. 2).
In addition, the capability of AuNPs in tracking the content
of neurotransmitter using a variety of techniques such as ECL,
SERS, colorimetric and electrochemical techniques further
add to the uniqueness of AuNPs. AuNPs has the ability to
form an electric dipole-dipole and coupling interaction be-
tween the localized surface plasmon of the AuNPs and the Fig. 2 Multifunctional applications of AuNPs
surface plasmon wave. Therefore, the SPR gold film helps
to enhance the sensitivity of SPR-based sensor thus lift up extensively been used to fabricate modified electrode for the
AuNPs as an signal amplifier material for SPR [4]. Besides use of electrochemical sensor due to their strong adsorption
that, the strongly localized SPR characteristics owned by ability, high biocompatibility, and great surface area [6]. Be-
AuNPs make it suitable for colorimetric sensor. This is be- sides that, AuNPs also allow efficient mass transfer associated
cause upon the addition of molecules of analyte, the AuNPs to its spherical morphology with smaller size, thus enhanced
are induced to aggregate/dissociate. The process will leads to the sensitivity of the sensor. This article selectively reviews
the changes in color from red to purple-blue (depending on recent advances in DA sensor using four different techniques
their particle size) due to the formation of a new absorption which are ECL, SERS, colorimetric and electrochemical tech-
band at longer wavelengths [5]. Moreover, AuNPs also use as niques. AuNPs-based materials which act as the main subject
the active substrate in SERS sensor for the detection of bio- able to enhance the sensing signal for all four techniques.
molecules due to the high extinction coefficients and strong
local SPR absorption strength possessed by AuNPs. AuNPs is
Methods of detection

Various techniques for detecting DA have been developed as a

result of the rapid development of nanotechnology and each
technique has their own advantages and disadvantages. Along
with the production of variety of techniques for the detection
of DA, various materials have also been investigated for its
ability to detect DA such as metal [7, 8], metal oxide [9, 10]
and polymer [11]. Compared with the other materials, metal
especially AuNPs have emerged as promising new material
with higher potential for DA sensor due to their unique
properties.

Electrochemiluminescence (ECL)

Fig. 1 Some of the properties owned by AuNPs
Earlier reports show that the ECL assays has been proven to
be one of the powerful device which been used for the sensi-
tive detection of a wide variety of analytes including DA [12].
Basically there are three system of ECL that extensively used
for the detection of DA that are; (1) tris(2,2-bipyridyl)
Gold nanoparticle based sensor platform for dopamine
ruthenium(II) (Ru(bpy)3 2+) [13] (2) quantum dots (QDs) [14],
(3) peroxydisulfate systems [15]. Although Ru(bpy)32+-based
ECL assays had extensively used for detection of DA, how-
ever, it need a high-cost to produced due to the consumption
of the expensive reagent and extra pump to deliver the reagent
to the electrochemical cell continuously. Moreover,
Ru(bpy)32+ can only be use once per reaction because it is
easily polluted with the analytes from the solution. Besides
that, QDs-based ECL assays is also not a practical method as
QDs such as cadmium telluride (CdTe) and cadmium sulphide
(CdS) are not stable enough over time, has inherent toxicity
and lower ECL signals. In addition, it requires a high negative
potential in order to produce ECL. This condition leads to
some unforeseen reaction which makes it unfavorable to its
application. In the case of peroxydisulfate-based ECL assays,
this type of sensor suffers from the weak ECL emission which
was not adequate for sensitive analytical application. Due to
these drawbacks, the applications of the above three kinds of
ECL systems in bioassay is limited.
Recent trend in the development of probes for biomole-
cules ECL assays has been reported on the use of
n a n o m a t e r i a l s e s p e c i a l ly A u N P s to a m p l i f y t h e
peroxydisulfate ECL intensity for biomolecules detection.
For example, Yan and co-workers have used the reduced
graphene oxide (RGO) to incorporate with AuNPs in order
to amplify the ECL signal for the development of sensitive
and selective peroxydisulfate ECL assays specifically for DA
determination [15]. Due to the synergistic amplification of
AuNPs and RGO, the ECL intensity of peroxydisulfate solu-
tion was increased and the onset potential also decreased. The
ECL intensity was further enhanced upon injecting DA into
the electrolyte which indicates that the presence of DA facil-
itates the electrochemical reduction of S2O82 hence an ECL
assays for DA detection can be constructed. The development
of ECL DA assays demonstrated a wide linear response of
0.0240 M with a detection limit of 6.7 nM (S/N=3). The
recoveries of the spikes of DA ranged between 97.0 and
101.5 % showed by this assays when tested with human plas-
ma illustrating the practical application of the DA biosensor in
clinical analysis. Yuan et al. have developed an
peroxydisulfate-based ECL assays based on reduced graphene
oxide/multiwall carbon nanotubes/gold nanoparticles (rGO/
MWCNTs/AuNPs) hybrid modified glassy carbon electrode
(GCE) to determine DA [16]. The selection of MWCNTs as
one of the element in the formation of hybrid material is due to
its unique physical, electrical and catalytic properties as well
as its ability to enhance the ECL signal. The addition of DA
resulted in the enhancement of ECL signal intensity of
peroxydisulfate solution, thus improve the sensitivity of the
sensor for the determination of DA. These happen due to the
formation of a charge transfer complex arises from the -
interaction between phenyl structure of DA and rGO/
MWCNTs which make the electron transfer more feasible.
The recovery of ECL signal by spiked analyte in human urine
and serum samples ranged from 94 to 106 % attesting the
validity of the developed method.
Interestingly, label-free ECL assays have been developed
using AuNPs as the luminophores in ECL systems due to its
simplicity, time-saving, and low-cost. AuNPs has been fre-
quently used as the luminophores due to their unique features
including size-dependent optical, electronic, and electrochem-
ical properties as well as ease of synthesis, surface function-
alities and low toxicity. Li and co-workers reported the fabri-
cation of DA sensor by ECL technique using the bovine serum
albumin (BSA)-stabilized Au nanoclusters (AuNCs) modified
ITO electrode [17]. The results show that the AuNCs are a
promising material for ECL investigations as the ECL signal
of the AuNCs modified ITO electrode is about 5 times higher
than that of bare ITO. This AuNCs/ITO-based ECL assays
also showed an acceptable selectivity and sensitivity for DA
detection with a linear range of 2.5 to 47.5 M. The assembly
of AuNCs is facilitated by the presence of BSA layer on its
surrounding. The new combined materials provided abundant
functionalities such as carboxyl and amino groups that facili-
tate the immobilization of AuNCs onto hydroxylated indium
tin oxide (ITO) electrodes and in the same time stabilized the
AuNCs. They reported the enhancement of ECL signal when
DA is injected into the electrolyte solution due to the forma-
tion of a charge transfer complex between DA and ITO, which
accelerate the electron injection into the conduction-band of
ITO. The electron will then be transferred to the LUMO of
AuNCs which then generates the Au25* with the emission of
light upon reacting with SO 4 radicals produced by
electroreduction of S2O82 coreactant. The possible ECL
mechanism is as follows [17]:
IT O
Au25 Au

25 1
S 2 O2 e S 2 O
2 2
8 8
S 2 O
2 2

8 S04 SO4 3
Au

*
25 SO4 Au25 SO4
2
4
Au*25 Au*25 hv 5
After modification with AuNPs, the ECL technique shows
a good improvement with high sensitivity and has a great
potential for biological, clinical and environmental applica-
tions. The results of the determination of DA using the ECL
technique based on AuNPs material are compared in Table 1.
Surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)
In the current development of biosensor, SERS technique has
attracted much attention due to its ultrahigh sensitivity and
amenability to molecular fingerprinting. This technique of-
fered several advantages over other techniques such as faster
 N. Yusoff et al.

gold nanoclusters/indium tin oxide; AuNPRGO/GCE = Gold nanoparticles-reduced graphene oxide/glassy carbon electrode; AuNF@g-C3N4PANI/GCE = gold nanoflower@graphitic carbon nitride
Ref.

rGO/MWCNTs/AuNPs/GCE = reduced graphene oxide/multiwall carbon nanotubes/gold nanoparticles/glassy carbon electrode; BSA-stabilized Au nanoclusters/ITO = bovine serum albumin-stabilized
[16]

[17]

[15]

[18]
and simple as it requires minimum sample preparation, high
sensitivity. The SERS technique uses the idea that the mol-

injection, human serum &

ecules illuminated by fixed-frequency light exhibit inelastic

Dopamine hydrochloride

Dopamine hydrochloride
scattering closely related to the vibrational and rotational
modes excited in the molecules. These molecules when ir-
radiated with different frequencies light generate a specific

Human plasma
Real sample

frequency pattern where this spectrum information is used

injection
urine as a fingerprint for detecting and identifying specific sub-
stances. The plasmon phenomenon will be generated on the
metal surface induced by laser light and this phenomenon
UA, AA, epinephrine, norepinephrine,

allowing us to collect rare information that cannot be obtain-

UA, AA, Na+, K+, Cl, Mg2+, NO3

tyrosine, thyroxine and a series of

ed from a general Raman signal. Therefore, this technique

K+, Mg2+, Ca2+,Cl and SO42

has a large potential for the detection of various chemical

and biological species. However, the scattering properties of
most substances are normally weak. By combining these
ions such as Na+,

substances with metal surface such as gold and silver helps

to enhance the Raman signal that arise from the effects of
Interferences

electromagnetic field and chemical enhancement. In order to

UA, AA
UA, AA

acts as a sensor, the frequency signal must be amplified, thus

a metallic surface is used to amplify the frequency signal
generated by the target molecules. The intensity of Raman
5 nM - 1.6 M

will increase when a high concentration of target analyte is

2.547.5 M

0.0240 M
Linear range

0.270 M

used or located close to a metallic surface. Figure 3 shows

Comparison of analytical performance of various AuNPs and its composites based ECL sensing of DA

the working principle of SERS.

In general, SERS sensor can be built up based on two
principles that are intrinsic or extrinsic (Fig. 4). The intrinsic
0.067 M

detection can be divided into two which are direct and indi-
detection
Limit of

6.7 nM

1.7 nM

rect intrinsic detection. For direct intrinsic detection, the

NA

Raman spectrum of the biomolecule that inherent upon di-

rectly applying the analyte to the nanostructured surfaces
1.0 to 1.29 V

can be directly measured to identify the specimen. Differing

2.0 to 1.5 V
2.0 to 0 V

0 to 1.6 V

from direct intrinsic detection, the indirect intrinsic detection

Potential
window

requires antibodies, aptamers or related molecules

immobilized onto nanostructured surfaces in order to cap-
ture and aid specificity of detection. The identification of the
hexamethylenetetramine (HMTA)
Low temperature chemical method

species can be done by comparing the differences of Raman

spectra before and after capture of the specimen. In order to
In-situ chemical reaction with

In situ deposition oxidative

polyethyleneimine (PEI)

generate a signal for detection, a Raman reporter molecule is

One step synthesis with

polymer nanosheetpolyaniline/glassy carbon electrode

required in the extrinsic detection. In most cases, AuNPs is

Preparation method

often used as the SERS-active substrate for immobilization

polymerization
rGO/MWCNTs/AuNPs/GCE

AuNF@g-C3N4PANI/
Au NPsRGO/GCE
nanoclusters/ITO
BSA-stabilized Au
Material
Table 1

GCE

Fig. 3 The general operation of SERS sensor

Gold nanoparticle based sensor platform for dopamine
Fig. 4 Different SERS detection configurations: (a) Direct intrinsic
detection; (b) indirect intrinsic detection; and (c) extrinsic detection [19]
of Raman reporter molecule due to the SERS properties
owned by AuNPs [20]. The use of AuNPs material for the
development of SERS substrate provides a better performing,
more sensitive and cost-effective substrates for SERS applica-
tions especially in sensor application. Jeung-Hee An et al.
have fabricated a substrate based on AuNPs-immobilized
glass surface for the detection of DA using SERS [21]. The
preparation of this substrate involves the modification of the
glass by self-assembly of amine-terminated silane, followed
by the deposition of AuNPs before undergo functionalization
by anti-DA or DA. The detection of DA by SERS happens
upon the antigen-DA captured by the antibody-assembled Au
substrate and they found that the non-optimized detection lim-
it for anti-dopamine surface antigen was as low as 1 ng/ml.
Therefore, the SERS-based immunosensor can be a potential
tool for the detection neurotransmitters.
Various strategies have been developed to magnify the Ra-
man signals of the probe molecules and one of it is by using
bimetallic NPs with a coreshell structure as the as SERS-
active substrates. A core-shell complex is formed by coating
this structure with another layer of dielectrics such as SiO2,
TiO2, or a polymer, in which the outer-shell may be decorated
with capture molecules such as antibodies. Thus, specimens
may be captured and detected via a sandwich structure [19].
Yanru Bu et al. employed a SERS sensor based on
AgcoreAushell NPs active substrate to obtain ultrasensitive
DA detection [22]. They found that by combining these two
materials, the SERS intensity become stronger and the SERS
sensitivity become higher due to the existence of Ag and gold,
respectively. Interestingly, their research have proved that the
DA concentration have a significant effect on the optical prop-
erties of AgcoreAushell NPs as the DA can induced the aggre-
gation of AuNPs to happen. Upon the addition of DA the SPR
state of AuNPs adsorbed with amino group in DA will
changed resulted in the red-shifted of the primary absorption
peak of AuNPs. A secondary absorption peak appeared at
longer wavelengths when further increase of DA concentra-
tions indicates the formation of aggregated AuNPs due to the
molecular bridging effects of DA molecules. The Raman in-
tensity also shows a significant increase with the increase of
DA concentration, therefore AuNPs-based SERS sensor
exhibiting more sensitive and stronger SERS detection for
DA.
In the development of sensitive SERS active substrate, oth-
er reports show that the sensitivity of the SERS substrate can
be improved by using a chitosan-gold nanocomposite as re-
ported by Jae-Wook Lim et al. [23]. They reported that the
intensity of Raman band near 1382 cm1 field increased with
the increased of DA concentration from 1 mM to 10 mM
which indicate that the substrate can be used to detect DA
using SERS method with high sensitivity. In the other ap-
proach, they also fabricate an optical fiber-based SERS sub-
strate which can detect DA [24]. In the first step, the chitosan
nanoparticles were anchored on the surface of optical fiber by
the functionalization of combined APTMS and glutaralde-
hyde ligands before depositing AuNPs on the surface via elec-
troless plating method. It was experimentally proved that the
combination of optical fiber with chitosan-AuNPs as SERS
substrates can amplify the Raman intensity of DA components
at low concentrations and linearly increase with the increase in
DA concentration. Hence, this optical fiber-based SERS sub-
strate can be a utilized as a biosensor that senses the concen-
tration of DA, as they offer high sensitivity and it also allows
the applications for in situ and long-distance SERS detections.
Some of the researches on the SERS application for the detec-
tion of DA using AuNPs based materials as a probe were
listed in Table 2.
Colorimetric probe
Basically, the colorimetric sensing involves the measurement
of the change in light absorption which is determined spectro-
scopically or directly observed by bare eyes. In the colorimet-
ric sensing, an indicator that changes its color upon interaction
with the analytes is required to produce optical signals where
the observed optical signal is correlated with the concentration
of target compounds. The most common smart material used
as scaffolds to create a colorimetric sensing system for various
substances is AuNPs. This is due to the high extinction coef-
ficient which is 3 to 5 orders of magnitude higher than those of
organic dye molecules and unique interparticle distance-
dependent optical properties owned by AuNPs. Moreover,
 N. Yusoff et al.

AuNPs/Dopamine = gold nanoparticles/dopamine; AgcoreAushell = silver-gold nanoparticles; CGN-Dopamine = Chitosan-Gold Nanoshell-dopamine; Flower-like Au/ITO = flower-like gold nanostructure/
Ref.

[20]

[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
the longitudinal SPR band of AuNPs is very sensitive to
changes in the local environment, including solvent, substrate,

living HeLa and normal human

and adsorbate and this shifting are easy to observe and
analyze.

liver (HL-7702) cells

Typically, the changes in color of AuNPs occur due to the
aggregation or de- aggregation process. In general, AuNPs
possess an optical absorption peak around 520 nm due to the
Real sample

SPR which exhibits a wine-red color. Upon aggregation, a

new absorption band at longer wavelengths (~650 nm) was
formed as a result of shifting of SPR towards longer wave-




lengths. It also indicates the increase of particle size and the
color embodies a visible change from red to purple even blue.
Interferences

One of the advantages of colorimetric sensor is that this tech-

nique does not require any sophisticated equipment for anal-
ysis, therefore the cost for build up this sensor can be signif-

icantly reduced.
Linear range

1 10 mM
1 10 mM

In 2009, Zhang et al. has developed a new colorimetric

strategy for detection of DA based on AuNPs probe and this
NA

assays exhibits excellent selectivity for DA over excess AA

[26]. Based on the DA detection method, the amine group of

DA is absorbed onto the surface of colloidal gold via
Limit of detection

chemisorptions-type interactions. Next, the aggregation of

Comparison of analytical performance of various AuNPs and its composites based SERS sensing of DA

AuNPs has occurred induced by the H-bonding interactions

<104 M

between neighboring DAs hydroxyl group (OH) which

NA

NA
NA
NA

sparks a color changes of AuNPs from red to blue (or purple).

In order to induce the aggregation of AuNPs, they explored
1270, 1378 & 1480 cm1

the interactions between DA and AuNPs in the absence or

1270,1335 & 1480 cm1

presence of Cu2+. The results of this study indicated that the

1480 & 1590 cm1

speed of aggregation was faster and degree of aggregation was

serious stronger in the presence of Cu2+ because DA can bind
Raman band

1382 cm1
1348 cm1

Cu2+ by coordination with its hydroxyl group (OH). Hence

the presence of Cu2+ increases the sensitivity of the AuNPs
colorimetric assays for determination of DA. The AuNPs
based colorimetric assay reported by H. Su [27] enabled sen-
Template-free doublepotential method

sitive determination of DA. The absorption ratio linearly in-

creased with the increasing concentration of DA (detection
limit of 2107 M) in the presence of Cu2+. This method
Two-step chemical reduction

exhibits excellent selectivity for DA over other -amino acids,

Electroless plating method
Citrate reduction method

glutathione, glucose, AA and UA due to the presence of Cu2+

Preparation method

ions which acts as the selective discriminator and linker for

DA detection. Instead of using Cu2+ to induce the aggregation
Ultrasonication

of AuNPs, melamine can be another good choice for the same

purpose. Research done by Chen et al. has proven that the
reaction of AuNPs with the free exocyclic amines of mela-
mine leads to aggregation of AuNPs. The presence of DA can
be noticed by reverse color change from blue to red due to the
Chitosan-gold nanoparticles

separation of aggregated melamine-induced AuNPs by

melamine-DA conjugate through the strong hydrogen bond-
Flower-like Au/ITO
Au NPs/Dopamine

ing interaction [28, 29].

indium tin oxide
CGN-Dopamine
Agcore/Aushell

There is a number of AuNPs-based colorimetric assays

where surface modification of AuNPs was applied to improve
Material
Table 2

the sensitivity of detecting DA. This principle promotes spe-

cific interactions between receptors and analytes. Liu and co-
Gold nanoparticle based sensor platform for dopamine
workers used dithiobis(succinimidylpropionate) (DSP) to
modify the surface of AuNPs and used it to fabricate the
probes for DA detection while Fe3+ ions are use as the
cross-linkers [30]. This study shows that the presence of
DSP on the surface of AuNPs helps to assemble more DA
molecules onto the surface of DSP-AuNPs due to the amine
coupling reaction between the amino groups of DA and acti-
vated carboxyl groups of DSP. The presence of Fe3+ that acts
as the cross-linkers will induce the aggregation and color
change of DSP-AuNPs due to the binding with DA via cate-
chol-Fe3+ interaction resulted in the formation of Fe(DA)n
complexes. These resultant colorful DA-Fe3+ complexes dis-
play an intense absorption bands in the visible and near-
infrared regions which can be observed with the bare eyes.
Wang et al. used dithiobis(sulfosuccinimidylpropionate)
(DTSSP) to modified the surface of AuNPs and these
modified-AuNPs were connected with Fe3O4 by DA to form
a sandwich structure of Fe3O4-DA-DTSSP-AuNPs [31]. The
color fading in the DTSSP-AuNPs suspension can be ob-
served due to the separation of DA-anchored DTSSP-AuNPs
by Fe3O4 through the interaction of catechol and iron. The
colorimetric assay based on this principle is believed to
show higher sensitive because Fe3O4 have excellent sep-
aration ability and AuNPs have high extinction
coefficient.
Most DA assays are based on aggregation of AuNPs but
there are others based on non-aggregation. For example, Liu
et al. [32] have developed a non-aggregation assay that is
based on the formation of Au/Ag core/shell nanorods (Au-
AgNRs) after the reaction of DA and Ag+ in a solution con-
taining gold nanorods and Ag(I) ions. This reaction will cause
the color change of the solution due to the changing in dielec-
tric function and longitudinal plasmon absorption band to blue
shift. The assay without surface modification of AuNPs pro-
vides a new option and thought in constructing a simple, rapid,
accurate, sensitive and selective colorimetric sensor. Previous
reported on the AuNPs based colorimetric assays for the de-
tection of DA can be referred in Table 3.
Despite the simplicity showed by colorimetric technique
for detecting DA, there are few drawbacks that restrict their
application in real sample analysis. One of the obstacle is the
time-dependent color change of the suspension resulted from
the non-directive aggregation of NPs that formed an unstable
solution with larger particle size and reduced surface repelling
force. This would lead to the imprecise determination of the
target, hence the results is unreliable. Second obstacle is the
large aggregate NPs which reduce the detection sensitivity and
stability. Previous research have indicated that a molar excess
of the target molecule over the NPs is necessary to achieve a
detectable colorimetric shift [38]. In order to overcome the
issues of sensitivity and stability of colorimetric assays, a
small NPs (d=1020 nm) have been commonly used as one
of the solution to these problems.
Electrochemical sensors using plain AuNPs
DA is an electro active molecule and hence can be detected
electrochemically; therefore electrochemical technique is suit-
able to detect DA. One of the advantages of electrochemical
sensor is that it has an excellent repeatability and accuracy as
well as a wide linear response range with low detection limits
and real time measurements. Hence, electrochemical sensor
has been actively introduced in the biosensor due to its low
cost and exhibits higher level of sensitivity and selectivity.
Figure 5 displays the schematic diagram of main components
involved in operating electrochemical biosensor.
The unique properties possessed by AuNPs make it suit-
able to fabricate modified electrodes for constructing DA as-
says. In order to enhance the sensitivity, selectivity and repro-
ducibility towards DA determination, various modified elec-
trodes elaborated with gold-based nanocomposites have been
fabricated. AuNPs, a material having a size in nanometer
range, are proven to exhibit exciting properties which is valu-
able in the biosensor field compared to it bulk counterpart. In
2002, Retna Raj and co-workers have fabricated a AuNPs
modified gold electrode for the detection of DA for the first
time [40]. For the purpose of enhancing the sensing perfor-
mance especially increasing its selectivity and reproducibility,
they have used the self-assembled monolayers technique
(SAM) to immobilized AuNPs on an amine-terminated mono-
layer of cystamine (CYST) on a polycrystalline gold elec-
trode. This CYST monolayer/AuNPs modified Au electrode
shows a well separation between the voltammetry signals of
AA and DA associated to the existence of negatively charged
SAM which has modifying the surface of electrode in order to
differentiate DA from AA [41]. The negatively charged SAM
act as a selective reagent which selective to the oppositely
charged analyte, thus helps to separate the voltammetry sig-
nals of DA and AA. Besides that, this modified electrode also
offers advantages of excellent sensitivity with a low detection
limit of 0.22 M (S/N = 3) and sensitivity of 4.15
102 A M1.
Recently, the molecularly imprinted technique has been
used to fabricate a sensitive DA assays based on AuNPs ma-
terial. Xue et al. reported the fabrication of a conductive film
of AuNPs doped molecular imprinted polymers (AuNPs/
MIES) for the detection of trace DA in human serum [42].
The AuNPs was first been functionalized using p-
aminobenzenethiol (p-ATP) before introduced to modified
gold electrode. An electropolymerization technique was used
to construct the AuNPs/MIES using DA as template mole-
cules, functionalized AuNPs as functional monomers and p-
ATP as cross-linkers. Figure 6 shows the fabrication process
of AuNPs/MIES. One advantage of AuNPs/MIP modified
electrode is excellent electrochemical properties, such as se-
lectivity, conductivity, electrocatalytic activity and stability.
This is proven by the wide linear range from 0.02 to
Table 3 Comparison among different colorimetric sensing of DA using different AuNPs based materials

Material Preparation method Response peak Limit of detection Linear range Interferences Real sample Ref.

Fe3O4-DA-DTSSP- Trisodium citrate reduction 520 nm 10 nM dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, glutamic acid, [31]
AuNPs method norepinephrine, tyrosine
DAmelamineAuNPs Citrate-mediated reduction 530 nm 30 nM 300 nM - 10 mM Tyramine, phenethylamine Urine [29]
of HAuCl4
GNPs induced by Cu2+ Stirring 525 & 650 nm 200 nM 500 nM 10 M UA, AA, -amino acids, glutathione, Human serum [33]
glucose,
DSP-AuNPs induced by Trisodium citrate reduction 520 & 650 nm 2 nM UA, AA, dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid, artificial cerebrospinal [30]
Fe3+ method epinephrine, glutamic acid, norepinephrine, fluid (aCSF)
tyrosine, catechol, epinephrine,
AuNPs induced by Cu2+ Citrate reduction method 520 & 670 nm 30 nM 3.3108 - 1.0107 UA, AA, serotonin, Mg2+, Ba2+, Ca2+, Al3+, [26]
Ni2+, Ag+, Hg2+, Pb2+, Cu2+
DMAPAuNPs Core-etching process 415 & 520 nm 5 nM 10105 n AA, homovanillic acid, catechol, glutathione [34]
AHMT-AuNPs Citrate-mediated reduction 520 & 650 nm 70 nM 0.21.1 M histidine, tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, Human serum & urine [35]
lysine, catechol, glutamic acid, acrobatic acid,
glucose, fructose, glutathione, 2,3,4-
trihydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid, ferulic acid,
UA, urea, histamine, serotonin, catechol,
epinephrine, isoprenaline, norepinephrine
AuNRsAg+ Silver ion-assisted seed 524 & 620 nm 47 nM 0.212 M K+, Na+, Ca2+, Cl, AA, citric acid, cysteine, Human serum [32]
mediated method aspartic acid, glutamic acid, lysine, glucose
AuNPs Salt-induced aggregation 524 & 660 nm 360 nM 0.545.4 M 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine, catechol, epinephrine, [36]
3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, homovanillic
acid, AA
AuNPs induced by MA Citrate-mediated 530 nm 33 nM 33 nM 3.33 mM adrenaline, tyramine and phenethylamine Human serum [37]
reduction in human serum

Fe3O4-DA-DTSSP-AuNPs = iron oxide-dopamine- dithiobis(sulfosuccinimidylpropionate)-gold nanoparticles; GNPs = gold nanoparticles; DSP-AuNPs = dithiobis(succinimidylpropionate)-gold nano-
particles; DMAPAuNPs = 4-(dimethylamino) pyridine-gold nanoparticles; AHMT-AuNPs = 4-amino-3-hydrazino-5-mercapto-1,2,4-triazol- gold nanoparticles; AuNRsAg+ = gold nanorods-silver
ions; AuNPs induced by MA = gold nanoparticles induced by melamine
N. Yusoff et al.
Gold nanoparticle based sensor platform for dopamine
Fig. 5 Main components
involved in operating
electrochemical biosensor [39]
0.56 M with a detection limit of 7.8 nM (S/N=3) which has
been achieved after the oxidation of DA at the modified elec-
trode. Moreover, it also exhibits a recoveries in a range be-
tween 96.7 and 104.9 % with RSD < 4.1 % after been
employed for detecting DA in human serums.
Besides using AuNPs modified Au/GC electrode, AuNPs
modified indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode also have been
widely used for the fabrication of electrochemical DA assays.
This type of electrode contributes prominent characteristics
such as optically transparent and possesses high conductivity
with low background current. Goyal et al. described an
electrochemical biosensor using AuNPs decorated ITO
platforms for highly sensitive detection of DA in DA
hydrochloride injection, human serum and urine [43].
A lower detection limit of 0.5 nM (S/N=3) and wide
Fig. 6 Schematic representation for the preparation of the AuNPs/MIES [42]
linear range of 1 nM to 5104 M was achieved with
an increase in their oxidation peak currents and lower in
their oxidation peak potentials. The result attributed to
the ability of AuNPs/ITO electrode to accelerate the rate of
electron transfer thus increase the electrocatalytic activity.
AuNPs modified ITO electrode have also been used by
Aldana-Gonzlez and co-workers who have developed a sim-
ple method for the modification of ITO electrode with AuNPs
[44]. This AuNPs/ITO electrode was employed for the direct
electrochemical detection of DA which was carried out by
means of DPV. The electrode perform a detection limit of
34.5 M (S/N=3) and a linear range of 10 to 900 M in the
presence of AA and UA. Table 4 shows the analytical param-
eters reported for different AuNPs modified electrodes to-
wards DA quantification.
Table 4 Analytical parameters reported for different Au and its nanocomposite modified electrodes towards DA quantification

Material Preparation method Detection Working Limit of Linear Interferences Real sample Ref.
method potential detection range

Au/ATP/ABA (SAM)/GCE Self-assembly of AuNPs on DPV 0.42 V 9.2 M 15135 M AA DA hydrochloride injection [45]
sulfhydryl-terminated monolayer (vs. Ag/AgCl)
Cyst(SAM)/nano-Au Nano-Au self-assembly SWV 0.2 V 0.22 M NA AA [40]
(vs. Ag/AgCl)
nano-Au/CA/GCE Self-assembly of AuNPs on DPV 0.175 V 4 nM 10 nM-25 M AA DA hydrochloride injection [46]
cysteamine film (vs. SCE)
GNP/Ch/GCE Electrodeposition DPV 0.23 V 0.12 M 0.280 M AA, UA DA hydrochloride injection [47]
(vs. SCE)
Pectin-AuNP/GCE Electrodeposition CA 0.2 V 6.1 nM 20900 nM AA, UA, arterenol, histidine, DA hydrochloride injection [48]
(vs. Ag/AgCl) tyrosine
GNs/HDT/OT (SAM)/Au Self-assembly of AuNPs DPV 0.53 V 90 M 0.21.2 mM AA [49]
(vs. SCE)
Au-DT/MOA(SAM)/Au Self-assembled monolayer CA 0.15 V 20 nM 0.015 M UA Urine [50]
(vs. Ag/AgCl)
SiO2/MPTS/Au Solgel method SWV 0.494 0.438 M 0.220 M AA, UA [51]
(vs. SCE)
GS/Au25/GCE Solgel method CV 0.34 V 0.3 M 0.53249.2 M AA [52]
(vs. Ag/AgCl)
ITO/AuNPs Immersion method (in poly-L- DPV 0.78 V 34.5 M 10900 M AA, UA [44]
Lysine solution) (vs. Ag/AgCl)
Au/ITO Seed-mediated method SWV 0.22 V 0.5 nM 1 nM- 500 M AA, serotonin DA hydrochloride injection, [43]
(vs. Ag/AgCl) Human serum & Urine
Aunanofilm/Au The oxidization at a high potential DPV 0.22 V 1.5 M 1.527.5 M AA [53]
and the reduction by glucose (vs. SCE)
AuNPs/MIES Electropolymerization method in the CA 0.16 V 7.8 nM 0.020.56 M AA, UA Human serum [42]
presence of DA and p- (vs. SCE)
aminobenzenethiol (p-ATP)
DAR/Au-Si Electrodeposition from sulfite-based DPV 0.2 V 1 M 112 M AA [54]
Au(I) electrolytes (vs. Ag/AgCl)
GNR/GCE Anodic aluminum oxide template SWV 0.15 V 5.5 nM 10100 nM AA [55]
technique (vs. SCE)
NPG/GCE Selective dissolution (dealloying) DPV 0.25 V 17 nM 0.21 M AA [56]
of Ag from Ag/Au alloys (vs. SCE)
NPGF/Au Multicyclic electrochemical SWV 0.15 V 1 nM NA AA [57]
alloying/dealloying (vs. SCE)
AuNW/PET Direct current electrochemical CA 0.2 V 26 nM 0.2600 M AA, UA, citric acid [8]
depositions (vs. Ag/AgCl)
Pt/Au/GCE Electrochemical deposition DPV 0.35 V NA 0.0240.384 mM AA, UA DA hydrochloride injection [49]
(vs. Ag/AgCl)
Pd/Au/GCE Electrochemical fabrication DPV 0.15 V NA 0.56.95 M UA, epinephrine [50]
(Ionic liquid assisted) (vs. Ag/AgCl)
N. Yusoff et al.
Gold nanoparticle based sensor platform for dopamine

tionalized silica/Gold nanoparticles electrode; GS/Au25/GCE = Glutathione/Gold nanoparticles/Glassy carbon electrode; ITO/AuNPs = Indium tin oxide/Gold nanoparticles; Au/ITO = Gold nanoparticles/
Indium tin oxide; Aunanofilm/Au = Gold nanofilm/Gold electrode; AuNPs/MIES = Gold nanoparticles/Molecularly imprinted polymers electrode; DAR/Au-Si = Dendritic gold rod/Silicon wafer; GNR/
monolayer)/Gold electrode; Au-DT/MOA(SAM)/Au; Gold nanodendrite/8-mercaptooctanoic acid (self-assembled monolayer)/Gold electrode; SiO2/MPTS/Au/CPE = 3 - mercaptopropyl - thiol func-

GCE = Gold nanorods/Glassy carbon electrode; NPG/GCE = Nanoporous gold/Glassy carbon electrode; NPGF/Au = Nanoporous gold film/Gold electrode; AuNW/PET = Gold nanowires/ polyethylene
Ref.

er)/Gold nanoparticles electrode; nano-Au/CA(SAM)/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Cysteamine (self assembles monolayer)/Glassy carbon electrode; GNP/Ch/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Choline/Glassy
Au/ATP/ABA(SAM)/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/aminothiophenol/Aminobenzoic acid (self-assembled monolayer)/Glassy carbon electrode; Cyst(SAM)/nano-Au = Cystamine (self-assembled monolay-

carbon electrode; Pectin-AuNP/GCE = Pectin-stabilized gold nanoparticle/Glassy carbon electrode; GNs/HDT/OT(SAM)/Au = Gold nanoparticles/1,6-Hexanedithiol/1-octanethiol (self-assembled
[58]

[59]
Electrochemical sensors using bimetallic nanoparticles

It was reported before that the properties of the monometallic

particles can be enhanced by conjugating two different metals

DA hydrochloride
to forming bimetallic nanoparticles especially in its catalytic,
optical and electrical properties [60, 61]. In 2007, Thiagarajan
Real sample

injection and co-workers fabricate an electrochemical sensor based on

PtAu hybrid film modified electrode with additive L-cysteine
for the simultaneous determination of DA, AA and UA [62].

Figure 7 illustrate the electron mediating properties for the

Na+, K+, NH4+, Cl, NO3, CH3COO,

simultaneous electrocatalytic oxidation of DA, AA and UA

by PtAu hybrid film modified electrode with their voltamme-
Ca2+, Mg2+, uric acid, glucose,
CO32, AA, acetaminophen

glycine, sodium citrate, AA

try signal presented by CVand DPV. Three well-defined peaks

terephthalate; Pt/Au/GCE = Platinum/Gold nanoparticles/Glassy carbon electrode; Pd/Au/GCE = Palladium/Gold nanoparticles/Glassy carbon electrode of AA, DA and UA were observed in the presence of different
concentration of these ternary analytes indicate the ability of
PtAu hybrid film modified electrode to detect DA, AA and
Interferences

UA simultaneously. This modified electrode was successfully

applied in the real samples analysis where it shows 94.5 to
105 % recovery in DA hydrochloride injection and 95.16 to
102 % recovery in human urine. The excellent sensing perfor-
mance shown by PtAu hybrid film modified electrode associ-
4.0298 M

ated to their high catalytic activity results from alloying of

1150 M

gold with Pt nanoparticles. The combination of gold and Pt

Linear
range

nanoparticles facilitate the electron transfer and increase the

surface areas with enhanced mass transport characteristics
hence improved their individual catalytic properties.
detection

0.12 M
Limit of

0.2 M

In another case, a novel electrode system, based on AuNPs

conjugated with palladium (Pd) nanoparticles has been devel-
oped by Tsai et al. [63]. The AuNPs hybridized with Pd nano-
(vs. Ag/AgCl)

(vs. Ag/AgCl)

particles was achieved by using ionic liquid assisted synthesis

Working
potential

method before being deposited on the GC electrode via elec-

0.18 V

0.16 V

trodeposition technique for the detection of DA. The simulta-

neous determination of DA and UA at the PdAu modified
Detection

electrode investigated by DPV exhibited a wide linear range

method

from 0.5 to 6.95 M and 0.25 to 3.47 M, respectively. The

DPV

DPV

size of gold and Pd in the nanoscale range has contributed to

the increase in catalytic activity for the oxidation of DA. This
is due to increasing of surface active site, thus improving their
sensing performance.
Preparation method

Electrochemical sensors using AuNP nanocomposites

Electrodeposition

Electrodeposition

with metal@metal oxides

Many efforts have been made to improve the sensing perfor-

mance of AuNPs modified electrode for the detection of DA.
One of the solutions is by forming nanocomposite between
AuNPs and metal oxide nanoparticles such as zinc oxide
Porous gold nanosheets/

(ZnO), titanium dioxide (TiO2), cerium oxide (CeO2), iron

Table 4 (continued)

nanostructure/Au

oxide (Fe3O4) etc. Basically most of the metal oxide can be

Flower-like Au

synthesized using simple procedures and the desired proper-

ties for sensor application can be obtained by tuning the struc-
Material

GCE

ture and size of the material up to nano-scale range. Owing to

their small size, they exhibit unique physical, electronic and

Fig. 7 Schematic representation
of the simultaneous
electrocatalytic oxidation of DA,
AA and UA by PtAu hybrid film
modified electrode. (A) CV and
(B) DPV of AA, DA and UA
mixture at PtAu hybrid film at
GCE [62]
chemical properties. Mahshid et al. [64] have developed a DA
assays using an electrode modified with TiO2 nanotubes and
electrodeposited Pt, Pd and gold NPs. The current response of
AuNPs/Pt/Pd/TiO2 modified electrode recorded by DPV
shows an increment upon addition of DA and exhibits a limit
of detection of 3 108 M (S/N = 3) and a sensitivity of
4.57 A M1. The constructed assays was then used for
the detection of DA in real sample analysis using human urine
samples and the results shows that the modified electrode able
to achieve recovery up to 112.6 %.
Due to the excellent properties owned by molybdenum
disulfide (MoS2), Sun and co-workers has constructed biosen-
sor for DA based on AuNPs/MoS2 film modified electrode in
order to improve their sensing performance towards DA
(Fig. 8) [68]. The AuNPs/MoS2 film modified electrode
showed excellent electrocatalytic activity toward the oxidation
of AA, DA and UA with three well-resolved oxidation peaks
at 0.046 V, 0.105 V and 0.242 V (vs. SCE). The excellent
electrocatalytic activity of MoS2 for oxidation of DA attributed to
the ultra-small nanoparticles which expose a large fraction of
edge site and high surface area which increased surface active
site density for enzyme immobilization. The DPV was carried
out for simultaneous determination of AA, DA and UA. The
result reveal that the peak currents of these ternary mixture were
linear with the concentrations in the ranges from 1 to 70 mM, 50
nM-4 mM and 107 mM with detection limit of 100 mM, 50 nM
and 10 mM, respectively (S/N=3). The comparison of the sens-
ing characteristics of DA sensors with various AuNPs/metal ox-
ide modified electrodes is presented in Table 5.
N. Yusoff et al.
Electrochemical sensors using AuNP nanocomposites
with organic polymers
Conducting polymers which also known as intrinsically
conducting polymers (ICPs) are an organic polymer that pos-
sesses a high electron affinity and high electronic conductivity
by several orders of magnitude of doping. These associated to
the -electron backbone owned by ICPs. The ease of synthe-
sis of ICPs and theirs unique properties encourages re-
searchers to employ this material in the fabrication of biosen-
sors. Some of the ICPs groups that are frequently used in
biosensors application are polyacetylene [81], polythiophene
[82 ], p oly(p -ph eny lene viny le ne) [ 83 ], poly(3,4-
ethylenedioxythiophene) [84], polypyrrole [85], and
polyaniline [86] where their structures are shown in Fig. 9.
Due to the superb quenching ability of AuNPs to form
nanocomposites with ICPs, an electrochemical DA assays
based on AuNPs/polymer modified electrode has been devel-
oped. Recently, the surface modification of conventional elec-
trodes with AuNP/polymer nanocomposites provides new and
interesting properties in the construction of DA assays. The
development of AuNP/polymer nanocomposites modified
glassy carbon (GC) electrode started in 2004 when Kumar
et al. explore the synergic effect between a polymer matrix
and AuNPs for selective determination of DA [70]. In the
study of AuNPs incorporated PEDOT film modified GC elec-
trode, they observed that AuNPs whose been surrounded by a
hydrophobic sheath tend to reside within these hydrophobic
regions of PEDOT. This interaction forms a strong synergic
Gold nanoparticle based sensor platform for dopamine

Fig. 8 DPV profiles at AuNPs@MoS2/GCE in 0.1 M PB solution 30 mM, and (C) containing 50 mM AA, 4 mM DA and different concen-
(pH 7.0) (A) containing 6 mM DA, 30 mM UA and different concentra- trations of UA from 0.05 mM to 50 mM. (DF) The plots of the oxidative
tions of AA from 0.05 mM to 100 mM, (B) containing 12 mM AA, peak currents versus the concentrations of AA, DA and UA [68]
10 mM UA and different concentrations of DA from 0.05 mM to

effect between both materials. At one point, the effect will
increase the DA oxidation current thus enhanced the sensitiv-
ity of the assyas where it showed a sensitivity of 0.85 A
nM1 with a detection limit of 2 nM (S/N=3) for DA deter-
mination. Besides using GC electrode, Pt disk electrode also
extensively used as a platform to growth AuNPs/PEDOT
films for the detection of DA. Liu et al. loaded AuNPs and
PEDOT on a Pt disk electrode using electropolymerization
technique to construct a DA assays [87]. The electrode exhib-
ited a wide linear response to DA from 6 M to 0.013 M with a

Table 5 Summary on the performance of various Au@metal oxide modified electrodes towards DA detection

Material Preparation method Detection Working Limit of Linear Interferences Real sample Ref.
method potential detection range

Au/Pt/Pd/TiO2 NTs Electrodeposition DPV 0.12 V 30 nM 0.0530 M UA Urine [64]

method (vs. SCE)
AuNPs/SiO2 /MIPs Solgel technique DPV 0.12 V 20 nM 48 nM- 50 M AA, UA, epinephrine, DA hydrochloride [65]
(vs. SCE) norepinephrine injection & Urine
CeO2/Au/GCE Electrospinning CA 0.5 V 56 nM 10500 M [66]
technique (vs. SCE)
Fe3O4/Au/PVS /ITO Layer-by-layer DPV 0.3 V 39.4 nM 4100 M AA, UA [67]
(LbL)technique (vs. Ag/AgCl)
AuNPs/MoS2/GCE Electrodeposition DPV 0.105 V 50 nM 0.0530 M AA, UA Human serum [68]
technique (vs. SCE)
Au/ZnO/GCE Hydrolysis method DPV 0.234 V 0.02 M 0.1300 M Urine [69]
(vs. SCE)

Au/Pt/Pd/TiO2 NTs = Gold nanoparticles/Platinum/Palladium/Titanium dioxide nanotubes electrode; AuNPs/SiO2/MIPs = Gold nanoparticles/Silicon
dioxide/Molecularly imprinted polymers; CeO2/Au/GCE = Cerium oxide/Gold nanoparticles/Glassy carbon electrode; Fe3O4/Au/PVS/ITO = Iron
oxide/Gold nanoparticles/Poly(vinyl sulfonic acid)/Indium tin oxide; AuNPs/MoS2/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Molybdenum disulfide/Glassy carbon
electrode; Au/ZnO/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Zinc oxide/Glassy carbon electrode

Fig. 9 The structure of some conductive polymer groups
detection limit of 0.2 M (S/N=3) and showed a good stability
of about 8 months. They discovered that the stable chemical and
physical characteristics owned by PEDOT lead to the good long-
term stability and high sensitivity of the electrode.
Poly(4-aminothiophenol) (PAT) is another polymer used to
entrap AuNPs in order to improve the analytical performance
of electrodes. Figure 10 display the fabrication of PAT/AuNPs
modified electrode through a cyclic electrochemical process
reported by Gopalan [72]. AuNPs was distributed on the PAT
matrix over the surface of GC electrode by cyclic electro-
chemical process and a linear response range from 10 to
50 M of DA concentration with the sensitivity of
0.22 A M1 was achieved in the presence of AA. This
electrode was also able to separate the voltammetry signal
between AA, DA and UA in the interference study recorded
by DPV. They found that the simultaneous oxidation of AA
and DA shows a wider potential difference (Ea 325 mV) due
Fig. 10 Fabrication of PAT-AuNPs modified electrode through a cyclic electrochemical process [72]
N. Yusoff et al.
to the synergic influence provided by the combined presence
of PAT and AuNPs. The applicability of PAT/AuNPs modified
electrode for the selective and sensitive determination of DA
in the real samples has been proven as they showed 96 to
101 % of recovery when being tested in human blood serum.
The comparison of analytical parameters for the determination
of DA at different AuNP/polymer nanocomposites modified
electrode has shown in Table 6.
Electrochemical sensors using AuNP nanocomposites
with carbon nanotubes
CNTs possess high electric conductivity for the electron trans-
fer reactions with better electrochemical and chemical stabil-
ities in both aqueous and non-aqueous solutions which make
it suitable for the modification of various electrode compared
to other carbon materials. In 2009, Ragupathy and co-workers
Table 6 Comparison of analytical performance of different AuNPs/polymers nanocomposites modified electrodes in the detection of DA

Material Preparation method Detection Working Limit of Linear Interferences Real sample Ref.
method potential detection range

Au/PEDOT/GCE Electrodeposition technique DPV 0.144 V 2 nM 0.52 M AA [70]

(vs. SCE)
Au/PANI/GCE Polystyrene/sulfonated CV 0.565 V NA [71]
polystyrene core/shell (vs. SCE)
gel particle templates
PAT/Aunano/GCE One-pot electrochemical DPV 0.4 V NA 1050 M AA Human blood serum & [72]
approach (vs. SCE) DA hydrochloride
Gold nanoparticle based sensor platform for dopamine

injection
nano-Au/PPyox/GCE Electrodeposition technique DPV 0.2 V 15 nM 75 nM- 20 M Serotonin Human blood serum [73]
(vs. SCE)
Au/PEDOT/GCE Self-assembly of thiophene DPV 0.1 V NA 2080 M AA, UA [74]
rings on gold surfaces (vs. Ag/AgCl)
AuNPs/P3MT/GCE Electrodeposition technique DPV 0.19 V 2.4107 135 M AA, UA DA hydrochloride [75]
(vs. SCE) injection & urine
GNPs/PANI/GCE Electrodeposition technique CA 0.6 V 0.8 M 3115 M DA hydrochloride [76]
(vs. SCE) injection
AuNPs/PANI/CS/GCE One-step chemical oxidative DPV 0.264 V 5 M 101700 M AA Human serum [77]
polymerization (vs. SCE)
PEDOT/Aunano/Au Electrodeposition technique LSV 0.493 V 0.39 nM 0.520 M AA, acetaminophen Urine [78]
(vs. Ag/AgCl) (paracetamol)
Au-NPs/PANI/BDD Electrochemical deposition SWV 0.27 V 0.03 M 0.15500 M AA [79]
method (vs. Ag/AgCl)
nanoAu/PMT/GCE Electrodeposition technique DPV 0.23 V 37 nM 50 nM-1 M UA [80]
(vs. SCE)
nanoAus/PEDOT/Pt Electropolymerizing CA 0.35 V 0.2 M 6.0 M-13 mM. Human serum [65]
PEDOT in ionic liquid, (vs. SCE)
electrodeposition
technique

Au/PEDOT/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/ poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/Glassy carbon electrode; Au/PANI/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Polyaniline/Glassy carbon electrode; PAT/Aunano/GCE = Poly(4-
aminothiophenol)/Gold nanoparticles/Glassy carbon electrode; nano-Au/PPyox/GCE = Gold nanoclusters/Overoxidized-polypyrrole/Glassy carbon electrode; AuNPs/P3MT/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/
poly(3-methylthiophene)/Glassy carbon electrode; GNPs/PANI/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Polyaniline/Glassy carbon electrode; AuNPs/PANI/CS/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Polyaniline/Chitosan/Glassy
carbon electrode; PEDOT/Aunano/Au = Poly(3,4-ethylene-dioxythiophene)/Gold nanoparticles/Gold electrode; Au-NPs/PANI/BDD = Gold nanoparticles/Overoxidized polyaniline/Boron-doped diamond
electrode; nanoAu/PMT/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/ poly(Lmethionine)/Glassy carbon electrode; nanoAus/PEDOT/Pt = Gold nanoparticles/Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/Platinum electrode

has fabricated a sensor incorporating AuNPs with multi-
walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) which was grafted onto
silica network via solgel process [88]. The MWCNTs/
AuNPs modified electrode was employed for determination
of DA in the presence of AA evaluated by DPV. The results
revealed that the modified electrode can electrochemically
discriminate the sensing of AA and DA with a wide potential
separation (Epa~0.26 V). Hence, it shows the possibility for
simultaneous independent measurement of DA and AA at this
MWCNTs/AuNPs modified electrode. This promising anti-
interference capability to AA and DA results from the syner-
getic effect of combining AuNPs and MWCNTs grafted onto
silica network. In addition, the synergetic effect also enhanc-
ing the catalytic activity. In an interesting work by Yang et al.,
they developed a modified GC electrode system by casting a
dispersed solution of AuNPs/MWCNTs nanocomposites in
Nafion on GC electrode [91]. In this work, the modified elec-
trode was employed to investigate the electrochemical
Fig. 11 (A) SEM images of Au/MWNTs nanocomposite. In 0.1 M phos-
phate buffer solution (pH 6.0), (B) DPASV for different concentrations of
DA at Au/MWNTs/Nafion/GCE (ai): 8, 6, 4, 2, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, 0.2,
0 M, inset: the calibration curve for the determination of DA; (C) the
effect of 0.4 mM AA and 0.4 mM UA on the DPASV response of 0.8 M
N. Yusoff et al.
behaviour of DA which recorded by differential pulse anodic
stripping voltammetry (DPASV). A low limit of detection of
0.04 M (S/N=3) with a linear range of 0.06 to 8 M was
achieved and this modified electrode also shows the capability
to effectively avoid the interference of AA and UA (Fig. 11).
The combination of AuNPs and MWCNTs forming a new
hybrid material which proven helps to facilitate electron trans-
fer between the electrically active material and the electrode
surface, thus enhance the sensitivity of the sensor.
A novel nanocomposite promising for the development of
effective electrochemical biosensors for the detection of DA
was successfully synthesized by A. Curulli and co-workers
[90]. By taking the advantage of SWCNTs that could mediate
fast electron-transfer kinetics for a wide range of electroactive
species and excellent catalytic properties possessed by
AuNPs, they have developed a SWCNTs/AuNPs modified
GC electrode for electrochemical sensing study. The electro-
chemical signal of oxidation of DA at SWCNTs/AuNPs
DA: 0.8 M DA (a), 0.8 M DA+0.4 mM AA+0.4 mM UA (b) and
0.4 mM AA (c); (D) CVs for 60 M DA at Au/MWNTs/Nafion/GCE (a),
MWNTs/Nafion/GCE (b), GCE (c), Nafion/GCE (d) and Au/MWNTs/
Nafion/GCE without DA (e), scan rate: 80 mV s1 [91]
Gold nanoparticle based sensor platform for dopamine
modified electrode undergoes amplification compared to the
conventional GC electrode indicating higher sensitivity to-
wards DA detection. The nanocomposite might provide
higher electron conduction pathways due to a synergistic ef-
fect between AuNPs and SWCNTs leading to the higher cat-
alytic properties. The analytical parameters reported for dif-
ferent Au-CNTs modified electrodes towards DA quantifica-
tion are shown in Table 7.
Electrochemical sensors using AuNP nanocomposites
with graphene
Electrochemical DA assays based on AuNP/graphene nano-
composites are also extensively studied starting from 2012.
Tian and co-workers successfully fabricate an AuNPs/-cy-
clodextrin/graphene (AuNPs/-CD/Gra) modified GC elec-
trode for simultaneous determination of AA, DA and UA
[92]. -CD is used as a dispersant and stabilizer for HAuCl4
and it also acts as a reducing agent for GO and AuCl4 in order
to form graphene and AuNPs, respectively. This modified
electrode exhibit excellent sensing behaviour towards simul-
taneous detection of AA, DA and UA with linear responses in
the ranges of 302000, 0.5150 and 0.560 M, respectively
and the low detection limit of 10, 0.15, and 0.21 M, respec-
tively. The good stability, sensitivity and selectivity towards
DA shown by this modified electrode attributed to the increase
in electric conductivity and the effective surface area provided
by graphene.
Another work that used AuNPs/graphene modified elec-
trode for the detection of DA in the interference of AA and
UA is done by Zhu et al. [97]. A novel hollow AuNP/
graphene nanocomposite was synthesized using simple two-
steps method before being deposited on the surface of GC
electrode using simple drop-casting method. The DA could
be detected in a linear range from 0.08 M to 600 M with a
detection limit of 0.05 M (S/N=3) using amperometric tech-
nique. Based on the result of DPV, the modified electrode
effectively avoids the interference of AA and UA (Fig. 12).
Table 7 Analytical parameters reported for different Au-CNTs modified electrodes towards DA quantification
Material Preparation method Detection
method
MWNT/silica-NW/ Solgel method CV
AuNPs/GCE
Au/CNF/CPE Electrospinning process, CV
wet chemical
reaction in aqueous solution
SWCNTs/AuNp/GCE Wet chemical method CV
Au/MWNTs /GCE Molecule level design DPASV
MWNT/silica-NW/AuNPs/GCE = Multiwalled carbon nanotubes/silica network/Gold nanoparticles/Glassy carbon electrode; Au/CNF/CPE = Gold
nanoparticles/Carbon nanofiber/Carbon paste electrode; SWCNTs/AuNp/GCE = Singlewalled carbon nanotubes/Gold nanoparticles/Glassy carbon
electrode; Au/MWNTs/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Multiwalled carbon nanotubes/Glassy carbon electrode
The applicability of this modified electrode in real sample
analysis was also been studied. For this purpose, DA concen-
tration was determined in DA hydrochloride injection which
serves as a real sample where the recovery is found to be in the
range of 96102 %. Thus, the achievement of excellent recov-
eries of DA validates that this nanocomposite materials remain
promising for real sample analysis and in the same time pro-
vide a new platform for designing effective assays.
Besides using AuNPs, there are also studies that use the
gold nanoplates to produce nanocomposite together with
graphene as reported by Wang et al. [98]. Electrochemically
reduced graphene oxide and gold nanoplates were deposited
on the surface of GC electrode before being applied to the
simultaneous determination of AA, DA, and UA. The as-
fabricated Au/RGO/GC modified electrode exhibits excellent
analytical performance for the simultaneous detection of DA,
AA and UA, with a detection limit of 1.4 M, 51 M, 1.8 M
(S/N=3) and a linear range of 6.841 M, 0.241.5 mM and
8.853 M, respectively. The high selectivity and sensitivity
for individual and simultaneous determination of AA, DA,
and UA with low detection limits and wide linear ranges at-
tributed to the large surface area and unique conductivity of
RGO and the excellent electrocatalytic activity of AuNPs. The
detection of DA in the rat serum shows a recovery ranged
between 97.5 and 102 % indicate that the Au/RGO/GCE
could be used for the determination of AA, DA, and UA in
real samples. Table 8 shows the different types of Au-
graphene-based DA sensor with their limit of detection and
linear range.
Electrochemical sensors using ternary materials
containing AuNPs
In order to couple the properties owned by AuNPs with the
properties of other nanomaterials, AuNPs has been incorpo-
rated into nanocomposites. The catalytic activity properties of
the new hybrid material are expected to enhance hence helps
to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of a new sensor.
Working Limit of Linear Interferences Real sample Ref.
potential detection range
0.46 V NA AA [88]
(vs. Ag/AgCl)
0.21 V NA AA, UA [89]
(vs. Ag/AgCl)
0.35 V NA Catechol, serotonin [90]
(vs. Ag/AgCl)
0.256 V 0.04 M 0.068 M AA, UA DA hydrochloride [91]
(vs. SCE) injection
 N. Yusoff et al.

Fig. 12 (A) TEM image of HAu-

G; (B) HRTEM image of HAu-G;
(C) Amperometric response ob-
tained at the HAu-G/GCE with
increasing DA concentrations.
Inset: the calibration curve of
HAu-G/GCE at +0.40 V for the
determination of DA. (The error
bars are standard deviations for
n=3.); (D) DPVs of different
concentrations of DA at HAu-G/
GCE in the presence of 1.5 mM
AA and 15 M UA in 0.1 M PBS
(pH 6.0). DA concentrations
(from a to l): 0, 4, 8, 14, 20, 26,
34, 50, 60, 70, 80, 95 M. Inset:
DPV of HAu-G/GCE in 0.1 M
PBS (pH 6.0) [97]

Table 8 Summary of performance of various Au-graphene nanocomposites modified electrodes towards DA detection

Material Preparation method Detection Working Limit of Linear Interferences Real sample Ref.
method potential detection range

AuNPs/ -CD/Gra/ In-situ thermal reduction SWV 0.426 V 0.15 M 0.50150 M AA, UA Human urine [92]
GCE of GO and HAuCl4 with (vs. SCE)
-cyclodextrin under alkaline
condition
AuNPs/rGO/GCE Electrostatic layer-by-layer DPV 0.116 V 0.02 M 160 M UA [93]
(LBL) self-assembly technique (vs. SCE)
AuNPs/rGOS/ITO Electrodeposition technique DPV 60 nM 101000 M AA, UA Beef sample [94]
AuNPs/GNS/GCE One-step solvothermal DPV 0.15 V NA AA, UA [95]
approach (vs. Ag/AgCl)
GE/Au/GE/CFE Layer-by-layer assembly DPV 0.1 V 0.59 0.5943.955 M NaCl, KCl, NaNO3, Urine [96]
(vs. SCE) AA, glucose, urea,
and NH4Cl
HAu/G/GCE Mixing an aqueous solution CA 0.4 V 0.05 0.08600 M AA, UA DA hydrochloride [97]
of HAu NPs with a poly (vs. SCE) injection
(N-vinylpyrrolidone)-
functionalized graphene
Au/RGO/GCE Electrochemical reduction, DPV 0.15 V 1.4 6.841 M AA, UA Rat serum [98]
electrodeposition method (vs. SCE)
AuNP/Graphene/ Chemical reduction, classical DPV 0.15 V 1.86 M 51000 M AA Human serum [99]
GCE citrate reduction method (vs. SCE)

AuNPs/ -CD/Gra/GC = Gold nanoparticles/-cyclodextrin/Graphene/Glassy carbon electrode; AuNPs/rGO/GC = Gold nanoparticles/Reduced

graphene oxide/Glassy carbon electrode; AuNPs/rGOS/ITO = Gold nanoparticles/Reduced graphene oxide sheets/indium tin oxide; AuNPs/GNS/GC
= Gold nanoparticles/Graphene nanosheets/Glassy carbon electrode; GE/Au/GE/CFE = Graphene/Gold nanoparticles/Graphene/Carbon fibre electrode;
HAu/G/GCE = Hollow gold nanoparticles/Graphene/Glassy carbon electrode; Au/RGO/GCE = Gold nanoplates/Reduced graphene oxide/Glassy
carbon electrode; AuNP/Graphene/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Graphene/Glassy carbon electrode
Gold nanoparticle based sensor platform for dopamine
Zhou and co-workers has developed a sensor for the detection
of DA based on Dawson-type phosphovanadotungstate
K8P2W16V2O62 18H2O (P2W16V2) decorated by AuPd alloy
nanoparticles (AuPd) using layer-by-layer self-assembly
method (Fig. 13). The (P2W16V2/Au/Pd/PEI)8 modified elec-
trode displays an excellent sensitivity and selectivity for DA
over AA with a limit of detection of 0.217 M and 0.671 M
(S/N=3), respectively. The excellent sensing performance in-
cluding high sensitivity, good selectivity, higher stability and
wide linear range shown by this modified electrode resulting
from the outstanding electrocatalytic behavior owned by this
new hybrid material. Results of the recovery tests obtained for
determination of DA in blood serum sample exhibits a recov-
ery ranged between 100.13 to 100.5 %, indicating that the
modified electrode could be used for the determination of
AA, DA, and UA in commercial samples.
Another interesting approach to improve the sensing per-
formance is by incorporating bimetallic materials with
graphene. Taking advantages of the metal individual proper-
ties, the addition of the second metal to form bimetallic mate-
rials brings about variations in particle size, shape, surface
morphology, chemical and physical properties including cata-
lytic activity and chemical selectivity. In the work reported by
Jiang et al. [110], they fabricate AuPd/RGO/GC modified
electrode for simultaneous determination of DA, AA and
UA. Reduced graphene oxide (RGO) serve as a platform to
support catalytically active AuPd bimetallic nanoparticles dur-
ing heterogeneous catalytic reactions. The combination of
these ternary materials which deposited on the GC electrode
develops a sensor that has a high sensitivity and selectivity.
The results for simultaneous detection of AA, DA, and UA,
investigated by DPV demonstrated that this modified elec-
trode have a linear response ranges of 1800, 0.1100, and
0.1350 M with detection limits of 0.28, 0.024, and 0.02 M
Fig. 13 The schematic illustration of layer-by-layer self-assembly of P2W16V2-AuPd/PEI)8 film [106]
(S/N3), respectively. The recovery determination of DA with
Au/Pd/RGO/GC modified electrode shows a recovery ranged
between 97.1 to 102.5 %. Table 9 lists the comparison of the
sensing characteristics of DA assays with ternary materials
(including AuNPs) modified electrodes reported in the
literature.
Conclusion and future outlooks
Gold nanostructures such as nanorods, nanoparticles,
nanodendrites, nanowires and nanoporous have been used ex-
tensively in various fields of applications especially in the
fabrication of novel sensors for the detection of biomolecules
including neurotransmitter DA. Among all the gold nano-
structures, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been widely used
for creation of DA assays because it offers the advantages of
unique physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. AuNPs
which have small size with larger surface area provides a well-
established platform for conjugation of biomolecules, thus
making it the most effective material for fabricating DA as-
says. There is no doubt that AuNPs and AuNP-based nano-
composites have a good stability and strong electrocatalysis
properties which make it a promising material to develop oth-
er neurotransmitters sensors or bio-devices. In order to devel-
op an excellent biosensor, several factors need to be given a
serious attention and a good understanding in term of the
properties of AuNPs, the interaction between AuNPs and an-
alyte molecules and mechanisms of detection.
This review on the potential of AuNPs in detecting DA by
using various techniques may facilitate the development of
high-performance but low-cost sensors. Optical sensor
(ECL, SERS and colorimetric) based on AuNPs and
AuNPs-based nanocomposites provided a simple analytical
Table 9 Comparison of the sensing characteristics of DA sensors with ternary materials (including AuNPs) modified electrodes reported in the literature

Material Preparation method Detection method Working potential Limit of detection Linear range Interferences Real sample Ref.

Au/PDDMAC/PANI/GCE Simple stirring method CV 0.361 V (vs. SCE) NA [100]

-CD/MWCNTs/Plu/ Sonication, electrodeposition CA 0.161 V 190 nM 156 M AA, UA DA hydrochloride [101]
AuNPs/GCE technique (vs. SCE) injection
RGO/AuNPs/CSHMs/ Chemical reduction, DPV 0.187 V 0.3 M 1200 M UA Urine [102]
GCE trisodium citrate reduction (vs. SCE)
method, stirring method
nano-Au/DNA/nano-Au/ Electrochemical polymerization, DPV 0.248 V 0.2 nM 8 nM-1.1 M UA, guanine, adenine Human serum & urine [103]
poly(SFR)/GCE immersion method (vs. Ag/AgCl)
MWNTs/PEI/AuNPs/Au PEI catalyzed reduction DPV 0.15 V 6.56 nM 50 nM 4 M Glucose, AA, urea, Human serum [104]
of HAuCl4 (vs. SCE) glycine
AuNPs/PS/RGO/GCE Heating method, citrate DPV 0.18 V 5 nM 0.0520 M AA, UA [105]
reduction method (vs. SCE)
(P2W16V2/Au/Pd/PEI)8 Layer-by-layer self-assembly DPV 0.3 V 830 nM 2.1 M glucose, UA, AA, l- Human serum [106]
method (vs. Ag/AgCl) 2.06 mM cysteine, ethanol,
methanol, hydrogen
peroxide
Au/PPy/GS/GCE In-situ chemical oxidative DPV 0.254 V 18.29 pM 0.1 nM 5 M AA, UA Human serum & urine [107]
polymerization (vs. SCE)
GNS/PEI/AuNP/GCE Microwave assisted chemical DPV 0.18 V 0.2 M 248 M AA Urine [108]
reduction method (vs. Ag/AgCl)
AuNPs/MoS2 /PANI/ Facile hydrothermal method, DPV 0.18 V 0.1 M 1500 M AA, UA, glucose, Urine [109]
GCE) in-situ polymerization procedure (vs. SCE) glycine, l-cysteine,
glutathione, vitamin
C, citric acid, tartaric
acid
Au/Pd/RGO/GCE One step thermal reduction DPV 0.186 V 0.024 M 0.1100 M AA, UA Urine [110]
(vs. SCE)

Au/PDDMAC/PANI/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/ Poly(diallyldimethylammoniumchloride)/Poly-aniline/Glassy carbon electrode; -CD/MWCNTs/Plu/AuNPs/GCE = -cyclodextrin/Multiwalled carbon

nanotubes/poly(luminol)/Gold nanoparticles/Glassy carbon electrode; PDDA/AuNPs/GNs/GCE = Poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride)/Gold nanoparticles/Graphene nanosheets/Glassy carbon
electrode; RGO/AuNPs/CSHMs/GCE = Reduced graphene oxide/Gold nanoparticles/Chitosan-silica solgel; Hybrid membrans/Glassy carbon electrode; nano-Au/DNA/nano-Au/poly(SFR)/GCE =
Gold nanoparticles/DNA/Poly(safranine T)/Glassy carbon electrode; MWNTs/PEI/AuNPs/Au = Multiwalled carbon naotubes/Polyethyleneimine/Gold nanoparticles/Gold electrode; AuNPs/PS/RGO/
GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Polystyrene/Reduced graphene oxide/Glassy carbon electrode; (P2W16V2/Au/Pd/PEI)8 = Phosphovanadotungstate/Gold nanoparticles/Palladium/Poly(ethylenimine); Au/PPy/
GS/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Polypyrrole/Graphene sheets/Glassy carbon electrode; GNS/PEI/AuNP/GCE = Graphene nanosheets/Polyethyleneimine/Gold nanoparticles/Glassy carbon electrode;
AuNPs/MoS2/PANI/GCE = Gold nanoparticles/Molybdenum disulfide/Polyaniline/Glassy carbon electrode; Au/Pd/RGO/GCE = Gold/Palladium/Reduced graphene oxide/Glassy carbon electrode
N. Yusoff et al.
Gold nanoparticle based sensor platform for dopamine
tool to detect DA with a quick response. The aggregation/
disaggregation of plasmonic AuNPs causes a color changing
due to the SPR properties, giving it extra advantages as the
optical probe in optical sensor. In ECL assays, the intensity
produced mostly are weak, therefore AuNPs is used to en-
hance the ECL signal especially in the peroxydisulfate ECL
system. The time-dependent color changes due to the forma-
tion of large aggregation of AuNPs are one of the drawbacks
of colorimetric assays. This will lead to inaccurate result and it
is not applicable for real sample analysis. To conquer these
difficulties, a new method for synthesizing stable AuNPs with
acceptable particle size must be design. This method should
able to control and monitor the assembly state of aggregation/
disaggregation of AuNPs. The use of big and expensive in-
strument has become the biggest obstacle in SERS sensor
which makes this technique far from commercialization.
Current developments are focused on developing a cost-
effective, regenerable and sensitive DA assays. Electrochem-
ical technique has attracted more attention due to its simplic-
ity, low-cost and practicability with good selectivity and
strong sensitivity. The use of AuNPs and its nanocomposite
to modify the working electrode enhanced the sensitivity and
selectivity of electrochemical sensor. The simplicity in setting
up the experiment make this technique suitable for building up
a miniature electrochemical sensor for detecting DA and also
practical for real application in medical and biotechnology.
Among the sensing technique including ECL, SERS and col-
orimetric, the electrochemical sensor provide the best analyt-
ical technique for the simultaneous determination of DA, AA
and UA with well-separated peaks indicating the detection of
DA using electrochemical technique is not interfered by the
presence of other analytes. Only the electrochemical sensor
technique can provide the feasibility to quantify the DA as
well as AA and UA simultaneously when compared to the
other analytical techniques. Comparing the existing AuNPs
based DA sensor, the Au/PPy/GS/GCE modified electrode
showed the lowest detection limit as low as 18.29 pM and
also demonstrates the good analytical performance in real
samples such as human serum and urine. Despite of all the
advantages owned by AuNPs in improving the sensitivity of
DA electrochemical sensor, the cost for raw material of Au is
quite expensive. Therefore, more research in searching for a
new material that is cheaper with the same or better properties
than AuNPs need to be employed.
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