Enlarge the Site of Your Tent

Oudtestamentische Studin

Old Testament Studies

published on behalf of the Societies for
Old Testament Studies in the Netherlands and
Belgium, South Africa, the United Kingdom
and Ireland

Editor
B. Becking
Utrecht

Editorial Board
H.G.M. Williamson
Oxford

H.F. Van Rooy

Potchefstroom

M. Vervenne
Leuven

VOLUME 58
Enlarge the Site of Your Tent

The City as Unifying Theme in Isaiah

The Isaiah Workshop De Jesaja Werkplaats

Edited by

Archibald L.H.M. van Wieringen

Annemarieke van der Woude

LEIDEN BOSTON
2011
This book is printed on acid-free paper.

ISSN 0169-7226
ISBN 978 90 04 18729 0

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 CONTENTS
Preface ................................................................................................. VII
C.H.J. DE GEUS, Isaiahs City .............................................................. 1
A. VAN DER KOOIJ, Rejoice, o Thirsty Desert! (Isaiah 35): On
Zion in the Septuagint of Isaiah ..................................................... 11
M. DE JONG, From Legitimate King to Protected City: The
Development of Isaiah 7:1-17 ......................................................... 21
A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN, Assur and Babel against
Jerusalem: The Reader-Oriented Position of Babel and Assur
within the Framework of Isaiah 1-39 .............................................. 49
W.A.M. BEUKEN, From Damascus to Mount Zion: A Journey
through the Land of the Harvester (Isaiah 17-18) ........................... 63
A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN, The Diseased King and the
Diseased City (Isaiah 36 39) as a Reader-Oriented Link
between Isaiah 1-39 and Isaiah 40-66 ............................................. 81
U. BERGES, Zion and the Kingship of Yhwh in Isaiah 40-55 ............ 95
P. LUGTIGHEID, The Notion of the City in Isaiah 44:21-46:13 ...... 121
A. VAN DER WOUDE, The Comfort of Zion: Personification in
Isaiah 40-66 ................................................................................... 159
K.A.D. JENNER, Jerusalem, Zion and the Unique Servant of
Yhwh in the New Heaven and the New Earth: A Study on
Recovering Identity versus Lamenting Faded Glory (Isaiah 1-5
and 65-66) ..................................................................................... 169
S. BOROCIN-KNOL, Zion as an Agunah?: An Interpretation of
Isaiah 49:14; 50:1 and 54:6-8 ........................................................ 191
Bibliography ....................................................................................... 207
Contributors ........................................................................................ 229
Index of Authors ................................................................................. 233
Index of Biblical Passages .................................................................. 237
 PREFACE
It all started in the late seventies of the last century: Jan Leunis Koole,
professor for Old Testament, invited Isaiah scholars to come to Kampen,
the Netherlands, in order to share their research results. And thus, the
Jesaja Werkplaats (Isaiah Workshop) was born. Ever since, it has been
functioning as an exchange platform for the exegesis of the book Isaiah
in the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium). The members of the Jesaja
Werkplaats, with Wim Beuken and Henk Leene as their nestors, study
the book Isaiah from various perspectives and use different approaches,
such as literary, linguistic, thematic, historical and text-critical ones.
Being an exchange platform based on this variety of exegetical methods,
the Jesaja Werkplaats crosses the classic borderlines delineating diach-
ronic and synchronic exegesis.
In the year 2000, the first volume of the Jesaja Werkplaats was pub-
lished, entitled: Studies in Isaiah 24-27 (OTS 43). The focus of this vo-
lume was on a single part of the book Isaiah, viz. the so-called Isaiah
Apocalypse. At present, however, the question as to the / a possible unity
of the book Isaiah forms the centre of the Jesaja Werkplaats interest, as
the same development has occurred elsewhere in the Isaiah exegesis.
The question is not whether the book Isaiah forms a unity or not, but
rather as to how such a unity can be depicted. The book Isaiah has been
handed down in its present form and has come to us as a single book. If
this fact is accepted, in which way is its unity conceivable?
This question yields a wide range of answers. Can the unity be dealt
with by describing themes which occur throughout the book Isaiah? Is
the unity generated by a plot which unfolds itself throughout the book
Isaiah? Is the unity manifest in the reader present within the text to which
the author addresses himself throughout the book Isaiah? Is the unity of
the book Isaiah visible in the text-critical traditions of its text?
In order to gain a better insight into these unity oriented questions, the
Jesaja Werkplaats has decided to study these queries from a fixed point:
the city.
This choice is based on the fact that both the term city and the con-
cept city score highly in the book Isaiah. Combined with a specific
proper name or with a religious or ethical qualification (e.g. holy city)
or otherwise, the term is used throughout the book. Proper names such as
Zion and Jerusalem, but also Assur and Babel, also stand for a concept of
(special types of) cities as well.
VIII PREFACE

The concept city supposes not only a literary meaning, but also a
historical one from both a social-geographical and a cultural perspective.
In this way, investigaging the city demands for various exegetical ap-
proaches, overcoming the classical dichotomy between diachrony and
synchrony.
Furthermore, the option city prevents the possibility of a unity for
the book Isaiah being described in merely abstract expressions. The fo-
cus city clears the way for discussing concrete texts in the book Isaiah
and for implementing ideas about unity to factual textualities in the book
Isaiah.
This volume reflects the amount of methodical approaches within the
Jesaja Werkplaats continuing the multicoloured discussion on the unity
of the book Isaiah.
This diversity is not only shaped by the fact that the contributions in
this volume are written from various perspectives, but that they also deal
with several concrete texts of the book Isaiah.
The remarkable result of this volume is not so much that the city is in-
deed a focus point in the book Isaiah and that Zion / Jerusalem indeed
appear again and again by using the concept city, but that this exegeti-
cal insight is supported by the wide range of exegetical approaches ap-
plied.
For this second Jesaja Werkplaats-volume, the redaction has chosen
the title Enlarge the Site of Your Tent: the City as Unifying Theme in
Isaiah. The reference to Isa. 54:3 is an allusion to Zions variety of func-
tions within the book Isaiah: in this verse Zion is addressed as both a
place and an actant. Moreover, the tent has enough place to also host the
various different approaches of the members of the Jesaja Werkplaats.
The volume opens with the contribution by Jan de Geus, who was in-
vited as a guest author. He concentrates on the archaeological reality of
the idea city, i.c. the city Jerusalem in the 9th / 8th century BCE.
Next, the text-critical contribution by Arie van der Kooij focuses on
the Septuagint. In the Greek textual tradition, the indications thirsty
wilderness and thirsty land in Isa. 35 refer to Zion / Jerusalem. It be-
comes exemplarily clear that the Greek text has in mind the city as a
liveable dwelling place.
In the contribution by Matthijs de Jong, who focuses on Isa. 7:1-17, a
diachronic, historical-critical text analysis is presented. The decline of
the world power Assur called for an adoption of the Zion-theology due to
the necessary revision of the role of the Davidic royal house and, because
 PREFACE IX

of this, the status and function of Zion / Jerusalem as both the place of
shelter for Gods people and the centre of the world.
Archibald van Wieringen deals with the reader-oriented function of
Assur and Babel. He pays attention, for instance, to Isa. 13-14 as the
beginning of the prophecies against the nations. By using various reader-
oriented techniques, Babel is modelled in such a way that a meaningful
sequence between Assur and Babel arises within the whole of the chap-
ters 1-39. Moreover, the contrasts between the cities of Assur and Babel
on the one hand and the city of Jerusalem on the other hand becomes
clear.
Next, Wim Beuken focuses on a single oracle against the nations, viz.
the one against Damascus in Isa. 17-18. Parallel to Samaria, doomed to
be devastated, the sinful city of Jerusalem / Zion arises, which functions
as an anti-city contrasting with the city of Gods preference.
In a second contribution, Archibald van Wieringen discusses the posi-
tion of the implied reader from the hinge narrations Isa. 36-39 as a bridge
from the chapters 1-39 to the chapters 40-66. The salvation of the dis-
eased king and the diseased city, parallelly represented in the text, not
only re-assumes the model of the Immanu-El, in contrast to Ahaz, but
also creates the transition from Assur to Babel, from King to Servant and
from the prophet Isaiah to the herald of good tidings.
In a survey contribution on Deutero- and Trito-Isaiah, Ulrich Berges
examines the relation between Zion / Jerusalem and the kingship of the
Lord. Based on synchronic and diachronic observations, he formulates a
so-called mental map for the biblical Zion / Jerusalem.
In the next contribution by Pieter Lugtigheid, Isa. 44-46 is at issue, in
which text-syntactical phenomena play an important role. Central is the
relation between the two main actors, the Servant and Zion. Their com-
mon destination is: to be found by the Lord.
Annemarieke van der Woude pays special attention to the personifica-
tion of Zion / Jerusalem in Isa. 40-66. Along with all the roles in the
book Isaiah, Zion / Jerusalem becomes an actant itself, especially in the
chapters 49 and 66. This literary figure appears to be connected with the
dramatic progress in the whole of Isa. 40-66.
Konrad Jenner also deals with the phenomenon of the personification
of Zion / Jerusalem. His contribution, however, links up with a psycho-
logical analysis. The personification is dealt with against the background
of the books internal plot as well.
Suzanne Borocin-Knol completes this volume with a contribution
from the Jewish exegesis. From a halachic perspective, she examines the
role of Zion as an agunah, especially in Isa. 49:14; 50:1; 54:6-7. Be-
X PREFACE

cause of the fact that, in the book Isaiah, there is no matter of a definite
divorce, restoration of Zion as the city of the Lord appears to be possible.
The redaction particularly wishes to thank Konrad Jenner and Hendrik
Jan Bosman for the editorial outlines they made at an earlier stage. The
redaction also owes Hendrik Jan Bosman a great debt of gratitude for his
irreplaceable technical assistance in the editing of this volume.

The Editors
Archibald van Wieringen
Annemarieke van der Woude
 ISAIAHS CITY
C.H.J. de Geus

As it is the authors intention to only add a few strictly archaeological

notes to this volume devoted to the biblical prophet Isaiah, the use of this
proper name nevertheless seems allowed due to its occurrence on con-
temporaneous artefacts.1 The name may have been quite common in the
7th and 6th centuries. The question what do archaeologists know of the
city of Jerusalem during the lifetime of the prophet Isaiah confronts us
with a different problem. If we date his prophetic activities with the
aid of biblical/literary indications to the last decennia of the 8th century
and the beginning of the 7th century BCE, the 701 campaign by Sennach-
erib falls in this period. Archaeologically speaking, we must consider the
possibility that these times of war had serious consequences for the city.
The broad wall discovered by N. Avigad in the Jewish Quarter could
have been a defensive fortification from this period (see below). Should
we not then speak of Isaiahs cities? Before and after the Assyrian siege?
Notwithstanding the fact that Jerusalem is the most widely excavated
city in all of Israel and Palestine ... no clear consensus (exists) regarding
much of Jerusalems history and ancient significance. 2 This is disap-
pointing and frustrating after the euphoria between 1970 and 1980 trig-
gered by Avigads discoveries under the ruins of the old Jewish Quarter
as well as the results of the ongoing excavations along the eastern slope
of the Ophel Ridge (Israeli scholars prefer to speak of City of David in
accordance with biblical tradition, 2 Sam. 5:9). We still miss essential
data necessary to draw even a schematic plan of the Iron Age II B city. It
struck me that even in my own book on ancient Israelite and Judaean
towns, I clearly, though not intentionally, avoided making much mention
of Jerusalem, compared to northern cities like Megiddo, Samaria or Ha-
zor, or even southern ones like Beersheba or Lachish, where more infor-
mation is at hand.3 One of the reasons Jerusalem lags behind is the im-
1
N. Avigad, Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals (Publications of the Israel
Academy of Sciences and Humanities. Section of humanities), rev. and completed B.
Sass, Jerusalem 1997 mentions nine occurrences of the name in its longer form Ye-
shayahu on seals and bullae; cf. Isa. 1:1.
2
A.G. Vaughn, A.E. Killebrew (eds), Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The
First Temple Period (SBL Symposium Series 18), Atlanta 2003, 3.
3
C.H.J. de Geus, Towns in Ancient Israel and in the Southern Levant (Palestina
Antiqua 10), Louvain 2003.
2 C.H.J. DE GEUS

possibility of conducting wide area excavations there. Even Avigads

work had to be done in several separate and distinct parts. Modern Jeru-
salem is after all still a densely inhabited town.
That data for a trustworthy reconstruction are missing is nothing new.
Such lacunae are often filled in with the help of literary data, if available.
And this is what happens on large scale in the case of Jerusalem. Second
best are analogies drawn from anthropology and supposed parallels with
related excavations, from the same region and the same period. Solutions
like these remain less than ideal and lack real evidential value. Still more
dangerous is that they often lead to circular arguments. In my book I
tried to sketch a picture of a town in the southern Levant in the 8th cen-
tury (roughly). This picture is dominated by Israelite cities: Megiddo,
Samaria, Dan, Dor, etc. A southern, Judaean city like Lachish fits in
quite well in this list. The same goes for cities like Ekron and Timna,
possibly non-Judaean or Israelite and probably Philistine, as well as a
Trans-Jordanian town like Heshbon.
The most important remains of the city that Jerusalem was in the 8th
and 7th centuries BCE are: a) remnants of massive walls, one of them with
insets and offsets, along the eastern slope of the Ophel; b) the famous
Siloam tunnel with its inscription;4 c) several necropolises surrounding
the city, consisting of rock-cut tombs showing several interesting archi-
tectonic details which imitate in stone certain particularities of the do-
mestic architecture of the city;5 d) the discovery of a palmette capital,
typical for the palatial architecture of the 9th and 8th centuries BCE; e) the
discovery of four-room-houses, the dominant type of dwelling in this
period; and f) epigraphical material.
At approximately three-fourths of the height of the eastern Ophel
slope is a city wall with insets and offsets. On the inside of the wall,
remains of what was probably a large public building were discovered,
as well as streets perpendicular to the wall, suggesting a town plan along
a grid of streets. The discovery of a street parallel to the wall, but just
outside the city, was remarkable. First it was assumed that this street
gave access to an extramural quarter built on terraces on the slope.6 Re-

4
D. Ussishkin, The Water Systems of Jerusalem during Hezekiahs Reign, in:
M. Weippert, S. Timm (eds), Meilenstein (FS H. Donner) (gypte und Altes Testa-
ment 30), Wiesbaden 1995, 289-307.
5
H. Geva (ed.), Ancient Jerusalem Revealed, transl. J. Shadur, Jerusalem 1994.
D. Ussishkin, The Village of Silwan: The Necropolis from the Period of the Judean
Kingdom. Jerusalem 1993.
6
H.J. Franken, M.L. Steiner, Excavations in Jerusalem 1961-1967 (British Acad-
emy monographs in archaeology 2), vol. 2: The Iron Age Extramural Quarter on the
South East Hill, Oxford 1990.
 ISAIAHS CITY 3

cently, however, a second lower wall was revealed, only a few metres
above the bottom of the Kidron Valley.7 Some believe there was indeed
an extramural habitation that eventually was included within the citys
defence system by a new wall; this wall would have been necessary
anyway to support the terraces. Others are of the opinion that the settle-
ment on the east slope was a temporary development, due to many peo-
ple fleeing to the city at the end of the 8th century. Habitation stopped
anyhow at the end of the 7th century: no pottery from the later 7th or 6th
centuries was found.8 Among the remains of the 8th century dwellings on
the slope, a great number of iron agricultural tools have been found. It
seems that the City of David in the eighth century was a residential
area, and not a citadel or acropolis, although the possibility remains of a
larger public building on or above the stepped stone structure. Com-
parison with other ancient cities in the country shows that such residen-
tial areas are rarely found or published. The acropolis received wide-
spread attention from the archaeologists.
The extent of the exact area that was enclosed by the city-wall in the
th
8 century has been a subject of debate in the archaeology of Jerusalem.
This question was revived after the discovery of Iron Age habitation on
the eastern slopes of the western hill as a result of Avigads excavations
under and between the ruins of the Jewish Quarter. Famous but at the
same time disputable was his conclusion that the poet of Ps. 122 had in
mind the fusion of two parts of the city, one on the eastern Ophel ridge
and one on the south-western hill, both surrounded by a single wall.9
Avigad became the most important modern defender of the so-called
maximalist reconstruction: a city surrounded by a wall that encom-
passed both hills and the valley between them. The discovery of a mas-
sive stone wall in the Jewish Quarter, today known as the broad wall,
was Avigads main archaeological argument. Avigad considered his
Jerusalem a city of ca. 60 ha. His opponents, who defend a minimalistic
reconstruction, assume that Jerusalem was for a long time essentially
confined to the eastern hill only. These discussions always presupposed
that the city wall also indicated the outer border of the town, much like
the Turkish walls around the Old City nowadays. But in other ancient
towns in Palestine/Israel, hardly any residential quarters have been found
within the walls. Inside the walls we find an acropolis and other public
buildings and the houses of some officials. Domestic dwellings are as-

7
R. Reich, E. Shukron, The Urban Development of Jerusalem in the Late Eighth
Century BCE, in: A.G. Vaughn, A.E. Killebrew, op. cit., 209-18.
8
R. Reich, E. Shukron, art. cit., 211-3.
9
Ps. 122:3 Jerusalem built as a city that is bound firmly together (NRSV).
4 C.H.J. DE GEUS

sumed to have been somewhere outside the walls. Z. Herzog is right to

call such an acropolis a container of power.10 It is still not inconceiv-
able that 8th century Jerusalem consisted of some at least two dis-
tinct walled-in areas with gardens, dwellings and even tombs in between
them. An all-encompassing straight city-wall was not built until the 7th
century. Today it is certain that the part of the western hill where the
Jewish Quarter is situated was intensively inhabited in the 8th century.
Two metres of habitation debris from the 8th century were discovered
there.11 Only the northern part of the south-western hill, the area of the
modern Citadel and the slopes below it belonged to the 8th century town.
The area of the Armenian Garden and Mount Zion remained outside
the wall. Avigads broad wall was built on 8th century remains and was
probably a defensive measure against the north in the days of the Assyr-
ian threat at the end of the 8th century. It functioned for only a short pe-
riod. Perhaps it served to fortify a northern gate, a forerunner of the pre-
sent Damascus gate. This wall may have been damaged during the As-
syrian siege. Indications for a second northern gate have been found
under the restored Byzantine cardo. It seems that the line of the cardo
indicates the border of the western expansion of the Iron Age II city.12
East of this line, IA-II remains were found everywhere, but few were
found west of the cardo, with the exception of the Citadel. Even includ-
ing the Iron Age II extensions under the present Jewish Quarter, the
built-up area of Isaiahs City probably measured no more than about 50
dunams, which means hardly more than 10 hectares. With about 2000
inhabitants.13
The famous Siloam tunnel recently went through a process of reas-
sessment as well. This 8th century tunnel channelled the water of the
Gihon spring straight to pools below the southern tip of the Ophel hill.
There they served to water gardens and were easily accessible for women
who came down from the south-western hill to fetch water. Cutting out
the tunnel would have taken too much time for it to have been planned
while the city was getting prepared to endure a siege. The first purpose

10
Z. Herzog, Archaeology of the City: Urban Planning in Ancient Israel and Its
Social Implications (Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology Monograph
Series 13), Tel Aviv 1997, 13.
11
H. Geva, Western Jerusalem at the End of the First Temple Period in the Light
of the Excavations in the Jewish Quarter, in: A.G. Vaughn, A.E. Killebrew (eds), op.
cit., 183-208.
12
D. Bahat, Was Jerusalem Really that Large?, in: A. Biran, J. Aviram (eds),
Biblical Archaeology Today: Proceedings of the Second International Congress on
Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem 1993, 581.
13
R. Reich, E. Shukron, art. cit., 213.
 ISAIAHS CITY 5

of the tunnel was surely not military and the king that took the initiative
for the tunnel was more likely to have been Manasseh than Hezekiah.14
With regard to the tombs two remarks can be made. During B. Ma-
zars excavations at the south-western corner of the Temple Mount, a
few man-made cavities were found at the foot of the western slope and in
the central valley. Although these cavities were used as cisterns in later
years, they seem to originally have been tombs from the 8th century. This
indicates that their location was at that time outside the settlement on the
Ophel hill. Only later were they included inside the walled-in area and
their function changed. Recent discoveries corroborate Barkays thesis
that the westward expansion of the city of Jerusalem was followed by a
westward extension of necropolises.15
A central question pertaining to Isaiahs Jerusalem is the exact site of the
Temple. Tradition and Old Testament scholarship have always assumed
that the first Temple must have been located on the high ground north of
the Ophel hill. This was Mount Moriah and the hill is known since as the
Temple Mount. Unfortunately, however, there is no archaeological evi-
dence to support this view. Any traces indicating continuity of sacred
space on this spot are absent. It is unthinkable that King Herod would
have built his huge temple the majestic platform of which still stands
and is presently known as the Haram esh-Sharif, or Temple Mount on
a place not hallowed by the remains of earlier temples. With the help of
contour lines on a schematic map one can see the position of Mt. Moriah
and how small the surface was on top of it. As the original summit is
now covered by later platforms (e.g. Herods second Temple), there is no
way of telling if there some levelling or terracing had already been done
in earlier periods. There is also no way of proving the geographical order
that is generally assumed to be presented in 1 Kgs 9:15 from north to
south: Temple, Palace, millo, and north wall of Jerusalem (= City of
David). New elements in the discussion are the modern political claim
that there has never been a Judaean temple in Jerusalem, and the growing
probability of the presence of at least one public building on the Ophel
proper.

14
E.A. Knauf, Hezekiah or Manasseh? A Reconsideration of the Siloam Tunnel
and Inscription, Tel Aviv 28 (2001), 281-287. C.H.J. de Geus, The Importance of
Archaeological Research into the Palestinian Agricultural Terraces, PEQ 107
(1975), 71-2.
15
G. Barkay, Excavations at Ketef Hinnom in Jerusalem, in: Geva (ed.), op. cit.,
85-106. R. Reich, The Ancient Burial Ground in the Mamilla Neighborhood, in:
Geva (ed.), op. cit., 111-8.
6 C.H.J. DE GEUS

If the assumptions cited above are correct, then a small acropolis was
situated on Mt. Moriah; an acropolis distinct from the residential city.16
At present we have no indications for the existence of free standing tem-
ples in the southern Levant during Iron Age II. Temples in Megiddo,
Arad or Ekron were part of larger palace or fortress complexes. Parallels
with freestanding temples from as far away as northern Syria are there-
fore not convincing. 17 However, there is still one major problem: the
pilgrimages. It is difficult to understand how such built-in sanctuaries
could receive large groups of pilgrims. That pilgrimages were a standard
religious custom and were especially famous for the Jerusalem temple is
well-known. The Iron Age temples we know today are hardly suitable
for processions and circumambulations. The sanctuary at Tel Dan is the
exception, yet no real temple has been found there as yet. At the moment
I am more inclined to suppose that the sanctuary on Mt. Moriah was a
smaller copy of that at Tell Dan than the other way around. Hopefully in
the future the technology of nondestructive archaeology will enable us to
observe whatever remains are left underneath the present Haram.
Although no actual remnants of monumental Iron Age structures from
Isaiahs city have been preserved, there are indications, as I have men-
tioned, that such architecture did indeed exist at one time. There is the
proto-Aeolic capital, which Miss Kenyon had already found. Also, there
are the architectural elements in tombs. The two large complexes on the
premises of St. Etienne to the north of the Old City especially show de-
tails cut out in the rock that imitate wooden panelling, and the use of
single or double cornices joining the walls and the ceilings. They give us
an impression of how the palaces of Jerusalems rich may have looked
like. Finally there is Ramat Rahel, in the south of modern Jerusalem; in
biblical times this was a few kilometres out of town. Was it a summer
residence? An (Assyrian) military base?18
Whatever or wherever the acropolis of ancient Jerusalem actually was,
the importance of dozens of smaller excavations all over the Ophel hill is
that we now know that the Ophel was also a residential area. Several
remnants of so called four-room-houses have been found. One of them, a
house from the 7th century, has now been reconstructed and can be seen
from the archaeological walk along the eastern slope of the Ophel. The
house is called the House of Ahil based on the occurrence of this
name on two ostraca found there. Five metres below this house on the

16
C.H.J. de Geus, op. cit., chapters 4 and 7.
17
For instance tell tayinat or ain dara.
18
C.H.J. de Geus, op. cit., 55-6.
 ISAIAHS CITY 7

slope is the House of the Bullae where 51 bullae with seal impressions
were discovered. Further to the north one finds the Burnt Room which
testifies to the sack of the city in 586. In the cities, as in Jerusalem, most
four-room-houses are built-in and part of a conglomerate. As a conse-
quence they have shared outer walls and contain often no more than
three rooms. But some four-room-houses were clearly better executed
and larger than others. Such houses can be found in or next to an acropo-
lis, often at strategic positions (for instance near gates) and were frees-
tanding, as for instance on the citadel of Hazor. In the countryside, how-
ever, such houses tended to be larger because they served more agricul-
tural purposes.19 The Ahiel-house is important for it has a clearly visible
stone staircase leading to a second floor. Today such houses are consi-
dered to have been much larger than older reconstructions show in that
they had two or more storeys. We should realize that this fact has tre-
mendous consequences for the outward appearance of an ancient town;
they were much higher and more impressive: real containers of power.
Lately attention has been drawn to the fact that, in the plans of Iron Age
II towns, streets often end abruptly against the city-wall.20 The ancient
inhabitants clearly felt the need for easy access to the wall. We should
realize that the rather thick city-walls of the Iron Age also served as con-
necting circuit roads, especially for women.21 Access to the top of the
wall would have been provided by stairs or simple wooden ladders, both
now lost.
One last much disputed argument regarding the city of Jerusalem of the
8th and 7th centuries is that of demography. The western expansion of the
city from the second half of the 8th century on and the often temporary
settlements along the eastern slope of the Ophel hill illustrate a strong
increase of inhabitants. This becomes especially clear if one looks at the
ceramic evidence. There are many more sherds from the 7th century than
from the 8th, and again many more from the 8th than from the 9th. At the
same time the living standards seem to have increased. For years this
development has traditionally been ascribed to the fall of Samaria and
the Northern Kingdom in 721, with the resulting influx of several refu-
19
C.H.J. de Geus, op. cit., chapter 6. During the excavations of rooms on the
eastern Ophel slop, many agricultural tools were found, indicating that the people
who lived there worked in fields and gardens in the neighborhood, probably in and
along the Kidron-valley.
20
A. Faust, Accessibility, Defence and Town Planning in Iron Age Israel, Tel
Aviv 29 (2002), 297-317.
21
C.H.J. de Geus, The city of women: Womens places in ancient Israelite ci-
ties, in: J.A. Emerson (ed.), Congress Volume Paris 1992 (VT.S 61), Leiden 1995,
75-87.
8 C.H.J. DE GEUS

gees. Recently others have drawn our attention to a general process of

growing urbanization. One should, however, also take into account that
the conditions elsewhere in the province of Judah in these years were
seriously deteriorating due to the military activities of the Assyrians, e.g.
the sack of Lachish. Many fugitives fled undoubtedly to the capital, some
of them with their savings.22 Jerusalem was miraculously saved in 701
and we get the impression that the following century, with a pax assyria-
ca, was very advantageous for the city. For the first time in the history of
the town we find clear proof of trade with Southern Arabia and Syria.
Olive oil seems to have been one of the most important products of the
country.

22
H. Geva, art. cit., 183-208.
 ISAIAHS CITY 9

Jerusalem during Hezekiahs Reign. From: D. Ussishkin, The Water

Systems of Jerusalem during Hezekiahs Reign, in: M. Weippert, S.
Timm (eds), Meilenstein (FS H. Donner) (AT 30), Wiesbaden 1995,
304.
 REJOICE, O THIRSTY DESERT! (ISAIAH 35)
ON ZION IN THE SEPTUAGINT OF ISAIAH

A. van der Kooij

The city of Jerusalem, in particular mount Zion, is a major symbol in the

Hebrew book of Isaiah which greatly contributes to a sense of unity in
the book as a whole. The Septuagint (LXX) of Isaiah which actually
represents the earliest witness to the reception history of the book reflects
an even stronger interest in Zion as the city of the temple because beside
the texts about Jerusalem and Zion which MT and LXX have in com-
mon, the latter has a few additional passages about Zion. The relevant
passages are LXX Isa. 25:5; 32:2, and 35:1-2. The focus of this contribu-
tion is on the latter one, the well-known prophecy about the desert which
will rejoice and blossom. The two other texts mentioned will serve as a
help of understanding 35:1-2. It will be argued that the Old Greek ver-
sion of 35:1-2 reflects the idea that the transformation of the desert as an
image alludes to the restoration of Zion from being a desert to a place of
life.

1. Isaiah 35:1-2

Before dealing with the Greek version of Isa. 35:1-2 some comments on
this text in MT may be in order. MT Isa. 35:1-2 reads as follows (in
translation):
Let the wilderness ( )and the dry land ( )be glad,
let the desert ( )rejoice and blossom like the crocus
It shall blossom abundantly and rejoice with joy and singing.
The glory of Lebanon shall be given to it,
the majesty of Carmel and Sharon.
They shall see the glory of the Lord, the majesty of our God.
These verses evoke the picture of the transformation of a desert into a
garden. Scholars have argued that this passage refers to the land of Israel
which will be turned into a paradise, in contrast to the devastation of
12 A. VAN DER KOOIJ

Edom in chapter 34.1 Others do not agree with this interpretation. O.H.
Steck is of the opinion that chapter 35 speaks of a eschatologischen
Verwandlung von Gebieten, durch die der Heimzug nach Zion verluft
(35,8-10), und das heisst, von eben dem Terrain, dessen schauerliche
Verdung im Endgericht Jes 34 ankndigt.2 W.A.M. Beuken advances
the view that the transformation involved does not take place in Zion as
one might expect, and, so he further remarks, the fertile and rejoicing
landscape is not presented as a new destination for Gods people.
Rather, natures metamorphosis constitutes an imaginative representa-
tion of the return to Zion. The return has its beginning wherever people
are prepared to accept the desert as a place of divine revelation (v. 2).3
Another interpretation has been given by C.R. Mathews. Having dealt
with the affinities between the motif of the transformation of the wilder-
ness in Isa. 35 and passages in Deutero-Isaiah she then emphasizes that
the beginning of chapter 35 creates a contrast to the preceding chapter
34. If one considers the poems together, then the transformation of the
wilderness in chapter 35 appears to be a direct and intentional contrast to
the judgment to the fall of Edom and all the nations. Since that judgment
is described as a day of vengeance and a year of vindication for
Zions cause (34:8) it would seem that the wilderness spoken of in
chapter 35 refers, then, to Zion itself.4 This way of speaking about Zion
was, as she puts it, already present in texts such as Isa. 51:3 and 64:10.
It is interesting to note that the idea of a contrast between chapter 34
and 35 is also basic to the exegesis in Early Christianity. According to
Eusebius of Caesarea and Jerome the passage of Isa. 34:8-17 refers to the
destruction of Jerusalem by the nations, whereas Isa. 35:1-2 envisages a
new situation of salvation in Zion, Jerusalem, due to the work and teach-
ing of John the Baptist (cf. the desert places of the Jordan in LXX Isa.
35:2) and of Jesus Christ. Thus, according to this interpretation the be-
ginning of Isa. 35 alludes to the city of Zion.
We now turn to the Old Greek version of Isa. 35:1-2. It reads as fol-
lows:

1
See the commentaries of e.g. K. Marti, Das Buch Jesaja (KHC 3/10), Tbingen
1900; B. Duhm, Das Buch Jesaia, Gttingen 1892; O. Procksch, Jesaia I (KAT 9/1),
Leipzig 1930; G. Fohrer, Das Buch Jesaja (ZBK.AT), 3 vols, 1960-1964.
2
O.H. Steck, Bereitete Heimkehr: Jesaja 35 als redaktionelle Brcke zwischen
dem Ersten und dem Zweiten Jesaja (SBS 121), Stuttgart 1985, 19.
3
W.A.M. Beuken, Isaiah II (Historical Commentary on the Old Testament),
transl. B. Doyle, vol. 2: Isaiah 28-39, Leuven 2000, 311.
4
C.R. Mathews, Defending Zion: Edoms Desolation and Jacobs Restoration
(Isaiah 34-35) in Context (BZAW 236), Berlin/New York 1995, 137.
 REJOICE, O THIRSTY DESERT! (ISAIAH 35) 13

1 , ,
,
2
,
.
1 Rejoice, o thirsty desert!
Let the desert be glad and let it blossom like a lily!
2 And the desolate places of the Jordan shall blossom and be
glad.
And the glory of Lebanon has been given to it, and the honour
of Carmel;
and my people shall see the glory of the Lord and the loftiness
of God.
The collocation (MT ) has no parallel at other
places, but is clearly related to the expression in vv. 6-7 of the same
chapter: (for MT and respectively). The latter is
also found in Isa. 32:2; 41:18, and 53:2 where it constitutes a rendering
of ( 41:18; 53:2) or of ( 32:2). The Hebrew text of 35:1,
6-7 displays a variety of terms. The fact that in the Old Greek the same
verb is used in these verses, adds to the coherence of LXX
Isa. 35. Furthermore, the rendering of as is typical of LXX
Isaiah as this Hebrew word has been translated in other books as
(Jer., Ezek., XII Prophets, Ps.).
The expression has a parallel in Isa. 42:11
( [MT ) . As is clear
from the second half of this text ( )
the inhabitants of places in the desert are meant an interpretation
which in the Targum to Isaiah is applied to our text, 35:1. One wonders
whether this might also be the case in LXX Isa. 35:1 (see further below).
The phrase is also found in Hos. 14:6 (MT )
and Sir. 39:14. For as rendering of see Cant. 2:1. The
choice of lily fits the context as it alludes to running waters (cf. Sir.
50:8).
The first line of the second verse offers the enigmatic rendering the
desolate places of the Jordan. This expression which has no basis in the
Hebrew text as far as attested in MT and 1QIsaa ( ) is not known
from elsewhere, neither in the Hebrew Bible nor in the LXX. The plural
is also found in Isa. 44:26; 49:19; 51:3; 52:9 (in all instances as
rendering of Hebrew )which are passages about Zion and Judea.
14 A. VAN DER KOOIJ

The glory of the Lebanon has been given to it: the only parallel
place, both in MT and in LXX, is 60:13 where the glory of the Lebanon,
i.e., its impressive and wonderful trees, will be used to beautify, or to
glorify (so LXX: ), the temple of Jerusalem.
My people shall see the glory of the Lord: MT reads they ()
shall see which according to most scholars is meant proleptically, that
is to say, as referring to the weak persons of vv. 3-4. LXX offers an ex-
plicitation of the subject (my people), as is also the case in the Targum
(The house of Israel these things are said to them they shall
see). The expression is not a plus, or an addition, but rather
an interpretation of which is left untranslated in the preceding
line via an association with . The latter is attested in Isa. 44:2b:
Fear not, o Jacob my servant, Jeshurun whom I have chosen. The LXX
offers here the rendering , the beloved Israel, paral-
lel to Jacob my servant. This rendering of is also known from
LXX Deut. 32:15; 33:5. The Old Greek of 35:2 seems to be related to
44:2, although it does not contain the same equivalent. For the phrase
my people, see below.
The question raises to which location the Old Greek of Isa. 35:1-2,
particularly the expression the thirsty desert ( ), might
allude. In order to try to answer this question I will deal with two related
passages in LXX Isaiah 32:2 and 25:5.

2. Isaiah 32:4

As noted above the parallel expression, , which is used in 35:6-

7 is also attested in 32:2; 41:18; 53:2. The first one of these passages is
the most significant one as far as our question is concerned.
MT
Each will be like a hiding place from the wind (
)
a covert from the tempest ()
like streams of water in a dry place () ,
like the shade of a great rock in a weary land (
).
LXX

'
.
 REJOICE, O THIRSTY DESERT! (ISAIAH 35) 15

The man will be hiding his words

and will be hidden as from rushing water;
and he will appear in Zion like a rushing river,
glorious in a thirsty land.
There are many differences between MT and LXX. The former is about
each man (of the princes), but the latter has a particular person5 in mind
who will be hiding his words. The notion of hiding is clearly related
to , but what about the phrase his words? This phrase seems to be
an interpretation of . R.R. Ottley suggested that the Greek rendering
might be understood in the light of Isa. 11:4 where the expression the
breath ( )of his lips occurs. 6 It seems however more plausible to
think of Isa. 11:2 where the is employed in the sense of spirit, and
not of breath, pertaining to wisdom, understanding and knowledge;
hence, his words (of wisdom).
The next clause in 32:2 reads and will be hidden as from rushing wa-
ter. The Hebrew has been taken as a verbal form, and not as a sub-
stantive as in MT, and the word is explained in terms of a compari-
son (as from rushing water). This comparison is also found in Isa.
17:13: where it is an image of the
power of many peoples, i.e., of a mighty enemy.7
The text then continues as he will appear in Zion. The notion of to
appear () is not present in the MT; it constitutes a plus in LXX
and is apparently meant to create a contrast to the verb . 8 In
Zion presupposes a vocalization of different from that in MT (sayon,
dry place). He will appear as a rushing river: this clause is not a ren-
dering of ,9 but of . As has been suggested by L. La-
berge,10 the choice of can be understood in the light of Ps. 46:5
where the plural of is related to , the river. This text is the more

5
For specification as an exegetical technique of the time, see e.g. J.G. Camp-
bell, The Exegetical Texts (Companion to the Qumran Scrolls series 4), London
2004, 29.
6
R.R. Ottley, The Book of Isaiah according to the Septuagint (Codex Alexandri-
nus), vol. 2, Cambridge 1906, 263.
7
Hebrew ( tempest, heavy rain) is rendered in 32:2 as rushing water; see
also 30:30.
8
According to J. Koenig, Lhermeneutique analogique du Judasme antique
daprs les tmoins textuels dIsae (VT.S 33), Leiden 1982, 146-7, is a
rendering of via , tracer une route, but this suggestion seems too far
fetched.
9
As J. Ziegler, Untersuchungen zur Septuaginta des Buches Isaias (ATA 12/3),
Mnster 1934, 142 assumes.
10
L. Laberge, La Septante dIsae 28-33: Etude de tradition textuelle, Ottawa
1978, 81.
16 A. VAN DER KOOIJ

interesting since the image of a river in Ps. 46 has to do with Zion

(There is a river whose streams make glad the city of God), just as in
our text.
For our subject matter the LXX version of Isa. 32:2 is most interesting
as it contains a reference to Zion in combination with the expression a
thirsty land ( ). The man who first will hide himself, will
appear in Zion as a rushing river in a thirsty land. This text clearly sug-
gests a relationship between Zion and thirsty land. The image evoked
by the LXX is that as soon as the man will appear in Zion things will
become different, the thirsty land will be transformed into a place full
of water. He will no longer hide his words, but will bring life with his
words of wisdom. This man who is also called glorious (),
apparently is a most important figure, likely to be associated with the
coming leader in Isa. 9:5-6 and 11:1-5.11

3. Isaiah 25:5

The other text I would like to discuss is 25:5. It likewise constitutes a

reference to Zion, including the notion of thirsty, where this is not the
case in MT.
MT
like heat in a dry place () .
The noise of the strangers you subdue () :
as heat by the shade of a cloud ()
so the song of the ruthless is stilled () .
LXX
( )
,
.
(they will bless you) like (us,) the faint-hearted persons,
thirsting in Zion because of wicked men
to whom you delivered us.
Verse 5 is part of Isa. 25:1-5, a passage which in the LXX differs mark-
edly from MT. This also applies to our verse since the Greek version
only offers, among other things, a rendering of the first half of it. We

11
On LXX Isa. 9:5-6 see A. van der Kooij, Wie heit der Messias? Zu Jes 9,5 in
den alten griechischen Versionen, in: C. Bultmann, W. Dietrich et al. (eds), Verge-
genwrtigung des Alten Testaments: Beitrge zur biblischen Hermeneutik (FS R.
Smend), Gttingen 2002, 156-63.
 REJOICE, O THIRSTY DESERT! (ISAIAH 35) 17

cannot deal here with all the complexities of the relationship between
both passages, 25:1-5 (MT and LXX), involved.12 LXX v. 5 is directly
related to the preceding verse (v. 4) which reads thus,

,
,
.
For you have become a helper to every humble city,
and a shelter to those who are dispirited because of poverty;
you will rescue them from evil persons
(you) a shelter for the thirsty, and breath for injured persons.
Verse 4 is about those who are mentioned in v. 3, the poor people and
cities of injured persons. They will bless you, as is said in the same
verse (v. 3), because God has destroyed the city of the wicked men
( ) which will never be rebuilt (v. 2). The phrase every
humble city in v. 4 is related to cities of injured persons in v. 3. God
will rescue them, the poor people (cf. those who are dispirited because
of poverty in v. 4). In the last clause of the verse, God is characterized
as shelter for the thirsty, and breath for injured persons. Those who are
thirsty are parallel here to injured persons.
But what about v. 5? It seems that the poor persons of vv. 3-4 are
compared with faint-hearted persons thirsting in Zion in v. 5. Some
manuscripts (e.g., S A-26) have a plus at the beginning of v. 5:
, they will bless you (cf. v. 3), which, unlike the edition
of A. Rahlfs, is considered an addition to the original text by J. Ziegler in
the Gttingen edition. Be this as it may, the plus makes good sense. The
poor persons of vv. 3-4 will bless you as will do the faint-hearted ones
in v. 5. The latter are called thirsting in Zion because of wicked men to
whom you delivered us. Similar to v. 4 (thirsty // injured ones) the
people being thirsty is to be equated to the ones being delivered to
wicked men.
The group of people in vv. 3-4 (they; the poor and injured persons)
is different from the group referred to in v. 5, because it is reasonable to
assume that the us are the same as the faint-hearted persons thirsting in

12
See I.L. Seeligmann, The Septuagint Version of Isaiah: A discussion of its
problems (MVEOL 9), Leiden 1948, 112 = I.L. Seeligmann, The Septuagint Version
of Isaiah and Cognates Studies (FAT 40), Tbingen 2004, 283-4; J.M. Coste, Le
texte grec dIsae XXV, RB 61 (1954), 36-66; A. van der Kooij, The Cities of Isaiah
24-27 According to the Vulgate, Targum and Septuagint, in: H. J. Bosman, H. van
Grol et al. (eds), Studies in Isaiah 24-27 (OTS 43), Leiden 2000, 191-193.
18 A. VAN DER KOOIJ

Zion in the beginning of the verse. Thus, the we are associated with
Zion. Regarding our subject matter the interesting element in v. 5 is the
expression , thirsting in Zion. The Hebrew text reads
, usually translated as like a heat in a dry place. Just as in 32:2
the Hebrew has been interpreted as Zion. One could argue that this
is one of the instances where the translator misunderstood his parent text,
as was stated by Jerome in the case of 25:5.13 Considered on its own the
rendering Zion might seem an error, but in view of other striking ele-
ments in the rest of both verses (25:5 as well as 32:2) vis vis the He-
brew text it rather is part of the translation strategy of the translator.
The Greek is based here on the Hebrew which has been
read as a participle; cf. for in v. 4. This equivalent of
Hebrew is not found elsewhere in the LXX. As indicated above, the
persons (we) are thirsting in Zion because they have been delivered,
by God, to wicked men. The expression wicked men also occurs in
v. 2 (the city of the wicked, see above) in both instances as render-
ing of Hebrew . They are designated evil men ( )
in v. 4 (for MT tempest).14 The wicked men in these verses (see
also Isa. 24:8) are to be taken as a reference to hostile nations to whom
the persons in Zion has been delivered by God ( [MT
)].
It seems that the expression in v. 5 has been understood in
light of in 17:12 (hence strangers // nations). As to the
notion of to deliver () in Isa. 25:5 a related passage is to be
found in 64:7-11 of which v. 7 contains the clause (MT
via ). Interestingly, this passage speaks of we (= your peo-
ple in v. 9) (cf. us in Isa. 25:5), and of the city of your holy
place/sanctuary ( ), Zion, which has become a desert
() (v. 10).15

13
Hironymus, Commentariorum in Esaiam libri I-XVIII (CChr.SL 73-73A),
Turnholti 1963, line 326: in Hebraeo scriptum est basaion, quod invium vel sitis
dicitur; the rendering in Zion is, as he puts it, error perspicuus. The other in-
stance, 32:2, is not criticized by him. Compare also R.L. Troxel, Whats in a Name?:
Contemporization and Toponyms in LXX-Isaiah, R.L. Troxel, K.G. Friebel et al.
(eds), Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients (FS M.V. Fox), Winona Lake 2005,
329 (graphic confusion).
14
The Greek is a plus which is found more often in LXX Isaiah, and
which is typical of 25:1-5 (see vv. 3, 4, 5).
15
On the phrase the city of your sanctuary, see A. van der Kooij, Jerusalem as
the City of the Temple in Jewish Sources from the Hellenistic Era, in: A. Le Boul-
luec (ed.), A la Recherche des Villes Saintes: Actes du Colloque Franco-Nerlandais
Les Villes Saintes (BEHE.R 122), Turnhout 2004, 44.
 REJOICE, O THIRSTY DESERT! (ISAIAH 35) 19

The we are also called , faint-hearted. This seems to be a

free rendering of ( v. 4 [ending]) which may be based on the
following interpretation of the Hebrew: persons treated violently by evil
persons like rushing water16 against a wall, hence faint-hearted.17 It is
interesting to note that the term is also found in 35:4.

4. Conclusion

As to the our question, to which location the phrase thirsty desert in

35:1 might allude, the passages discussed above, 25:5 and 32:2, turn out
to provide an answer. The conclusion is warranted that the expression
thirsty desert in 35:1, as well as thirsty land in 35:6-7, refers to the
city of Zion (for the notion of desert, see 64:10). The proclamation that
the desert is called for to rejoice is related to the statement in v. 2: my
people shall see the glory of the Lord. Who are my people? They are
the inhabitants of the thirsty desert, in line with the we, the thirsting
ones in Zion, in 25:5; they are my people in Zion (cf. 10:24). There
will be reason to rejoice because they will no longer be thirsty as they
will no longer be delivered to wicked men, hostile nations, in Jerusa-
lem. The notion of being thirsty refers to a situation of oppression and
injury (25:4).
The inhabitants of the thirsty desert will rejoice, because God him-
self will come and save us, as is stated in 35:5 (MT reads you [pl.]; cf.
us in 25:5). The thirsty place of Zion will be changed into a place of
salvation and glory. Interestingly, according to 32:2 an important figure
plays a crucial role in this transformation. He will transform the thirsty
place into a place of water (he will appear in Zion like a rushing wa-
ter), that is to say, he will bring life and happiness to the faint-hearted
(, 25:5; 35:4) with his words of wisdom and justice (cf. 11:2-
4).
As soon as the glory of the Lebanon will be given,18 that is to say, as
soon as the city and temple will be glorified (cf. 60:13), my people will
see the glory of the Lord. But what about the enigmatic phrase the deso-
late places of the Jordan? This expression, if based on , seems to
reflect an interpretive reading of via ( in the sense of to deport
people, the result being that a region becomes desolate) as well as an
associative reading of for . This may be so, but it does not say
16
For this rendering of , see note 7.
17
For a similar interpretation, see Targum Isa. 25:5: The sayings of the wicked to
the righteous are like a storm which beats against a wall.
18
The aorist in 35:2 is best understood as marking an preceding action.
20 A. VAN DER KOOIJ

anything about the meaning of the phrase. Although the phrase is not
attested elsewhere, Gen 13:10 contains an expression which is somewhat
familiar: the region (MT ;LXX ) of the Jordan. This pas-
sage refers to a region around the Jordan, in the Jordan valley, which
actually is a well-watered area. The phrase the desolate places of the
Jordan then seems to be intended to evoke the picture of a most dra-
matic situation even the area of the Jordan was without water, but it
shall blossom and be glad.19
The passages in LXX Isaiah discussed in this contribution, 35:1-2;
25:5; 32:2,20 clearly indicate that the place of Zion was of great interest
to the translator and his milieu. Since these passages turn out to be re-
lated to each other it also makes clear that the motif of Zion, the city of
the Lord (Isa. 60:14), functioned to some extent as an unifying factor,
the result being a coherence in LXX Isaiah which is not found in MT.
Moreover, it is interesting to note that the way Isa. 35:1-2 was under-
stood by Eusebius of Caesarea and Jerome is in line with the meaning of
the Old Greek version itself.

19
One might also think of LXX Isa. 4:5 (the surroundings of Jerusalem will take
part in the salvation), and / or Ezek. 47:1-12 (the water/river from the temple flowing
towards the eastern region).
20
This is not to say that these are the only passages which share the motif of Zion
as place of thirst (and related issues). LXX Isa. 41:13-20 is another passage of inter-
est.
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ISAIAH 7:1-17

M.J. de Jong

1. Introduction

The search for a unifying concept within the book of Isaiah is an ambi-
tion with both synchronic and diachronic aspects. On a synchronic level,
the question is whether the book in its final shape can be read as a coher-
ent whole. On the diachronic level, it may be asked whether the process
of development of the Isaiah tradition into the book a process that, as
is commonly agreed, passed through a series of different stages and ex-
tended over various centuries was governed by a leading thought. A
suggestion made by R.E. Clements is of importance here, namely that it
is the rise and fall, and subsequent re-establishing after 587 BCE, of the
cult ideology of Jerusalem that explains the peculiar shifts and apparent
incongruities in the book (i.e. the book of Isaiah).1 If R.E. Clements
assessment is right, the focus on Zion-Jerusalem accompanied the devel-
opment of the Isaiah tradition through its successive stages and hence
plays an important role within the book as a whole as a unifying motif.
The issue dealt with in this contribution is whether this is true for the
first stages of the Isaiah tradition as well: the 8th-century prophetic mate-
rial and it earliest development. Is the earliest, prophetic material already
characterised by a focus on Zion-Jerusalem, or is this focus an innova-
tion from a later stage of development of the Isaiah tradition? The study
of the earliest stages of the Isaiah tradition is not without difficulties,
since in the past decades it has become more and more disputed how
these earliest stages may have looked like. Nevertheless, the interpreta-
tion of the book and the search for unifying concepts within the book
necessarily have a diachronic dimension. The historical questions to the
origin and first development of Isaiah tradition cannot be ignored within
the larger search for a unifying concept within the Isaiah tradition as a
whole.
In this contribution, I focus on Isaiah 7:1-17, because within this unit,
in my view, a clear distinction can be made between early (pre-exilic)

1
R.E. Clements, Isaiah and the Deliverance of Jerusalem: A Study of the Inter-
pretation of Prophecy in the Old Testament (JSOT.S 13), Sheffield 1980, 9.
22 M.J. DE JONG

prophetic material, and a later (exilic) composition which gives a twist to

the earlier material. Whereas the prophetic material focuses on Ahaz as
the legitimate king, protected by Yahweh against his enemies, the later
composition is characterised by a dynastic-critical tendency, which turns
the encouraging prophecies upside down. As part of this reworking, Je-
rusalem is introduced (Isa. 7:1) as the focus of Yahwehs protection,
instead of king Ahaz. In the first part of this contribution, I present an
exegetical survey of Isa. 7:1-17, which particularly focuses on the two
distinctive stages: the early Isaianic material on the one hand, and the
later composition on the other. In the second part, I present a tradition-
historical overview of the development of the Isaiah tradition in the 7th
century BCE, in order to explain for the transition from legitimate king
to protected city. The aim is to discover what significance the concept
Zion-Jerusalem had within the 8th-century prophetic material, how its
importance rose in the 7th-century and how it became inextricably con-
nected with the Isaiah tradition in development.

2. Exegetical Survey

2.1. Point of Departure

Isa. 7:1-17, the central part of the traditional Denkschrift of Isaiah (6:1-
8:18), has played a major role in the debate concerning the historical
prophet and the earliest stage of the Isaiah tradition. U. Becker, in his
study of First Isaiah in which he adopts a radically redaction-critical
approach to the book, begins with a chapter on 7:1-17. 2 Likewise, J.
Barthel in his recent monograph on First Isaiah argues that Isa. 6-8, and
indeed 7:1-17, together with Isa. 28-32, play a key-role in the discussion
of to what extent one can speak about Isaianic material within First
Isaiah. 3 A recent update of their respective positions, in a discussion
concerning the problem of the historical Isaiah,4 shows that two issues in

2
U. Becker, Jesaja: Von der Botschaft zum Buch (FRLANT 178), Gttingen
1997, 24-60.
3
J. Barthel, Prophetenwort und Geschichte: Die Jesajaberlieferung in Jes 6-8
und 28-31 (FAT 19), Tbingen 1997, 25.
4
U. Becker, Das Problem des historischen Jesaja II, in: I. Fischer, K. Schmid et
al. (eds), Prophetie in Israel: Beitrge des Symposiums Das Alte Testament und die
Kultur der Moderne anlsslich des 100. Geburtstags Gerhard von Rads (1901-
1971), Mnster/Hamburg, etc. 2003, 117-24; J. Barthel, Das Problem des histori-
schen Jesaja III, in: I. Fischer, K. Schmid et al. (eds), Prophetie in Israel: Beitrge
des Symposiums Das Alte Testament und die Kultur der Moderne anlsslich des
100. Geburtstags Gerhard von Rads (1901-1971), Mnster/Hamburg, etc. 2003, 125-
35.
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 23

particular need to be solved. First, the internal complexity of 7:1-17

needs an explanation. Becker estimates that Isa. 7 ein trotz der Warnun-
gen insgesamt heilsprophetischen Bild Jesajas zeichnet,5 but J. Barthels
analysis has demonstrated, in my view, that this estimation does not do
justice to the complex character of Isa. 7:1-17. The second issue is,
whether Isa. 7:1-17 is dependent on the stories of 36-38, as is argued by
U. Becker,6 or whether, as argued by J. Barthel, the relationship of de-
pendence rather is the other way around.7 Both issues will be dealt with
in the first part of this contribution.
Isa. 7:1-17 provides an important key for the exploration of the devel-
opment of the Isaiah tradition. I will attempt to demonstrate that the text
contains material from two distinctive periods. The earliest material in-
cluded belongs to the first stage of the Isaiah tradition and may be attri-
buted to the historical prophet. To this stage belong, in my opinion, the
two prophetic oracles incorporated in Isa. 7:1-17. These oracles are
straightforward prophecies of encouragement for king Ahaz and have
their origin in the historical circumstances of the 8th century BCE. The
composition of Isa. 7:1-17 as a whole, however, belongs to a later stage.
The composition is marked by a critical tendency, which ultimately turns
the earlier encouraging oracles upside-down, in order to provide with an
explanation for the disasters that befell Judah and its royal house in the
early decades of the 6th century BCE. In the period after the disasters of
the early 6th century, the Isaiah tradition underwent a fundamental re-
working, of which the composition of Isa. 7:1-17 is part.
The most remarkable element within the development of Isa. 7:1-17 is
the treatment of king Ahaz. Whereas the 8th-century prophecies encour-
age Ahaz, and present him as the legitimate king of Judah protected by
Yahweh against his enemies, the later composition of Isa. 7:1-17
presents Ahaz as representative of the Davidic dynasty, whose lack of
faith ultimately caused the downfall of Judah. In order to explain this
contract between the 8th-century prophetic oracles and the 6th-century
composition, we need to explore how the Isaiah tradition developed in
the meantime. In other words, we must investigate what happened to the
Isaiah tradition during the 7th century BCE.8

5
U. Becker, art. cit., 123.
6
U. Becker, art. cit., 122-3.
7
J. Barthel, art. cit., 130.
8
Precisely at this point, W. Dietrich, Jesaja ein Heilsprophet?, ThR 64
(1999), 329, rightly criticises the redaction-historical hypothesis of U. Becker: Nach
B.s Textchronologie klafft zwischen der ersten berlieferungsstufe Worte Jesajas
aus dem 8. Jh. und der zweiten der unheilstheologischen Bearbeitung aus
frhnachexilischer Zeit eine Zeitlcke von rund zweihundert Jahren. Was ist mit
24 M.J. DE JONG

2.2. Early Material within Isaiah 7:1-17

Isa. 7:1 provides a convenient point of departure for this analysis. Schol-
ars commonly relate Isa. 7:1 to 2 Kgs 16:5, and both records of the so-
called Syro-Ephraimite war are remarkably close indeed:
2 Kgs 16:5 Isa. 7:1
Then In the days of Ahaz son of
Jotham son of Uzziah, king of
Judah
came up came up
King Rezin of Aram and King King Rezin of Aram and King
Pekah son of Remaliah of Israel Pekah son of Remaliah of Israel
to Jerusalem for war; to Jerusalem to attack it,
they enclosed Ahaz,
but they could not but they could not9
prevail (him). mount an attack against it.10
Since in the rest of Isa. 7:1-17 Israel (the Northern Kingdom) is referred
to as Ephraim (7:2, 5, 8, 9, 17) and its king as son of Remaliah (7:4,
5, 9), verse 1 is commonly regarded as being dependent on 2 Kgs 16:5,
and rightly so. Apart from obvious similarities, a striking difference be-
tween the two verses stands out. In 2 Kgs 16:5, the main object of atten-
tion is Ahaz: they besieged Ahaz, but could not prevail (him).11 In Isa.
7:1 however Jerusalem has become the focus of attention.12 This betrays
a significant difference in outlook. An explanation for this difference
could be, that the author of Isa. 7:1 (who is in my view the author of 7:1-
17) 13 deliberately changed the focus from Ahaz to Jerusalem. This
change can be understood in relation to the royal-critical tendency that

der Jesajaberlieferung in dieser Zeit geschehen?. In the same way argues Barthel,
art. cit., 135: Insbesondere dem 7. Jahrhundert drfte im Entstehungsprozess des
Prophetenbuches eine wichtigere Rolle zukommen, als ihm herkmmlich zugestan-
den wird.
9
Contrary to 2 Kgs 16:5, Isa. 7:1 continues the singular form.
10
The biblical citations in this contribution are in general based on the NRSV, but
occasional alterations are not explicitly mentioned.
11
The verb in the context of fighting usually means to prevail, to over-
come, referring to a human enemy. See Num. 22:11 perhaps I shall be able to over-
come them; 1 Sam. 17:9 (cf. 17:33) If he is able to overcome me; and Jer. 1:19;
15:20.
12
The phrase is frequently used with respect to cities (e.g. Deut. 20:10,
19; 2 Kgs 12:17; 19:8; Jer. 32:29; 34:1, 7, 22).
13
It has been often suggested that Isa. 7:1 being dependent on 2 Kgs 16:5
represents a Fremdkrper within 7:1-17. This exegetical survey shows, however, that
7:1 is fully integrated within 7:1-17 as a composition.
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 25

marks Isa. 7:1-17 in general. In its present form Isa. 7:1 implies that the
assault was prevented not so much for the sake of Ahaz, but for the sake
of Jerusalem as Yahwehs protected city. In order to corroborate this
suggestion, a closer look at Isa. 7:1-17 and 2 Kgs 16 is in order.
Isa. 7:1-17 is a narration about the prophet Isaiah and king Ahaz, in
which Ahaz is depicted as an example of the lack of understanding and
disobedience that was announced in 6:9-10. This is indicated by two
textual markers. The first is the reference to Uzziah in Isa. 7:1, which
connects the story with 6:1. Instead of referring to Ahaz son of
Jotham, 14 7:1 mentions Ahaz son of Jotham son of Uzziah. This is
remarkable, since it is exceptional for a dating formula to include a refer-
ence to the third generation. It is to be explained as a deliberate focus on
Uzziah, aiming to create a link with chapter 6, which dates Isaiahs vi-
sion in the year king Uzziah died (6:1). The connection implies that the
events announced in chapter 6, i.e. in 6:9-11, begin to take place in this
episode, 7:1-17. The second marker is the imperative in Isa. 7:13,
which echoes 6:9 (for this point, see below). Although Isa. 7:1-17 is a
composition with a clear dynastic-critical tendency, it incorporates het-
erogeneous material:
(a) Isa. 7:1 refers to a war ( )of Aram and Israel against Jeru-
salem. The verses that follow however merely describe the threat that
Aram posed to Ahaz and his people (Isa. 7:2) and the plan of Aram to
invade Judah in order to replace Ahaz (7:6). The announcement of Isa.
7:7, insisting that this evil plan would not come true, might suggest that
it did not come to war.
(b) Isa. 7:9b and 7:13-14a address a plural subject, whereas Ahaz is
addressed in the singular throughout (7:4, 5, 11, 14b, 16). Moreover, the
oracles addressed to Ahaz in the singular (Isa. 7:4-9a, 14b, 16) are en-
couraging in tone. The plural passages, by contrast, display a dynastic-
critical tendency.
An explanation for these apparent disparities may start with verse 10
Yahweh went on to speak to Ahaz, or Again Yahweh spoke to
Ahaz which obviously stems from the composers hand. Although it
apparently contrasts with the immediate context where Isaiah is speak-
ing, it continues Isa. 7:3 () . Verse 10 functions as introduction
of a second scene (vv. 10-17), which parallels the first scene (vv. 1-9).
This being the case, the verse betrays a composer who neatly arranged
the material he had at his disposal: two prophetic oracles, now found in

14
Note that in the dating formula of 2 Kgs 16:1, Ahaz is introduced as might be
expected: Ahaz son of Jotham.
26 M.J. DE JONG

Isa. 7:4-9a (preceded by an early note on the historical setting, 7:2-3a:)15

and 7:14b, 16. The disparate character of the composition of Isa. 7:1-17
can be explained as follows. The earliest material consisted of two ora-
cles of encouragement to king Ahaz. The oracles themselves do not re-
flect any criticism against the king, but instead support him. At a later
stage however the oracles were incorporated in a composition that dis-
plays a tendency of threat and disaster.16
The first oracle, Isa. 7:4-9a, may have originally consisted of the fol-
lowing text:
4 Be careful and keep quiet, do not fear,
and do not let your heart be faint because of these
two smouldering stumps of firebrands.
5 Because Aram has plotted evil against you, saying:
6 Let us invade Judah, terrify it, and cleave it openfor ourselves
and let us make the son of Tabeel king in it;17
7 therefore thus says the Lord Yahweh:
It shall not stand, and it shall not come to pass.
8 For the head of Aram is Damascus, and the head of Damascus
is Rezin.
9 The head of Ephraim is Samaria, and the head of Samaria is
the son of Remaliah.
The oracle has been expanded in various ways. Some minor additions
were made in Isa. 7:4 and 5 to explicitly identify the aggressors as Rezin
and Pekah.18 A further addition consisted of Isa. 7:8b, within sixty-five
years Ephraim will be shattered, no longer a people, which interrupts the
coherence of 7:8a and 9a and does not make sense within the scope of
the oracle.19

15
Isa. 7:2-3a* provides the earliest setting of the oracle 7:4-9a*. According to Isa.
7:2 the army of Aram is camping in the country of Ephraim (this situation corre-
sponds with Arams plan to invade Judah, 7:6). The house of David is referred to in
the singular (contrary to Isa. 7:13). Furthermore, the mention of Isaiahs son, Shear-
jashub (Isa. 7:3), is likely to represent an early tradition. See J. Barthel, op. cit., 166.
16
J. Barthel, op. cit., 63, 151-3.
17
It is generally accepted the vocalisation , good for nothing, is tenden-
tious, replacing the original , El/God is good (cf. Ezra 4:7, Zech. 6:10, 14,
and Isa. 7:6 in LXX).
18
Isa. 7:4b explicitly mentions Rezin and Pekah as referents of these two smoul-
dering stumps of firebrands, see, e.g., J. Werlitz, Studien zur literarkritischen Me-
thode: Gericht und Heil in Jesaja 7,1-17 und 29,1-8 (BZAW 204), Berlin/New York
1992, 215, 219; Barthel, op. cit., 133. Furthermore, the grammatical correspondence
of and suggests that 5b is a later addition too, see, e.g., S.A. Irvine, Isaiah,
Ahaz, and the Syro-Ephraimitic Crisis (SBL.DS 123), Atlanta 1990, 152.
19
J. Werlitz, op. cit., 199, 214, 250.
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 27

The most significant addition to the oracle is Isa. 7:9b: If you do not
stand firm in faith, you shall not stand at all. It is unlikely that 7:9b be-
longed to the original oracle. First, it addresses a plural subject, in con-
trast with the oracle, which is addressed to Ahaz in the singular. Second,
the conditional threat expressed in Isa. 7:9b contrasts with 7:4-9a as an
oracle of encouragement. The oracle exhorts Ahaz to persist his policy of
neutrality and not to give in to the pressure of the anti-Assyrian coali-
tion. 20 Isa. 7:9b on the other hand introduces a condition of faith ad-
dressed to a plural subject. The terminology of Isa. 7:9b suggests the
following explanation. The verb alludes to Yahwehs promise to the
Davidic dynasty. In 2 Sam. 7:16, Yahweh says: Your house and your
kingdom shall be made sure ( ni.) forever before me; your throne
shall be established forever.21 Isa. 7:9b reformulates the Davidic cove-
nant by changing the promise into a negative condition. In this way, it
gives a twist to the oracle to Ahaz.22 Isa. 7:9b is to be read as a commen-
tary on the earlier oracle, as part of the reworking of the prophetic ora-
cles into the composition of 7:1-17.
The second scene, Isa. 7:10-17, can be equally explained from the
suggestion that an original oracle of salvation was secondarily reworked
into a context of threat. The birth oracle concerning Immanuel is a
straightforward announcement of salvation.23 Its immediate context how-
ever consists of threatening words that announce judgement over the
house of David.24 The oracle originally consisted of Isa. 7:14b and 16.
Isa. 7:15, on the contrary, is a later relecture of the oracle that focuses on
the figure of Immanuel himself rather than on the events of which he was
a portent.25

20
J. Barthel, op. cit., 165-6. According to H.G.M. Williamson, The Messianic
Texts in Isaiah 1-39, in: J. Day (ed.), King and Messiah in Israel and the Ancient
Near East (JSOT.S 270), Sheffield 1998, 251, the implied conclusion is that Ahaz is
the divinely appointed head of Judah and Jerusalem and that he can therefore face the
enemy in battle with confidence (note that, in footnote 26, Williamson interprets
7:4-9a* as a war oracle).
21
See also 1 Sam. 25:28 and 1 Kgs 11:38.
22
J. Barthel, op. cit., 133-9; cf. J. Werlitz, op. cit., 160.
23
J. Barthel, op. cit., 141.
24
J. Barthel, op. cit., 139.
25
Isa. 7:15 is a later interpretation of 7:16. Whereas verse 16 refers to the age of
discrimination, verse 15 interprets it as indicating moral responsibility. According to
verse 15, Immanuel must suffer hardship in order to be able to choose the good and
to reject the evil. Further indications for verse 15 as reflecting a later interpretation
are: (a) the verse is constructed of elements taken from verses 16 and 22b; (b)
whereas in verse 16 the absolute infinitives are spelled defectively, they are written
plene in verse 15; (c) form-critically speaking, verse 15 is must be secondary, since it
disrupts the birth oracle. See J. Barthel, op. cit., 142; J. Werlitz, op. cit., 182-6.
28 M.J. DE JONG

14 Look, the young woman is pregnant and is about to bear a son, and
you must name him Immanuel,
16 for before the child knows how to refuse the evil and choose the
good, the land before whose two kings you are terrified will be de-
serted.
This oracle consists of four elements that are constitutive of the pattern
of birth oracles:
a. A statement or announcement of pregnancy, beginning with ;
b. an announcement of birth of a son;
c. the order for name giving;
d. an explanation of the meaning of the name, beginning with .26
Ahaz is the recipient of the oracle (, verse 16). Since within birth
oracles the order of name giving is always directed to the addressee of
the oracle,27 the subject of the ambivalent form in Isa. 7:14b must
be Ahaz.28 The form is to be read as
you must name. The much-
adopted reading of a third person feminine singular is to be rejected on
form-critical grounds.29 The reading of a third person feminine singular
corresponds with the later relecture of the birth oracle. Immanuel was
disconnected from Ahaz as name giver in order to make the announce-
ment valid for later times. Whereas in the original oracle Yahwehs be-
nevolence implied by the name Immanuel applies to Ahaz, the alterna-
tive she will name him creates the possibility to interpret Yahwehs
benevolence as referring to a circle different from the king and the sinful
people.30
The two oracles of encouragement, Isa. 7:4-9a: and 7:14b, 16, are
closely related. Both address Ahaz and support him in an urgent situa-
tion. The name Immanuel refers to imminent rescue from the aggressors
and reinforces the exhortation to resist the anti-Assyrian coalition and the
promise of salvation by Yahweh. Furthermore, the son Immanuel forms
26
J. Barthel, op. cit., 141.
27
See Gen. 16:11-12; 17:19; 21:2-3; Judg. 13:3-5, 24; Isa. 8:3; Hos. 1:2-9; Mt.
1:20-21; Lk. 1:30-31. Gen. 16:11 and 17:19 clearly illustrate the form-critical feature
that the addressee, either man or woman, is ordered to give the name. Gen. 16:11:
Now you (f.) have conceived and shall bear a son, and you (f.) shall call ()
him Ishmael; and 17:19: your wife Sarah shall bear you a son, and you (m.) shall
name ( ) him Isaac. See J. Barthel, op. cit., 141-2 and 145.
28
J. Barthel, op. cit., 122.
29
Besides, reading a third person feminine requires a change of the consonant text
to ( cf. Gen. 29:35; 30:6; 1 Chron. 4:9). MTs is a second person femi-
nine (cf. Gen. 16:11), which is impossible in this context (1QIsaa is likely to be
an adaptation to Isa. 8:3, or 9:5).
30
J. Barthel, op. cit., 178, 180.
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 29

a contrastive parallel to the son of Tabeel.31

The birth oracle of Isa. 7:14b, 16 is an announcement of salvation for
Ahaz. Isa. 7:14a (), however, seems to introduce a word of judgement
in reaction to Ahazs disbelief. Within the composition, verse 13 func-
tions as an accusation against Ahaz, which is followed by an announce-
ment of judgement introduced with ( Isa. 7:14-17).32 In this way, the
birth oracle is incorporated into a literary context that gives the oracle a
new twist. Isaiahs critical encounter with Ahaz in Isa. 7:10-13 is fol-
lowed by an announcement of judgement in 7:14-17. The plural ad-
dressee in Isa. 7:13-14a disrupts the dialogue between Isaiah and Ahaz.
These verses give a negative twist to the oracle of salvation. The house
of David, addressed in the plural, is accused of stubbornness. The excla-
mation in Isa. 7:13 echoes 6:9. The Davidic dynasty, represented
by Ahaz, is accused of the kind of behaviour mentioned in Isa. 6:9. The
plural forms imply that the criticism applies not only to Ahaz, but also to
the Davidic dynasty as a whole. The composition reflects the view that
the kings of Judah, represented by Ahaz, by their continuous disobedi-
ence and lack of trust have exhausted the patience of Yahweh and his
prophets.33 Isa. 7:13-14a is connected with 7:9b. Both passages are in the
plural and display a dynastic-critical tendency. 34 So, both scenes, Isa.
7:1-9 and 7:10-17, contain an oracle of salvation for Ahaz that is en-
closed in a literary framework characterised by threat and criticism.35
Whereas the oracles address Ahaz, the plural passages address the
Davidic dynasty as a whole. Isaiahs opposition to the Davidic dynasty in
Isa. 7:1-17 parallels his opposition to the people ( ) in 6:9-10 and
8:5-8, 8:11-15. To some extent, the people are included in the composi-
tional perspective of Isa. 7:1-17 as well. The lack of faith, exemplified by
Ahaz, will cause disaster both for the dynasty and for the people (7:17).
The criticism in Isa. 7:1-17 is not directed to the foreign policy of Ahaz
in particular, but to the policy of the Davidic dynasty in general, which,
as we know, ultimately resulted in disaster.
To conclude, Isa. 7:1-17 contains two oracles addressed to Ahaz that

31
See also the repetition of the verb , which occurs both in verse 6 (hi. to
frighten), and in verse 16 (qal to fear); see H. Wildberger, Jesaja 1-39 (BK 10),
Neukirchen-Vluyn 1982, 266, and J. Barthel, op. cit., 120.
32
J. Barthel, op. cit., 146.
33
J. Barthel, op. cit., 172-3.
34
M.A. Sweeney, King Josiah of Judah: The Lost Messiah of Israel, Oxford/New
York 2001, 242, notes that the contrastive portrayal of the faithless Ahaz versus the
faithful Hezekiah is highlighted by the phrase of verse 9b, since verse 9b refers to the
ideology of Yahwehs promise of security to Jerusalem and to the dynasty of David.
35
See J. Barthel, op. cit., 150.
30 M.J. DE JONG

were reworked into a composition that criticises the Davidic dynasty,

exemplified by Ahaz, and announces its destruction.

2.3. Isaiah 7:1-17 as a Composition

Apart from Isa. 7:1, which as we have seen is dependent on 2 Kgs 16:5,
Isa. 7:1-17 contains two further cases of elements taken from elsewhere.
These two cases indicate that Isa. 7:1-17 has been composed as purpose-
fully mirroring the story of Hezekiah.
(1) The first is the detailed description of the location where Isaiah is
to meet Ahaz (Isa. 7:3b). This resembles the location of 2 Kgs 18:17 (Isa.
36:2) where the Assyrian delegation takes up position: (at the end of)
the conduit of the upper pool on the highway to the Fullers Field. Such
detailed topographical indications are exceptional in the Hebrew Bible
and the close similarity in wording points to a relation of literary de-
pendency. The description has its natural position within the context of 2
Kgs 18:17 (Isa. 36:2). In this story, the exact locality is of utmost signifi-
cance. The Assyrian delegation is posted outside the city of Jerusalem (2
Kgs 18:17), and a Judaean delegation gets out of the city to negotiate
(18:18). Their conversation is however audible for the Judaean people on
the city wall (2 Kgs 18:26). The credibility of this scene depends on the
precise position of the Assyrian delegation at a strategic spot, outside,
but close to, the city wall. For Isa. 7:1-17, by contrast, the place where
Isaiah is to meet Ahaz is hardly relevant at first sight. Its significance lies
in the parallel it creates with the Hezekiah story. The similarity in loca-
tion establishes a comparison between Hezekiah and Ahaz, who both
face an enemy assault, and who are both put to the test: trusting in Yah-
weh or not.
(2) The second case concerns the , the sign for Ahaz.36 Ahaz is or-
dered to ask for a sign (Isa. 7:11), and the sign given to him is the birth
of a son to be named Immanuel (7:14b, 16). However, the description of
the sign in Isa. 7:11 does not correspond to the sign actually given. Isa.
7:11 refers to a confirmatory sign, a sign confirming the accompanying
prophetic message, and the characterisation deep as Sheol or high as
heaven,37 points to its miraculous character.38 This resembles the reced-
ing shadow (2 Kgs 20:8-11 // Isa. 38:7-8, 22), a confirmatory sign of a

36
See P. Ackroyd, Isaiah 36-39: Structure and Function, in: W.C. Delsman
(ed.), Von Kanaan bis Kerala (FS J..P.M. van der Ploeg) (AOAT 211), Neukirchen-
Vluyn 1982, 17-8.
37
The vocalisation ( MT) is irregular, but the contrastive parallelism with
high as heaven and the versions secure the interpretation deep as Sheol.
38
J. Barthel, op. cit., 171-2.
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 31

miraculous character requested by Hezekiah. The actual sign of Isa.

7:14b, 16 is of a very different character.39 It is not an unusual feature of
the childs conception or birth, but sets a time-limit for the fulfilment of
the announcement, before the child will reach the age of discretion.40 The
description of the sign as a miracle by the redactor-composer (Isa. 7:11)
hardly evolved from the material at his disposal (the birth oracle), but
can be explained as a meaningful reference to 2 Kgs 20 // Isa. 38, where
Hezekiah asks for a sign ( )from God. The argument between Isaiah
and Ahaz concerning the request of an ( Isa. 7:11-14) deliberately
contrasts with Hezekiahs pious request for a sign.41
In both cases, Isa. 7:1-17 borrows from 2 Kgs 18-20 // Isa. 36-38. The
composition of Isa. 7:1-17 deliberately mirrors the Hezekiah stories. The
disobedient Ahaz is contrasted with the faithful Hezekiah. 42 Whereas
Hezekiah trusted in Yahweh and asked for a sign, Ahaz refused a sign
and did not trust. Isa. 7:1-17 uses the example of the disobedient Ahaz,
who represents the Davidic dynasty as a whole, to explain the disaster
that had come over dynasty and people.43
The next question is, whether the borrowing from 2 Kgs 16:5 in Isa.
7:1 can be understood along similar lines. To answer this question, we
must have a look at 2 Kgs 16:5-9.

39
U. Berges, Das Buch Jesaja: Komposition und Endgestalt (Herders Biblische
Studien 16), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 1998, 111.
40
J.J.M. Roberts, Of Signs, Prophets, and Time Limits: A Note on Psalm 74:9,
CBQ 39 (1977), 477-8.
41
J. Barthel, op. cit., 171, rejects the literary dependency of Isa. 7 on 2 Kgs 20.
He argues that verses 10-12 support the subsequent word of judgement (verses 13-
17) and do not intend to present Isaiah as a miracle worker. However, the description
of the sign in verse 11 does present Isaiah as a miracle worker.
42
The suggestion that Isa. 7:1-17 depicts Ahaz as an antitype of Hezekiah, was
made by O. Kaiser, Das Buch des Propheten Jesaja: Kapitel 1-12 (ATD 17), Gttin-
gen 51981, 143-4, 164; J. Werlitz, op. cit., 225-31; U. Becker, op. cit., 29-31, 36-8,
40-1 (and see already P. Ackroyd, art. cit., 19-20, tentatively). U. Becker, op. cit., 47,
regards 7:1-17 as an attempt to explain the disaster of 587 from Ahazs lack of trust
in Yahweh. Because of his disbelief Ahaz caused the end of the dynasty, which
became a reality with the destruction of the kingdom of Judah in 587.
43
M.A. Sweeney, op. cit., 242-3, to some extent reaches a similar conclusion
Isaiah 7 was deliberately modified to create the contrast between Ahaz and Hezekiah
in Isaiah (243) but his dating of this reworking in the Josianic period cannot be
accepted.
32 M.J. DE JONG

2.4. 2 Kings 16:5-9

The story of king Ahaz as related in 2 Kgs 16,44 apart from the standard
description of the beginning and end of his reign (vv. 1-2a, 19-20), con-
sists of a negative evaluation of Ahaz (vv. 2b-4), followed by a story
that tells how the request for help of Ahaz to Tiglath-pileser (vv. 7-9),
led to cultic innovations, because of the king of Assyria (v. 18b).45 The
tendency of the chapter as a whole is negative. In the present text, the
story (vv. 5-18) serves as an illustration of the negative qualification of
Ahaz as a sinful king (vv. 2b-4). 46 The story however incorporates
earlier material that read on itself is not so critical. A first distinction to
be made is between verses 5-9 (a historical report) and 10-18a (a cultic
report). In verses 5-9, the Judaean king is referred to as Ahaz, and the
name of the Assyrian king is spelled . In 2 Kgs 16:10-18 Ahaz
is referred to as king Ahaz, and the name of the Assyrian king is
spelled . For our purposes, an analysis of verses 5-9 suffices:
5 Then King Rezin of Aram and King Pekah son of Remaliah of Israel
came up to Jerusalem for war; they enclosed Ahaz, but they could
not prevail (him).
6 At that time the king of Edom recovered Elath for Edom, and drove
the Judaeans from Elath; and the Edomites came to Elath, where
they live to this day.47
7 Ahaz sent messengers to King Tiglath-pileser of Assyria, saying, I
am your servant and your son. Come up, and rescue me from the
hand of the king of Aram and from the hand of the king of Israel,
who are attacking me.
8 Ahaz also took the silver and gold found in the house of Yahweh and
in the treasures of the kings house, and sent a payment/bribe to the
king of Assyria.
9 The king of Assyria listened to him; the king of Assyria marched up
against Damascus, and took it, carrying its people captive to Kir;

44
See K.A.D. Smelik, The Representation of King Ahaz in 2 Kings 16 and 2
Chronicles 28, in: J.C. de Moor (ed.), Intertextuality in Ugarit and Israel (OTS 40),
Leiden 1998, 146-65, for an analysis of 2 Kgs 16.
45
S.A. Irvine, op. cit., 79. I agree with K.A.D. Smelik, art. cit., 159 note 62, that
the phrase because of the king of Assyria was added by the author of the story at
the end of his quotation from an earlier source in order to clarify his purpose with the
passage as a whole, i.e. verses 10-18, on Ahazs dealings with Tiglath-pileser.
46
K.A.D. Smelik, art. cit., 164.
47
H. Tadmor, M. Cogan, Ahaz and Tiglath-Pileser in the Book of Kings: Histo-
riographical Considerations, Bib. 60 (1979), 496-7, argue that king of Edom in the
original text became king of Aram, and the name Rezin was added from verse 5;
Edom and Edomites is to be read in the entire verse (cf. 2 Chron. 28:17).
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 33

then he killed Rezin.

This report is a composite text.48 First, verse 6 is only loosely connected

with the rest of the account.49 Furthermore, verses 7-9 give the impres-
sion to continue verse 5, but this is somewhat misleading. Since verse 5
already reveals the outcome Rezin and Pekah were unsuccessful the
appeal of Ahaz to Tiglath-pileser (v. 7) does not follow smoothly. More-
over, verses 7-9 do not mention the (ending of) Jerusalems siege, nor
Rezins return to Damascus, nor the fate of Pekah of Israel.50 Whereas
verses 7-9 are evidently composed as a continuation of verse 5 (see v.
7b),51 verse 5 probably once stood on its own as a short note concerning
an episode from the reign of Ahaz.
The report of verses 5-9 thus consists of a short note (v. 5), which was
at some stage extended by verses 7-9, and combined with the originally
unrelated remark of verse 6. In my view, verse 5 is a relatively early
summary note, which, read on itself, is not negative about Ahaz. It re-
lates to the same period as the oracles of Isaiah, included within Isa. 7:1-
17. However, whereas the oracle Isa. 7:4-9a deals with a threat posed to
Ahaz by Aram and Ephraim,52 with as main accusation their evil inten-
tions, in the report of 2 Kgs 16:5 this has become an actual assault
against Ahaz. To what extent Rezin and Pekah succeeded in taking con-
crete actions against Ahaz remains uncertain. According to the oracle,
they intended to bring about a regime change in Jerusalem in order to
involve Judah in their anti-Assyrian politics. Whether the note of 2 Kgs
16:5 is an adequate description of what happened, or, whether it changed
threat into war for the sake of the story, is difficult to ascertain.53
The later extension of verses 7-9 is not purely fictitious, but makes
48
S.A. Irvine, op. cit., 88; H. Tadmor, M. Cogan, art. cit., 494.
49
According to H. Tadmor, M. Cogan, art. cit., 496-8, verses 5 and 6 refer to two
distinct events. Aram had nothing to do with the war between Edom and Judah, and
the capture of Elath is not to be connected with the Syro-Ephraimite threat posed to
Ahaz. For the account of verse 6, Tadmor and Cogan suggest a seventh-century
background. At the end of the seventh century (or perhaps even later) Edom reas-
serted itself and took up a position hostile to Judah. The insertion of verse 6, in my
view, aimed to contribute to the negative depiction of king Ahaz: during his reign,
Judah lost territory to Edom.
50
A brief description of the measures of Tiglath-pileser against Israel, connected
with the murder of Pekah and the subsequent kingship of Hosea is found in 2 Kgs
15:29-30, but this description is not from a Judaean perspective.
51
S.A. Irvine, op. cit., 85-6.
52
The earliest setting of the oracle Isa. 7:4-9a** is found in 7:2-3*. According to
Isa. 7:2 the army of Aram is camping in the fields of Ephraim (this threat corresponds
to Arams plan to invade Judah, 7:6).
53
Because of this uncertainty, I prefer to use the term Syro-Ephraimite crisis,
rather than Syro-Ephraimite war.
34 M.J. DE JONG

use of two, probably well known, facts: (a) Ahazs submission to Assyria
and the tribute paid to Tiglath-pileser (734 BCE), and (b) the fall of Da-
mascus and the death of Rezin (732/1 BCE).54 According to these verses,
Tiglath-pileser came to Palestine at the request of Ahaz: the appeal of
Ahaz for the first time invited the Assyrians into Judahs affairs. The
appeal of Ahaz to Tiglath-pileser thus marked the start of Judahs servi-
tude to Assyria.55 In my view, 2 Kgs 16:7-9 refers to the same events as
the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser, but from a quite different perspective.
Tiglath-pileser claims that in the course of his campaign of 734, Ahaz of
Judah, together with many other Levantine rulers, submitted to Assyria
and paid a large sum. He claims furthermore that in the campaigns of
733-731, he broke the resistance of Damascus and its allies. 2 Kgs 16:7-9
presents these events from a Judaeo-centred version of this episode. It
tells that Tiglath-pileser came to Palestine at the request of Ahaz to save
him from the Syro-Ephraimite aggression. The events are the same, the
perspective differs. Whereas Tiglath-pileser regards himself as conqueror
of the world, from the Judaean perspective he came to Palestine at the
request of Ahaz.
Ahaz is not described as a vassal or client king asking his overlord for
assistance, but as a powerless king begging a powerful king for help,
submitting himself to his lordship, and buying his assistance with a large
sum. An intriguing question is, whether verses 7-9 are critical regarding
Ahaz, or not. On the one hand, Ahaz achieved what he asked for: Ti-
glath-pileser came to help him, and, in the end, he killed Rezin. On the
other, the passage contains several indications that Ahaz was not just a
clever politician. First of all, Ahaz implores Tiglath-pileser to rescue him
from the hands of his enemies () . This expression normally
denotes rescue initiated by Yahweh, but Ahaz appeals to a foreign king.56
The self-address of Ahaz to Tiglath-pileser, I am your servant and your
son, further emphasises that he chose the Assyrian king rather than
Yahweh for his rescue.57 It seems likely that these verses already assume

54
Tiglath-pileser conquered Aram and laid siege to Damascus in 733. Since Da-
mascus did not fall, the siege was continued in 732, as the Assyrians were determined
to deal decisively with Rezin. It is likely that the city of Damascus fell in 732, that
parts of its inhabitants were deported, and that Rezin was executed. The fact that
Tiglath-pileser did not return to Syria-Palestine implies that he was satisfied with the
outcome of 734-732.
55
H. Tadmor, M. Cogan, art. cit., 505.
56
In addition, H. Tadmor, M. Cogan, art. cit., 499-500, have suggested that the
term bribe, in verse 8, bears a negative connotation.
57
Ahaz, as Davidic king, was both servant and son of Yahweh, see 2 Sam. 3:18;
7:14; 1 Kgs 11:13, 34; Pss. 2:7; 89:4, 27, 40; 132:10. Cf. S.A. Irvine, op. cit., 87-8.
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 35

an ideological contrast between Ahaz and Hezekiah. Hezekiah trusted in

Yahweh and prayed to Yahweh to rescue him from the hand of the As-
syrian king Sennacherib ( ) in 2 Kgs 19:19. Ahaz, however,
begged Tiglath-pileser to rescue him from the hands of his enemies (
) in 2 Kgs 16:7.58 The interpretation of verses 7-9 as a critical pas-
sage is supported by the overall picture of the relation between Judah and
Assyria in 2 Kings. It was Ahaz who made Judah subject to Assyria,
whereas it was Hezekiah who, thanks to his trust in Yahweh, success-
fully threw off the Assyrian yoke.
Evidently, 2 Kgs 16:7-9 is not as overtly critical against Ahaz as Isa.
7:1-17, or as 2 Kgs 16 in its final shape. In the course of time, the picture
of Ahaz became increasingly negative, from 2 Kgs 16:7-9, to Isa. 7:1-17,
to 2 Kgs 16, with as a climax 2 Chron. 28. Whereas the earliest material
included in 2 Kgs 16, namely 16:5 (and the source behind 16:10-18a) is
neutral in tone, the compositions of Isa. 7:1-17 and 2 Kgs 16 are, in dif-
ferent ways, marked by a contrast between Ahaz and Hezekiah.59 I sug-
gest that 2 Kgs 16:7-9 reflects the early stage of this Ahaz-Hezekiah
contrast: instead of buying help and becoming dependent on Assyria,
Ahaz should have trusted in Yahweh, like Hezekiah did.
Based on this survey, the following stages of development may be dis-
cerned.
1. The earliest layer of Isa. 7:1-17 consisted of the two prophetic oracles,
7:4-9a: (with its earliest introduction in 7:2-3a:) and 7:14b, 16. This ma-
terial can be connected with the events of 734-732 BCE. The oracles are
addressed to Ahaz and are characterised by their politically relevant con-
tent and supportive tone. Ahaz is addressed positively, as legitimate king
protected by Yahweh against his enemies.
2. A summary report of the events has been preserved in 2 Kgs 16:5. It is
a neutral report, which is not critical against Ahaz.
3. At some stage, a perception of history came into existence, according
to which Ahaz and Hezekiah were regarded as each others opposites. As
we will see in the second part of this contribution, the development of
this Ahaz-Hezekiah contrast was a result of the ideological reception of
the events of 701 BCE, which focused on the rescue of Jerusalem and
Hezekiahs trust in Yahweh. I have suggested that 2 Kgs 16:7-9, formu-

58
In both cases the request was granted: 2 Kgs 16:9, the king of Assyria listened
( )to him; 2 Kgs 19:20, thus says Yahweh: I have heard ( )you prayer.
59
The contrast between Ahaz and Hezekiah reaches its climax in 2 Chronicles;
see K.A.D. Smelik, art. cit., 180-2.
36 M.J. DE JONG

lated as an extension to 16:5, represented a first exponent of the negative

qualification of Ahaz: Ahaz requested the help of the Assyrian king in-
stead of trusting in Yahweh.
4. The composer of Isa. 7:1-17 pictured Ahaz as a representative of the
Davidic dynasty whose disobedience now in marked contrast to Heze-
kiahs trust both initiated and foreshadowed the downfall of the Da-
vidic dynasty. The change of focus from Ahaz in 2 Kgs 16:5 to Jerusa-
lem in Isa. 7:1 was part of this development. The reason for this is clear:
the composition describes Ahaz as an example of the disobedient royal
house of David. Although for the moment the threat was prevented (Isa.
7:4-9a, 14-16), this was not due to Ahazs merits, but for the sake of
Yahwehs city, Jerusalem.
The composition of Isa. 7:1-17 cannot date from the pre-exilic period.
Since it depicts Ahaz as a negative counterpart to Hezekiah it is unlikely
that Isa. 7:1-17 was composed shortly after the events of 701 BCE, caused
by Hezekiahs foreign policy. 60 Instead, the composition reflects the
disasters of the early 6th century, which included the end of the Davidic
dynasty. Ahaz typifies the disbelief of the Davidic dynasty, and verses
9b, 13 and 17 are to be read from an ex eventu perspective that explains
the end of the dynasty as due to a lack of faith and obedience.61 The
composer of Isa. 7:1-17 uses the negative depiction of Ahaz in con-
trast to Hezekiah, who was saved as a key to his explanation of the
downfall of the Davidic dynasty (7:17).62
The dynastic-critical composition Isa. 7:1-17 concludes with an an-
nouncement of judgement.63 Reference is made to the removal of Eph-
raim,64 and something worse is announced as going to happen: the de-

60
Contra J. Barthel, op. cit., 155-7.
61
J. Werlitz, op. cit., 229-30.
62
The way in which the disobedience of Ahaz functions as an explanation for the
downfall of the dynasty and disaster for the nation (Isa. 7:17), is to some extent com-
parable to the depiction of Manasseh in 2 Kings, whose wicked behaviour effectuated
ultimate disaster (2 Kgs 21:11-15; 23:26-27; 24:2). This does not mean that Isa. 7:1-
17 is Deuteronomistic, but rather points to a broad usage of shared concepts for
interpreting Judahs history.
63
J. Barthel, op. cit., 181, argues that 7:17 announces judgement for Judahs king
and people. The expression hi. with with Yahweh as subject denotes disaster
for the addressees (see J. Barthel, op. cit., 146). More precisely, the combination of
( qal or hi.) with and , with Yahweh as instigator, always refers to disaster:
Jer. 51:47, 52; Amos 4:2 (cf. 1 Kgs 21:29; Jer. 9:24; 17:18; 46:21; Zeph. 2:2).
64
This is, the presumed removal of Ephraim from the united monarchy in the dis-
tant past and the removal of Ephraim from its land in the more recent past (cf. Isa.
7:16: the motive of the abandonment of the lands of Aram and Ephraim). The phrase
, Ephraims removal from Judah, refers to the division of the
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 37

struction of Judah and the end of the Davidic dynasty. In Isa. 7:17, fi-
nally, the reversal of the earlier prophecies of encouragement (7:4-9a:,
14b, 16) is complete.

3. The Development of the Isaiah Tradition in relation to the Zion and

David Ideology

3.1. Isaiah and the David and Zion Ideology

In monarchic Judah, David and Zion functioned as the principal sym-
bols of royal and temple ideology.65 Central to the Zion ideology was the
notion that Yahweh as sovereign king of the earth dwelled on Zion. His
kingship was exalted in terms of his conquest of chaos (i.e. language of
creation) and in terms of his continuing maintenance of universal order,
against both cosmic and historical forces.66 The core of the David ideol-
ogy is, that the ruling king, the son of David, is appointed by Yahweh,
and that his rule is directly connected with Yahwehs governance of the
earth.67 The Davidic king was regarded the legitimate executor of Yah-
wehs rule.68
A much-debated aspect of the Zion ideology is the so-called notion of

united monarchy. A parallel is found in 2 Kgs 17:21, when Yahweh had torn ()
Israel from the house of David ( ) . In that context, Israels separation
from Judah is connected with its exile as being the first and the second step of the
same process. Separation led to exile: Yahweh removed ( )Israel out of his
sight (( ) 2 Kgs 17:22). In Isa. 7:17 a similar association may be implied.
65
B.C. Ollenburger, Zion The City of the Great King: A Theological Symbol of
the Jerusalem Cult (JSOT.S 41), Sheffield 1987, 59-66. For an outline of the David
and Zion ideology, see R. Albertz, A History of Israelite Religion, vol. 1: From the
Beginnings to the End of the Exile, transl. J. Bowden, London 1994, 116-22, The
kingship theology of the house of David (3.21), and 132-8, The Jerusalem temple
theology (3.32). For a recent overview of the scholarly contributions to the Zion
ideology, see J. Dekker, De Rotsvaste Fundering van Sion: Een exegetische onder-
zoek naar het Sionswoord van Jesaja 28,16, Zoetermeer 2004, 208-33. David and
Zion probably are to be distinguished as the central symbols of two different,
though related, traditions (B.C. Ollenburger, op. cit., 59). For resemblances between
the two, see J.J.M. Roberts, The Davidic Origin of the Zion Tradition, JBL 92
(1973), 323-4.
66
B.C. Ollenburger, op. cit.
67
B.C. Ollenburger, op. cit., 30-31; J.J.M. Roberts, art. cit., 336.
68
The traditions concerning Yahwehs kingship on Zion and his Davidic repre-
sentative are comparable to religious traditions elsewhere in the ancient Near East.
See R.E. Clements, Isaiah and the Deliverance of Jerusalem: A Study of the Inter-
pretation of Prophecy in the Old Testament (JSOT.S 13), Sheffield 1980, 77-8; K.
van der Toorn, Een Pleisterplaats voor de Goden: Het Verschijnsel Heilige Stad in
het Oude Nabije Oosten, in: K.D. Jenner, G.A. Wiegers (eds), Jeruzalem als Heilige
Stad: Religieuze Voorstelling en Geloofspraktijk, Kampen 1996, 38-52.
38 M.J. DE JONG

inviolability of Jerusalem, which may be represented by Ps. 46:6: God is

in her (sc. Zions) midst, she shall not be moved.69 Whereas is was pre-
viously suggested that this notion was a central doctrine of the Zion ide-
ology,70 it has been recently argued that this, and similar, phrases are not
to be read as a doctrine, but as expressions of the belief that Yahwehs
presence means protection for Zion, and by implication for Jerusalem.
Central to the Zion ideology is Yahwehs presence on Zion as great king
of the earth. From his dwelling on Zion it followed that this was a secure
place, a place which, as it was held, could not be harmed, and by exten-
sion neither could Jerusalem.71 The inviolability of Zion, and by implica-
tion of Jerusalem,72 may not have been unique within the ancient world.
Main cults of the Mesopotamian cities, for example, had as central con-
viction that their temples represented the midst of the earth, where the
city god dwelled as Lord or Lady of the world. The presence of the city
god meant protection of the temple and by implication of the city.73
Isaiahs supportive stance towards king Ahaz is plain from the prophetic
material that can be connected with the episode of 734-732 BCE. Apart
from the prophetic oracles of Isa. 7:4-9a and 7:14b, 16, discussed above,
various prophetic words dealing with the same subject can be related to
this same episode: 7:20; 8:1-4; 17:1b-3.74 The prophecies reflect a situa-
tion in which Judah, in particular its king Ahaz, is threatened by Aram
and Ephraim. Assyria is presented as the instrument of Yahweh for pun-
ishing the aggressors (Isa. 7:20, 8:4). The oracles encourage Ahaz and
present a declaration of divine support. Rather than the inviolability of
Jerusalem, the oracles presuppose the inviolability of the king and his
dynasty. The kings inviolability grounds in his legitimacy as chosen
one, Yahwehs king.75 It has been suggested that the conclusion of the
oracle, Isa. 7:8a, 9a, implicitly means, for the head of Judah is Jerusa-

69
See further Pss. 48:4; 76:3-4, Mic. 3:11.
70
E.g., J.H. Hayes, The Tradition of Zions Inviolability, JBL 82 (1963).
71
B.C. Ollenburger, op. cit., 66; K. van der Toorn, art. cit., 51.
72
The protection of Zion as Yahwehs dwelling place meant that violating Zion
was an offence against the divine order.
73
K. van der Toorn, art. cit., 45-6; V. Maag, Kosmos, Chaos, Gesellschaft und
Recht nach archaisch-religisem Verstndnis, in: H. Schmid, O.H. Steck (eds),
Kultur, Kulturkontakt und Religion: Gesammelte Studien zur allgemeinen und alttes-
tamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (FS V. Maag), Gttingen 1980, 332-6.
74
The earliest stratum within First Isaiah may be much more restricted than usu-
ally is taken for granted. Instead of assuming that great parts of chapters 1-39 were
composed by the prophet himself or by one of his pupils, I suggest a limited stratum
of prophetic sayings that was developed into a literary unit at a later stage.
75
The inviolability of the king meant that harming or killing the king would be a
sacrilege, a violation of the divine order.
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 39

lem, and the head of Jerusalem is the son of David.76 If so, this supports
the contrast between Ahaz as legitimate king, and his opponents with
their illegitimate candidate, Ben Tabeel. 77 In this respect, Isaiahs
prophecies from 734-732 resemble the prophetic oracles from 7th-century
Assyria.78 In one of these oracles, the goddess Itar of Arbela speaks to
king Esarhaddon: For long days and everlasting years I have established
your throne under the great heavens. [] Esarhaddon, rightful heir (aplu
knu), son of Mullissu!79 In a further oracle, she promises him: Your
son and grandson shall rule as kings on the lap of Ninurta. 80 This is
more or less repeated in another oracle: Your son and grandson shall
rule as kings before Ninurta.81 According to the common ideology in the
ancient Near East, the king was chosen by the gods and enjoyed divine
legitimation. Especially when his position was challenged and threatened
like that of Ahaz in ca. 733, and that of Esarhaddon in the struggle for
the throne against his brothers in 681 there was reason to emphasise
his divine legitimation, and prophecy was a suitable medium to do that.
Isaiah in his encouragement of king Ahaz (Isa. 7:4-9a:, 14b, 16) de-
pended on royal ideology.
Isaiahs attitude towards king Hezekiah was more ambivalent.82 Dur-
ing the reign of Hezekiah, Judah rebelled against Assyria, and suffered
from Assyrias violent reaction in 701. A variety of texts from First
Isaiah reflects the controversy that was going on in Jerusalem in 705-701
regarding the issue of whether or not to rebel against Assyria relying on
Egyptian support: Isa. 28:7b-10:, 28:15-18, 30:1-5, 30:6-8, and 31:1-3,
but also 18:1-6:, 19:1-4:, and 22:15-18. Isaiah criticised the political and
religious establishment in Jerusalem that advocated rebellion against
Assyria by relying on Egypt. Although he does not directly criticise
Hezekiah, he strongly criticises the politics of rebellion adopted by
Hezekiah. In Isa. 30:1-2, 31:1, 3a, and 29:15, we find prophetic sayings,
in which the advocates of looking for support in Egypt are accused of
operating against Yahwehs will. According to the oracle of Isa. 28:15-

76
Among others, H. Wildberger, op. cit., 271.
77
In my view, the composer of Isa. 7:1-17, who added 7:9b after the oracle, un-
derstood very well that the oracle of 7:4-9a* presented Ahaz as the legitimate king
who enjoyed Yahwehs protection, since it was exactly the promise made to David
and his dynasty that was rendered conditional in 7:9b.
78
S. Parpola, Assyrian Prophecies (SAA 9), Helsinki 1997.
79
From S. Parpola, op. cit., 1.6.
80
From S. Parpola, op. cit., 1.10.
81
From S. Parpola, op. cit., 2.3.
82
Isaiahs role in the Hezekiah story is straightforwardly supportive, and similar
to that reflected in prophecies of 734-732. However, the Hezekiah story is a later
reception of the events of 701 BCE.
40 M.J. DE JONG

18, these politicians do not rely on Yahweh, but have put their trust
elsewhere, on Egypt. The saying of Isa. 28:7b-10 makes clear that the
politicians were advised by blind religious experts, who were alienated
from the divine will.
It is exactly in his prophetic criticism that Isaiahs indebtedness to the
Zion ideology becomes apparent. The political and religious leaders
advocating rebellion have violated Yahwehs order by offending Zions
deepest values: justice and righteousness. Zion, where Yahweh is en-
throned, is the place par excellence for social justice and protection of
the poor. The elite of Jerusalem advocating rebellion of bad leadership is
accused by Isaiah in every respect. His political stance is to accept the
Assyrian yoke and to wait for Yahwehs intervention. This he regards as
trusting in, and obeying, Yahweh, and as acting in accordance with the
divine will. His opponents apparently aim to reject the Assyrian yoke
and to rebel, thereby putting their trust in Egypts armed forces. Accord-
ing to Isaiah, this means disobeying Yahweh, and to act in alienation
from the divine will. Since the opponents, according to Isaiah, put their
trust in false ground of security (Yahweh is the only source of security),
they have offended Zions standards of justice and righteousness and
have become oppressors of the poor. Evidently, the controversy whether
or not to rebel against Assyria was not a purely political discussion, but
involved the issue of good versus bad leadership. According to Isaiah,
his opponents have gone politically, religiously, and socially astray
using the values of the Zion ideology as the criterion.83
Isaiahs indebtedness to the Zion ideology especially comes to the
fore in his critical sayings. It appears that the values pertaining to the
Zion ideology provided him with a criterion for judging the subjects of
his critical sayings. This applies not only to the controversy of 705-701,
but also to the prophecies of Isaiah pertaining to other circumstances. In
a similar way, Aram and Ephraim are accused in the prophecies relating
to 734-732 BCE,84 and Assyria in prophecies that probably relate to 720
85
BCE. Whereas the political leaders are characterised as internal enemies
of Judahs well-being, Aram-Damascus and Ephraim-Samaria, and As-
syria, are depicted as external enemies. Although they are accused of
different offences, they are blamed in a rather similar way. At first,

83
From this perspective, the critical woe-sayings that are included in chapters 5
and 10 (5:8, 11, 18-19, 20, 21, 22-23; 10:1-2) may be connected with this same con-
troversy too.
84
Isa. 7:4-9a**; 7:14b, 16; 8:1-4.
85
The prophetic material that in all likelihood relates to 720 BCE, the campaign of
Sargon II against the West, consists of Isa. 10:5-15*, 10:24-25, 10:28-32; and 28:1-4.
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 41

Aram-Damascus and Ephraim-Samaria are criticised for their evil plan,

against the will of Yahweh (Isa. 7:5-7), and their punishment is an-
nounced (7:16; 8:1-4; 17:1-3:). Furthermore, in Isa. 28:1-4, the pride and
arrogance of Ephraims leaders again comes to the fore. Their drunken-
ness images their blindness for the actual situation, which is governed by
Yahweh. Then, in Isa. 10:5-15:, Assyria is criticised. Being Yahwehs
instrument for taking action against Judahs enemies (Isa. 7:16; 8:1-4;
10:5-6), Assyria went too far. It had its own agenda, namely to conquer
the world. Since this affected Judah too, Assyria is criticised (Isa. 10:5-
15:).
Different though these accusations are, the negative qualification is
the same: in every case the enemies of Judahs well-being are pictured as
being arrogant, relying on themselves, and being alienated from Yah-
wehs will. This need not surprise us. It has been pointed out by Ollen-
burger that exactly this arrogance, self-willedness, self-reliance is
the fundamental sin within the Zion ideology. 86 The typical offence
against Zion is not taking Yahweh into account. This arrogant, self-
willed behaviour necessarily results in failure and punishment.
In every case the bad-guys have offended something inviolable.
Aram-Damascus and Ephraim-Samaria have violated Yahwehs order by
threatening Yahwehs king. Assyria has violated Yahwehs order by
incorporating Judah as a vassal kingdom into its empire. The political
and religious leaders advocating rebellion have violated Yahwehs order
by offending Zions deepest values: justice and righteousness.
The 8th-century material in book of Isaiah is thus dependent both on the
Davidic ideology and on the Zion ideology. Important notions are the
inviolability of the king, of the land, and of Zion and its values of justice
and righteousness. The ideological concepts reflected by the Isaianic
material have their parallels in ancient Near Eastern traditions. Isaiah
depended on the David and Zion ideology, which in fact are the Ju-
daean variants of shared ancient Near Eastern traditions. 87 Accusing
ones opponents of arrogant and self-willed behaviour, against the will of
the gods, is a well-known topos in the ancient Near East. A clear exam-
ple comes from an inscription of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon. He de-
scribes the strife he fought with his brothers for the throne of Assyria,
and in retrospect qualifies their actions as opposed to the will of the

86
See B.C. Ollenburger, op. cit., 70, 79-80, 84-100, 104-30, 136-8.
87
This is hardly remarkable, since for Isaiah the David and Zion traditions were
not notions he could freely choose to adopt or not adopt, but rather represented major
aspects of his worldview.
42 M.J. DE JONG

gods: I said to myself: Their deeds are arrogant, they trust in their own
plans. What will they do in their disregard of the gods? 88 This is of
course the point of view of Esarhaddon, who regarded himself as the true
heir to the throne. One need not doubt that his brothers would have de-
scribed their own deeds quite differently, had they still been alive.89 Both
the Assyrian descriptions and Isaiahs sayings represent a partial point of
view, their opponents held quite a different opinion. Isaiahs indebted-
ness to the Zion and David traditions furthermore points to the ancient
Near Eastern milieu of which the prophet was part.
The prophecies from Isaiah show a certain development of thought.
During a first stage, 734-732, Isaiah addressed Ahaz as legitimate king,
protected by Yahweh against his enemies. At this stage, Assyria is re-
ferred to as Yahwehs instrument, with which he punishes the aggres-
sors. In the years that followed, it appeared that Assyria did do this, but
also that it did more. In Isa. 10: Assyria is accused of having adopted an
agenda of worldwide conquest, and of operating self-willedly, without
taking Yahwehs orders into account. The implication of this criticism is,
of course, that Assyria is to be punished for this. The criticism of Assyria
did not mean, however, that the prophet approved of rebellion against
Assyria; on the contrary, during the years 705-701 he sharply criticised
the politics of rebellion advocated by Judahs political elite and adopted
by king Hezekiah.
Isaiahs prophetic sayings relate to concrete historical episodes from
the later part of the 8th century.90 His position is best characterised as pro-
Judaean. He wanted the best for Judah and believed that Yahweh, at his
own time, would deal with Assyria. Yet he radically opposed against
seeking the help from Egypt in the strife against Assyria. Isaiah, on the

88
R. Borger, Die Inschriften Asarhaddons, Knigs von Assyrien (AfO Beiheft 9),
Graz 1956, 42.
89
Some further examples from the inscriptions of Ashurbanipal may be men-
tioned. (1) From the description of the Elamite king Teumman: In Elam he boasted
in the assembly of his troops, but I trusted in Itar, who encouraged me (R. Borger,
Beitrge zum Inschriftenwerk Assurbanipals, Wiesbaden 1996, 97-98, B iv 99-v 2).
(2) The description of Taharqa of Egypt and Nubia: He (i.e. the Cushite king
Taharqa) forgot the power of Aur and Itar, and the great gods, my lords, and
trusted in his own strength (var. his own wisdom) (R. Borger, op. cit., 17, A i 56-57 /
B i 55-56). (3) The qualification of Teumman: Teumman who did not respect the
gods (R. Borger, op. cit., 99, B v 35).
90
The passages from First Isaiah that with confidence can be dated to the latest
part of the eighth century, relate to the political issue what position to adopt towards
Assyria. The most secure ground for identification of the earliest stratum within First
Isaiah is the political controversy of the late eighth century. This is also the view of J.
Hgenhaven, The Prophet Isaiah and Judaean Foreign Policy under Ahaz and Heze-
kiah, JNES 49 (1990), 351.
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 43

whole, supported the existing order. In 734-732, he straightforwardly

supported king Ahaz, and in 705-701, he rejected the politics of rebel-
lion, adopted by Hezekiah, as posing a threat to Judahs well-being.

3.2. Seventh-century Developments

The Isaianic tradition underwent a significant development in the 7th
century. This development is inseparably connected with the 7th-century
reception of the events of 701 BCE. For Judah, 701 BCE was a disastrous
year. Sennacherib, on his third campaign, captured and destroyed many
Judaean cities, and part of his army laid siege to Jerusalem.91 Although
the precise course of events is debated, the outcome was that Hezekiah
submitted again to the Assyrian yoke and paid a huge tribute.92 Apart
from the inscriptions of Sennacherib, the events are reported in the so-
called A-account, 2 Kgs 18:14-16. This account is hardly flattering of
Hezekiah: his revolt resulted in a huge disaster, he admitted that he had
sinned, and paid a huge tribute to Sennacherib. In 2 Kgs 18:14 Hezekiah
says to Sennacherib: I have done wrong; withdraw from me; whatever
you impose on me I will bear.
By contrast, what was stressed afterwards was the fact that Jerusalem
had been spared.93 Crucial for the Judaean reception of the events was
yet another incident, namely the violent death of Sennacherib in 681.94 In
the later story of the siege of Jerusalem, Assyrias threat against Jerusa-
lem and Sennacheribs murder are directly connected. 95 This may be
illustrated by an outline of the earliest version of the story from the book
of Kings, so-called B1-story.

91
A. van der Kooij, Das assyrische Heer vor den Mauern Jerusalems im Jahr 701
v.Chr., ZDPV 102 (1986), 97-8, points out that Jerusalem was besieged by means of
a blockade, not by a frontal assault.
92
For some recent literature on the events of 701 BCE, see A. van der Kooij, art.
cit.; N. Naaman, Hezekiah and the Kings of Assyria, Tel Aviv 21 (1994), 235-254;
W.R. Gallagher, Sennacheribs Campaign to Judah: New Studies (SHCANE 18),
Leiden 1999; E.A. Knauf, 701: Sennacherib at the Berezina, in: L.L. Grabbe (ed.),
Like a Bird in a Cage: The Invasion of Sennacherib in 701 BCE (JSOT.S 363),
London 2003, 141-9; W. Mayer, Sennacheribs Campaign of 701 BC, in: L.L.
Grabbe (ed.), Like a Bird in a Cage: The Invasion of Sennacherib in 701 BCE
(JSOT.S 363), London 2003, 168-200.
93
This reception of the events was only possible, if the belief that Yahweh pro-
tected Zion as his abode and, by implication, the city of Jerusalem existed be-
forehand.
94
See A. van der Kooij, The Story of Hezekiah and Sennacherib (2 Kings 18-
19): A Sample of Ancient Historiography, in: J.C. de Moor, H.F. van Rooy (eds),
Past, Present, Future: The Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets (OTS 44),
Leiden 2000, 113.
95
A. van der Kooij, art. cit., 118.
44 M.J. DE JONG

2 Kgs 18:17-19:9a, 36-37 (B1-story): Jerusalem threatened

18:17-35 The Rabshakeh boasts on behalf of Sennacherib and
threatens Jerusalem:
- Egypt cannot save Jerusalem
-Yahweh cannot save Jerusalem
19:1-5 Hezekiah reacts in shock; the prophet Isaiah is consulted
19:6-7 Isaiah delivers a prophecy of encouragement:
- Sennacherib will return to Assyria because of a
rumour he hears
- He will die violently in his own country
19:8- Thus it happens:
9a, 36-37 - Rumour of the coming of Taharqa of Cush causes
Sennacheribs retreat
- In Assyria he is murdered by his sons
Sennacheribs violent death in 681 was interpreted as the punishment for
his threat against Jerusalem.96 The claim that through Yahwehs inter-
vention Sennacheribs campaign against Judah had a dramatic repercus-
sion twenty years later, in his own country, in his own city, in the temple
of his own god and by the hands of his own sons, is a bold one. The
events could only be interpreted in such a way, if the belief of Yahweh as
sovereign of the earth (including Assyria) already existed. 97 Thus, the
reception of the events of 701 in the 7th century, the so-called B1-story,
was possible because of an existent Zion ideology. At the same time, the
reception of 701 also added to the Zion ideology, as it gave a great im-
pulse to the belief of Jerusalems inviolability. 98 Furthermore, the B1-
story gave Hezekiah a positive press.

96
According to the Judaean tale of the events of 701, Sennacheribs fundamental
sin was his arrogance against Yahweh, a theme characteristic of the Zion ideology
(cf. B.C. Ollenburger, op. cit., 79). The story furthermore plays with the role of
Egypt/Cush. Whereas the Assyrian Rabshakeh boasts that Egypt will not save Jerusa-
lem, the mere rumour of Taharqahs approach is said to be sufficient cause for the
Assyrians to retreat. This particular element reflects the difficulties Assyria had in
submitting the Cushite empire especially during the reign of Esarhaddon (see A. van
der Kooij, art. cit., 114).
97
An inscription of Nabonidus explains Sennacheribs murder as Marduks re-
venge for the destruction of Babylon. For the text, see H. Schaudig, Die Inschriften
Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros des Groen (AOAT 256), Mnster 2001, 3.3a
Babylon-Stele, lines 1-41, 515-6, 523. See A. van der Kooij, art. cit., 118.
98
R.E. Clements, op. cit., 83-84, goes too far in regarding the notion of inviolabil-
ity of Jerusalem as a product of the Josianic period, as being part of the reception of
the events of 701.
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 45

Very much in accordance with the B1-story was a revision of the Isaiah
tradition, that can be situated during the reign of king Josiah, during the
later part of the 7th century BCE. This revision is usually called the As-
syria Redaction.99 The theme of the revision is the downfall of Assyria
and the reign of an ideal king in Judah. The revision describes the de-
struction of Assyria in a variety of ways (Isa. 10:16-19; 10:33-34; 14:24-
27; 30:27-33; 31:8-9), with as a continuous factor the assertion that it is
Yahweh that causes the destruction. The Assyrian downfall was located
in the land of Judah, or, more precisely, at Zion (Isa. 14:24-25; 31:8-9).
In addition, the revision contains three texts in which the ideal king is
typified (Isa. 9:5-6, 11:1-5, and 32:1-2). In all cases, the king appears
only after Yahweh has broken the power of Assyria.100 Both the downfall
of Assyria and the reign of an ideal king in Judah, are the work of Yah-
weh, who is depicted as the king of the earth.101 Yahwehs intervention,
leading to the downfall of Assyria and the joy of Judah, is described as
taking place at Zion (e.g. Isa. 30:29). As part of this restoration, Isa.
14:32 expresses the notion of the divine foundation of Zion, which
makes Zion to a safe place: Yahweh has founded Zion, and the needy
among his people will find refuge in her.102
The Assyria revision shows affinity with both the Zion ideology and
the David ideology. The 7th-century revision of the Isaianic material
echoes the reception of the events of 701 as expressed in the so-called
B1-story. 103 After the murder of Sennacherib and the subsequent re-
telling of the events in the story of the siege of Jerusalem, the gradual
decline of Assyrias power and its loss of grip on the West reinforced
this line of thought. A further impetus was the promising figure of king

99
The hypothesis of a seventh-century, Assyria Redaction of the earlier material
in First Isaiah goes back to H. Barth, Die Jesaja-Worte in der Josiazeit: Israel und
Assur als Thema einer produktiven Neuinterpretation des Jesajaberlieferung
(WMANT 48), Neukirchen-Vluyn 1977, and J. Vermeylen, Du prophte Isae
lapocalyptique, 2 vols, Paris 1977-1978. R.E. Clements, Isaiah 1-39 (NceB), Lon-
don/Grand Rapids 1980, adopted the proposal of Barth in a slightly modified form,
using the term Josiah redaction.
100
Note that Isa. 9:5-6 follows 9:1-4; 11:1-5 follows 10:33-34; and 32:1-2 follows
31:8-9. The liberation of Judah from the Assyrian dominance is expressed with the
metaphor of the yoke: the Assyrian yoke is removed from the Judaean shoulder (Isa.
9:3; 10:27a; 14:25).
101
Especially Isa. 14:26-27 and 30:27-28.
102
Cf. Pss. 48:9; 87. The notion of divine foundation of temples and cities is well
known in Mesopotamian traditions (e.g. in an inscription of Sennacherib Nineveh is
called primordial foundation, which plan was drawn in the stars from of old).
103
According to R.E. Clements, Isaiah and the Deliverance of Jerusalem: A
Study of the Interpretation of Prophecy in the Old Testament (JSOT.S 13), Sheffield
1980, 15, both originated from the same circles.
46 M.J. DE JONG

Josiah and the rise of an anti-Assyrian, nationalistic spirit in the second

half of the 7th century.
In this intellectual climate, the prophecies of Isaiah were held to have
been come true: Assyria retreated from the West and Judah enjoyed
some political independence under Josiah. Furthermore, during the
course of the 7th century the city of Jerusalem had become more impor-
tant than ever.104 Jerusalems preservation in 701 and especially Judahs
relative independence during Josiah, caused a boost of confidence, per-
haps overconfidence, with regard to Jerusalems protection and the glo-
rious reign of the Davidic king, although the expressions of this confi-
dence or overconfidence must still not be read as a well thought-out doc-
trine of inviolability. The Assyria revision mainly contained traditional
motifs: Zion as Yahwehs abode, Yahweh as king of earth, the son of
David as son of Yahweh. The traditional ideology was consistently ap-
plied to Assyria. Yahweh not only caused Sennacheribs retreat and his
violent death in Nineveh, but also the downfall of the Assyrian empire as
a whole.105
In the time of Josiah, a different view on Assyria became dominant:
that of a former superpower that had been destroyed by Yahweh because
of its wickedness. Josiah was portrayed as a new Hezekiah,106 and Heze-
kiahs image became decisively positive.

3.3. Sixth-century Developments

Hezekiahs positive image continued in the elaboration of the Hezekiah
story (2 Kgs 19:9b-35; usually designated as B2), which probably dates
from the exilic period.107 This addition to the Hezekiah story introduced a

104
M.L. Steiner, De Archeologie over Jeruzalem als Heilige Stad, in: K.D. Jen-
ner, G.A. Wiegers (eds), Jeruzalem als Heilige Stad: Religieuze Voorstelling en
Geloofspraktijk, Kampen 1996, 34-6, describes Jerusalem in the second half of the
seventh century as a primate city, in which all political and economic power of Judah
were concentrated. Whereas many of the sites captured and destroyed by Sennacherib
in 701 were not, or only sparsely, inhabited during the seventh century, Jerusalem
greatly expanded to the biggest city of the region.
105
The downfall of Assyria was sometimes located in Judah, at Zion, since Zion
was, by definition, the centre of the world; cf. R.E. Clements, op. cit., 83.
106
Cf. Isa. 14:28 (14:32); and 9:1-6 as relating to 7:14, now interpreted as Heze-
kiah.
107
N. Naaman, New Light on Hezekiahs Second Prophetic Story (2 Kgs 19,9b-
35), Bib. 81 (2000), 393-402; N. Naaman, Updating the Messages: Hezekiahs
Second Prophetic Story (2 Kings 19.9b-35) and the Community of Babylonian De-
portees, in: L.L. Grabbe (ed.), Like a Bird in a Cage: The Invasion of Sennacherib
in 701 BCE (JSOT.S 363), London 2003, 201-20. A. van der Kooij, art. cit., 119,
argues that the extension of 2 Kgs 19:9b-35 is dependent upon the earlier 18:17-
 FROM LEGITIMATE KING TO PROTECTED CITY 47

new climax to the story: the report that during the night the angel of
Yahweh killed 185. Assyrian soldiers (2 Kgs 19:35). This legendary
element can be understood against the background of the ongoing devel-
opment of the Zion ideology. The extension just went one step further
than the 7th-century revision of the Isaiah tradition, and cast the view that
Assyrias downfall had begun, and literally had been effectuated in Judah
in 701 BCE, into a story.
However, the outspoken positive image of Hezekiah as a pious king
under whose reign the hegemony of the Assyrians had been broken, ap-
parently asked for a counter-image. Hezekiahs positive press apparently
provoked a negative press for his father Ahaz. In this way, we can under-
stand 2 Kgs 16:7-9, as an extension to 16:5. Ahaz is depicted as antitype
of Hezekiah, whose lack of trust in Yahweh led to Judahs submission to
Assyria. And the contrast did not stop here. In the developing Isaiah
tradition, Isa. 7:1-17 took an important position. This is a composition
from the 6th century, based on early prophetic material, but with a new
royal-critical tendency. In this composition, as we have seen, the David
ideology is in fact turned upside down. The aim of the composition is to
show that the Davidic kings, represented by Ahaz, called down misfor-
tune on their own heads by their lack of trust and disobedience. Isa. 7:1
deliberately changed 2 Kgs 16:5. In the story, Ahaz for the moment is
saved, but that is not due to his own position, but thanks to Jerusalem,
Yahwehs city.
In contrast with Ahazs negative depiction, the developing Isaiah tra-
dition took up a markedly positive picture of Hezekiah: the story of
Hezekiah became part of the expanding Isaiah tradition but without the
so-called part A, the historical account in which Hezekiah is depicted
negatively. This development continued in 2 Kings, where Ahaz (2 Kgs
16) in various respects is the bad counterpart to the pious Hezekiah (2
Kgs 18-20), to reach a climax in 2 Chronicles 28 (Ahaz) and 29-32
(Hezekiah).

4. Conclusion

Isa. 7:1 opens a window on Ahaz and Hezekiah in history and tradition,
which sheds light on the importance of the Zion ideology for the devel-
oping Isaiah tradition. The reference to Jerusalem in this verse is far from
arbitrary or innocent. Whereas the David ideology which pervades the

19:9a, 36-37. Note that the whole of 2 Kgs 18:13-19:37 can be read as an ongoing
narration.
48 M.J. DE JONG

early prophetic material of Isa. 7:4-9a and 7:14b, 16 in the composi-

tion of 7:1-17 is critically reconsidered, the image of Zion-Jerusalem as a
divinely protected place is quietly introduced. When, in the exilic and
post-exilic period the Isaiah tradition expanded, it was in particular the
Zion ideology as is evidenced by this volume that accompanied the
various stages of this process.
Zion-Jerusalem is an important unifying concept within the Isaiah
tradition, both from a synchronic and from a diachronic dimension. This
is not to say that the book of Isaiah, the complex product of a multi-
staged process of development, can be fully understood from this single
concept. As we have seen, during the first stages of the Isaiah tradition
its origin in the 8th-century BCE and earliest development in the 7th
century BCE the David ideology was of importance too (esp. Isa. 7:4-
9a; 7:14b, 16; 9:1-6; 11:1-5), and like the Zion ideology, the David ide-
ology survived the crisis of 586 BCE.
This contribution concludes by confirming the importance of Zion-
Jerusalem as a unifying concept for the Isaiah tradition and the book into
which it ultimately grew out, but as a unifying concept not in any exclu-
sive sense as if providing a final interpretation, but rather as a helpful
means to make progression in the exegesis of Isaiah.
 ASSUR AND BABEL AGAINST JERUSALEM
THE READER-ORIENTED POSITION OF BABEL AND ASSUR WITHIN
THE FRAMEWORK OF ISAIAH 1-39

A.L.H.M. van Wieringen

1. Introduction

In the book Isaiah, various cities occur. The main focus is on

Zion/Jerusalem, but she is not the only city of importance in the book
Isaiah. Besides Jerusalem, Assur and Babel occur as well, namely as
hostile to Jerusalem. Although both enemies stand for a nation, they are
usually portrayed as a city with a king at the head of the city.
In this contribution I wish to examine the relation between Jerusalem
on the one hand and Assur and Babel on the other hand, as well as the
similarities and distinctions between these two main hostile characters.
To answer these exegetical questions, I will make use of a reader-
oriented approach.1 The text of the book Isaiah manipulates the reader by
dealing with Assur and Babel. To trace these manipulations, I will first
deal with the reader-oriented textual strategies in general and subse-
quently apply these to Isa. 1-39. After having surveyed the reader-
oriented strategies or techniques in Isa. 1-39, I will describe the model-
ling of Assur and Babel in comparison with Jerusalem within the reader-
oriented outlines of Isa. 1-39.

2. Reader-Oriented Textual Strategies

In every text, a sender-instance in the text is present which communi-

cates with the reader-instance present in the text. Both communication-
instances are text-internal. Usually, they are indicated by terms such as
implied author and implied reader.2 The implied author manipulates the

1
For the position of the reader-oriented approach within the exegesis of the book
Isaiah in the last decades, see P. Hffken, Jesaja: Der Stand der theologischen Dis-
kussion, Darmstadt 2004, 43-4.
2
For a detailed survey of the textual communication-poles, see A.L.H.M. van
Wieringen, The Implied Reader in Isaiah 6-12 (Biblical Interpretation Series 34),
Leiden/Boston, etc. 1998, 22-26; A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, The Reader-Oriented
Unity Of The Book Isaiah (Amsterdamse Cahiers voor Exegese van de Bijbel en zijn
Tradities Supplement Series 6), Vught 2006, 3-7.
50 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

implied reader to involve this communication-instance in the content of

the text. To reach this goal, five reader-oriented strategies exist. I will
discuss them in a climactic order.3
The first strategy (strategy I) is the implied reader as a narrative ob-
server. Every text belongs to one of the two possible text worlds: narra-
tive or discursive. In both these textual worlds, the attitude of the implied
reader is different. Because of the fact that a narrative text is usually
characterised by a third person, while a discursive text is characterised
by a first and / or a second person, a narrative text forms a content, as it
were, outside of the implied reader. The implied reader, leaning back-
wards, is just the observer of a story, only facing the question: How will
it all end?
The second reader-oriented strategy (strategy II) is different. Here, the
implied reader is a discursive witness. The implied reader is not facing a
narrative which takes place outside of him, but seems to receive the in-
formation himself due to the occurrences of a second person in the text.
The third reader-oriented strategy (strategy III) is a specialization of
the second strategy: the we-texts. Because of the fact that discursive
texts are characterised by a first person, a first person plural may occur in
a text. A first person plural, however, especially if such a first person
plural is used by a singular or anonymous sender-instance, can be meant
exclusively as well as inclusively. If used in an exclusive way, the first
person plural only indicates the sender-instance; in an inclusive way,
however, various textual instances, apart from the sender-instance, can
be meant. Through this, the implied reader often obtains a rather intrinsic
access to the text.
The access to the text becomes even more intrinsic if the implied
reader is directly spoken to. This direct address is the fourth reader-
oriented strategy (strategy IV). The implied reader, as it were, has no
possibility anymore to hide, because of the fact that he is immediately
involved.
Finally, as fifth reader-oriented strategy (strategy V), issues can be
discussed in a text which are not implemented in the text itself. The im-
plied reader, therefore, is activated to deal with the outstanding imple-
mentation, i.e. a realisation beyond the text itself. In particular, narratives
with an open end are characterised by this strategy.

3
For a first outline of these reader-oriented strategies, see A.L.H.M. van Wierin-
gen, Jesaja 1-39: Geloof en vertrouwen, in: F. Maas, J. Maas et al. (eds.), De Bijbel
Spiritueel. Bronnen van geestelijk leven in de bijbelse geschriften, Zoeter-
meer/Kapellen 2004, 351-357.
 ASSUR AND BABEL AGAINST JERUSALEM 51

3. Reader-Oriented Strategies in Isaiah 1-39

Isa. 1-39 makes use of all these five strategies, often several times. I will
deal with them in order of the strategies.
The first strategy, the implied reader as a narrative observer, is eye-
catching within the book Isaiah and, therefore, also within Isa. 1-39,
because of the fact that this text primarily is a discursive text. The narra-
tive passages within Isa. 1-39 are restricted: 6; 7:1-17; 8:1-8; 20; 36-39.
In a narrative, the implied reader is the observer of a thrilling story.
For example Isa. 36-37: what will be the end of the siege by Assur? In
the conclusion of the narrative, the denouement appears to be a happy
end.
Concerning Isa. 7:1-17, however, the implied readers position is
more complicated. In verse 1, the narrative starts with a prolepsis, as a
result of which the implied reader does not have to wait for the end of the
story to know the denouement: he already knows how the narrative will
end, even before the narrative has begun. Because of this, Isa. 7:1-17 is
not a thrilling story anyway. The implied reader is thus warned: this
narrative text cannot be read from a perspective of the first reader-
oriented strategy.
Isa. 6 is also a special form of narrative using the first reader-oriented
strategy. The narrative is an I-narrative, i.e. a narrative text which is not
characterised by a third person, but actually by a first person. An I-
narrative has to be located at the utmost verge of the first reader-oriented
strategy, leaning towards the second one.
The second reader-oriented strategy is typical of the major part of the
book Isaiah and, therefore, also of Isa. 1-39. With regard to this strategy,
Isa. 13-14 is especially eye-catching, because this text follows on chapter
12, which is characterised by the highest form of reader-orientedness
(see below).
The third reader-oriented strategy concerns the implied reader and the
we-texts. This strategy is used in Isa. 1:9-10; 2:5; 7:14; 8:8; 9:5; 25:9.
The anonymous we-group which occurs in these texts, provides the
implied reader with the possibility to get involved in this group: a con-
nection is thus made between the sender-instance character and the im-
plied reader.
In Isa. 7:14, this connection is made using the name of the announced
leader figure with an inversion, = with us: God. Because of the
inversion, a contrast arises: and not with you. The implied reader, there-
fore, has to define his position to both the us and the you and
52 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

should choose the us.4 In Isa. 9:5, the connection between the character
us and the implied reader, who chose us, is continued in the birth of
the leader figure.5
In Isa. 1-39, the fourth reader-oriented strategy, the direct discursive
address to the implied reader, occurs in 7:9c-d. The narrative Isa. 7:1-17
is interrupted by the discursive verses 9c-d, in which the implied reader
is directly addressed:6 if you do not have faith,
you will not stand firm.
The narrative Isa. 7:1-17 is not just a thrilling story. The tension is lo-
cated in the direct address to the implied reader: just as King Ahaz can
be confident about God, in the same way the implied reader can be con-
fident.
A similar direct address to the implied reader occurs in Isa. 34:16-17.
Its character, however, is different because of the fact that this address
occurs within a discursive environment. Its effect, nevertheless, is the
same: a distance is created between the context of the discursion and the
direct address to the implied reader based upon the discursive context to
be sure of Gods attention.
Finally, the fifth reader-oriented strategy occurs three times in Isa. 1-
39. The first time a reader-orientedness expressed in an implementation
beyond the text occurs in Isa. 2:2-5. 7 The description that all nations,
including and following the people Israel, go up to the mountain of the
house of the Lord and that, moreover, from that mountain, the Lords
Tora goes out, is not realised within the text of Isa. 1-39 (and neither in
Isa. 40-66). The realisation should be implemented beyond the text. The
responsibility for this is vested within the implied reader.

4
See also A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, op. cit., 136-8.
5
See also A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, The Implied Reader in Isaiah 6-12 (Biblical
Interpretation Series 34), Leiden/Boston, etc. 1998, 37-140.
6
See also C. Hardmeier, Gesichtspunkte pragmatischer Erzhltextanalyse:
Glaubt ihr nicht, so bleibt ihr nicht ein Glaubensappell an schwankende Anhn-
ger Jesajas, WuD NF 15 (1979), specially 40-1; A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, op. cit.,
60; A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, Jesaja 7,9b en het belang van aanhalingstekens, in:
P.H.M. Welzen, M.C.N. Deckers-Dijs et al. (eds), Exegeten aan het werk: Vertalen
en interpreteren van de bijbel: Opstellen van leden van het Bijbels Werkgenootschap
St. Hironymus, s-Hertogenbosch/Brugge 1998, especially 89-95.
7
For a first outline, see A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, The Day Beyond the Days:
Isaiah 2:2 within the Framework of the Book Isaiah, in: F. Postma, K. Spronk et al.
(eds), The New Things: Eschatology in Old Testament Prophecy (FS H. Leene) (Am-
sterdamse Cahiers voor Exegese van de Bijbel en zijn Tradities Supplement Series
3), Maastricht, especially 253-6.
 ASSUR AND BABEL AGAINST JERUSALEM 53

Something similar occurs in Isa. 12.8 This chapter contains a chain of

calls, which the implied reader should complete. The chain will not be
fulfilled within the text of Isa. 1-39 (and neither of Isa. 1-66); beyond the
text, however, it can be realised by the implied reader.
The open end of the narrative in Isa. 39, where it is not told that the
Babylonian mission leaves Jerusalem and where the expression in
my days (verse 8) remains open certainly in combination with the
absence of the mention of Hezekiahs death, is also an excellent form
of the fifth reader-oriented strategy.

4. Reader-Oriented Strategies and the Order of Reading in Isaiah 1-39

The five reader-oriented strategies are not only used in Isa. 1-39, but also
used in a special order, viz. the reading order. This can be outlined as
follows.

1:9-10 2:2-5 6:1-13 7:1-17 8:1-8 9:5 12 13-14 20 25:9 34:16-17 36-39
III V I I I III V II I III IV I
III III V V
IV
The question which has to be asked now is why the mentioned reader-
oriented strategies occur in this order. In other words: what is the reader-
oriented meaning of this order?
Isa. 1-39 starts with reader-oriented strategy III. This implies that, al-
ready at the beginning of Isa. 1-39 (and, therefore, also at the beginning
of the book Isaiah as a whole), the implied reader is connected to the
communication-pole character. The characters which occur in Isa. 1-39,
thus, are not separated from the implied reader; the implied reader him-
self, as it were, is present in the intricacies of the characters.
Immediately after the introduction of Isa. 1-39, viz. chapter 1, the
reader-oriented strategy V is used in Isa. 2:2-5, in which, moreover,
strategy III plays a role again. This means that the most climactic strat-
egy occurs immediately after the connection between character and im-

8
For a first outline, see A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, Isaiah 12,1-6: A Domain and
Communication Analysis, in: J. van Ruiten, M. Vervenne (eds), Studies in the Book
of Isaiah (FS W.A.M. Beuken) (BEThL 132), Leuven 1997, especially 160-71.
54 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

plied reader. Because of this, this fifth strategy spans Isa. 1-39, because
chapter 39 is also characterised by strategy V. This reader-oriented
openness is necessary to take the plunge from Isa. 1-39 into 40-66,
equipped with the confidence the implied reader has obtained in 1-39.
The presence of this solid reader-oriented strategy is also important
because of the fact that Isa. 2:2-5 is the first time in the book Isaiah that
the nations come to Jerusalem/Zion. This text-passage, therefore, is de-
terminative for the way a coming to the city of Jerusalem by a nation-
character has to be considered.
Starting from Isa. 6, the first part of the text-passage 6-12, the reader-
oriented strategies return to a lower level, namely to the first one. The
implied reader is narrative observer. The narrative of Isa. 6, nevertheless,
is a special kind of reader-oriented strategy I, due to the fact that this
story is an I-narrative. Using this reader-oriented construction, the first-
person second-person relation is, as it were, continued from the per-
spective of the preceding chapters, also because of the fact that the I-
figure is a character, even without any direct address to the implied
reader.
The narrativity is continued in Isa. 7:1-17 and, because of that, the
implied readers function of narrative observer too. This function, de-
rived from reader-oriented strategy I, however, is eroded immediately
after the beginning of this text-passage, because the end of the story is
given away by using the prolepsis in verse 1: the military expedition will
not stand a chance, Jerusalem will not be captured, and the house of
David will not come to an end.9
It is exactly this prolepsis which immediately makes clear that it is not
about reader-oriented strategy I in Isa. 7:1-17; different reader-oriented
strategies will exuberantly be applied in this text-passage. First, strategy
IV is used: the implied reader is directly addressed. This occurs in the
verses 9c-d. The narrator (or, if so desired, the implied author) steps, as it
were, aside from the narrative and, in a brief discursive text, speaks di-
rectly to the implied reader, using a second person plural. The meaning
of the narrative text, namely that Ahaz can trust the Lord regarding the
words of the character prophet Isaiah, is directly applied to the implied
reader: he also can trust the Lord, namely regarding the narrative told by
the narrator, whose name is, according to Isa. 1:1, Isaiah and who has a

9
For reconstructions of the historical background of this Assyrian campaign, see,
for instance, recently P. Dubovsk, Tiglath-pileser IIIs Campaigns in 734-732 B.C.:
Historical Background of Isa. 7; 2 Kgs 15-16 and 2 Chr 27-28, Bib. 87 (2006), espe-
cially 157-61.
 ASSUR AND BABEL AGAINST JERUSALEM 55

prophetic function in relation to the implied reader, similar to the charac-

ter prophet in relation to the character Ahaz.
Moreover, these relations assume a relation between the implied
reader and the city of Jerusalem. Exactly because of this connection, the
double communication in Isa. 7:1-17 is possible, namely the connection
between the character the prophet Isaiah and the character King Ahaz on
the one hand and between the implied author Isaiah and the implied
reader on the other hand. Both Ahaz and the implied reader receive the
same message, which is emphasised by assuming the same location: the
city of Jerusalem.
Even a third reader-oriented strategy is used here, viz. strategy III. In
the sign (the verses 14-15) that is given although not to Ahaz, who
does not wish to ask for a sign (verse 12), but to you, the character
Immanu-El is in focus, whose name with us: God not only cre-
ates a contrast with Ahaz, but also, using a first person plural, gives the
implied reader access to the sign.
The use of a solid reader-oriented strategy in verse 14 is of great im-
portance for Isa. 7:1-17, because of the fact that it makes clear the con-
trast between the enemy on the one hand and the city of Jerusalem with
her leader and the implied reader on the other hand.
The reader-oriented strategies within the narrations are subsequently
reduced in Isa. 8:1-8, where the implied reader is not only a narrative
observer, but also is confronted with the name Immanu-El once
again and, thus, with the first person plural, present in this name.
The first person plural is continued in Isa. 9:5. The we-group, which
begun in Isa. 7:14, starts speaking as from Isa. 9:2. In verse 5, it speaks
about the birth of the Immanu-El in the Child that is born to us, and
the Son who is given to us.
The text-passage that started with Isa. 6, is concluded by chapter 12.
This chapter contains a chain of calls the realization of which is beyond
the text, the proclamation towards the nations (verse 4) is after all not
realised within the text itself. Due to this, the most climactic reader-
oriented strategy is used here, having already been used in Isa. 2:1-5 too.
After these texts, the chapters 13-14 appear. They form the initial
chapters of the prophecies concerning the nations, calmly starting with
reader-oriented strategy II: the implied reader is just a discursive witness.
After the climax in Isa. 12, peace and quiet seem to have returned on the
textual front of reader-oriented strategies.
This appearance, however, is deceptive. The nations, which appear in
Isa. 12, are not continued with Assur, but with Babel. The implied reader
is a witness of this shift from the perspective of the chapters Isa. 6-12.
56 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

Though in 7:17 the King of Assur threatens in the wake of the

military expedition against Ahaz, Assurs march in 10:28-32 the third
person plural in verse 28 refers to woe Assur in verse 5
seems to be smothered and destroyed by the Lord in the verses 33-34.
Just as the character Ahaz should not be afraid of Remalyahu and his
companions, the implied reader should not be afraid either, for instance
of Assur, because the implied reader is a witness of how Assur also fails
in its hostile military plans.
At the beginning of the new section Isa. 13-23, especially in the chap-
ters 13-14, Assur is replaced by Babel. As a result of this, the implied
reader is asked to show the same confidence in the Lord as he formerly
showed during Assurs threat, in contrast to the inconfident Ahaz during
Remalyahus miserable threat.
Once again, the implied reader is located in the city of Jerusalem. Be-
fore the chapters 13-14, he has learnt to associate himself with the Im-
manu-El and, therefore, to dissociate himself from Assur; now, in Isa.
13-14, he is expected to do the same in relation to Babel.
Within this new position of the implied reader, expressed in the
reader-oriented strategy of the discursive witness (strategy II), a narrative
occurs just a single time: chapter 20. In that narrative, which is retrospec-
tive by definition,10 a reference is made to Assur and its military cam-
paign. Just as the implied reader was able to transfer from the perspective
of the prolepsis in Isa. 7:1 that Assur will also fail in relation to Jerusa-
lem and the house of David, Assur indeed fails in relation to Jerusalem
and the house of David in chapter 20. The failure is so evident that even
the word Jerusalem is lacking in chapter 20, whereas this is the city
where the character Isaiah must be located.11
After the section Isa. 13-23, two reader-oriented strategies follow in
Isa. 24-35: in the two subsections Isa. 24-27 and 28-35 one strategy each.
In Isa. 25:9, reader-oriented strategy III is primarily present, because of
the fact that a we-text is concerned. This we-text, however, reaches
even farther, for the realization of the revelation of the nations is still
open and is not realised in the text itself.
In Isa. 34:16-17, reader-oriented strategy IV appears. The implied
reader is called upon to read in the book of the Lord. After all, it is the

10
See, for instance, A.J.C. Verheij, Basisgrammatica van het Bijbels Hebreeuws,
Delft 2002, 128.
11
Regarding several historical questions to Isa. 20, see also J.J.M. Roberts,
Egypt, Assyria, Isaiah, and the Ashdod affair: An alternative proposal, in: A.G.
Vaughn, A.E. Killebrew (eds), Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Tem-
ple Period (SBL Symposium Series 18), Atlanta 2003, 265-83.
 ASSUR AND BABEL AGAINST JERUSALEM 57

Lord who allots the country and takes care of the ever-lasting possession
thereof. In this care, it is suitable that the Lord protects the city of Jerusa-
lem from military threats, regardless of from whom such threats origi-
nate.
Isa. 1-39 ends with a narrative part in the chapters 36-39. The implied
reader becomes a narrative observer again. Assur threatens the city of
Jerusalem and, what is more, the new king, Hezekiah, is ill. 12 In the
chapters 36-38, however, no prolepsis occurs, as in 7:1. In principle, Isa.
36-38 has to be considered by the implied reader as a thrilling story.
However, the implied reader can handle the tension, for, in the preceding
chapters, he learned enough about the confidence which can be put in the
Lord regarding the protection of Jerusalem: although no prolepsis is
used, the implied reader already knows that the story will have a happy
ending. And in fact, the narrative has a happy end. Assur must beat a
retreat: first, he has to withdraw from the city of Jerusalem back to his
own country (Isa. 37:36-37); next, the King of Assur is assassinated by
his own sons while worshipping an idol (37:38). King Hezekiah is healed
(Isa. 38:9) and, at that event, he even sings a song of jubilation, present
as a writing in the verses 10-20.
Isa. 39, however, is quite a different story. It is not about Assur, but
about Babel. Will what the implied reader saw concerning Ahaz in rela-
tion to Remalyahu and, next, observed concerning Assur, now be able to
be realised in regard to Babel? This question is all the more exciting due
to the fact that this narrative has neither prolepsis nor conclusion. Con-
versely, it contains only words about exile from the city of Jerusalem to
the city of Babel in the utterances of the character prophet Isaiah in the
verses 6-7. Has the implied reader gained enough confidence in Isa. 1-38
to come through chapter 39, and even more, to take the plunge into 40:1-

12
For issues concerning the historical background see W. von Soden, Sanherib
vor Jerusalem 701 v. Chr., in: R. Stiehl, G.A. Lehmann (eds.), Antike und Univer-
salgeschichte (FS H.E. Stier) (Fontes et commentationes Supplementbnde 1), Mn-
ster 1972, 43-51 [= W. von Soden, Sanherib vor Jerusalem 701 v. Chr., in: H.-P. Mller
(ed.), Bibel und Alter Orient: Altorientalische Beitrge zum Alten Testament von Wolf-
ram von Soden (BZAW 162), Berlin/New York 1985, 149-157]; A. van der Kooij,
Das assyrische Heer vor den Mauern Jerusalems im Jahr 701 v.Chr., ZDPV 102
(1986), 93-109; A. van der Kooij, The Story of Hezekiah and Sennacherib (2 Kings
18-19): A Sample of Ancient Historiography, in: J.C. de Moor, H.F. van Rooy (eds),
Past, Present, Future: The Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets (OTS 44),
Leiden 2000, 107-19; P. Hffken, Sanherib als Gestalt der berlieferung: berlegungen
im Hinblick auf 2Kn 18f. und Jes 36f., BN NF 133 (2007), 23-40.
58 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

11, where he is suddenly located looking backwards concerning the evil

announced in 39:6-7?13

5. The Distinctive Roles of the cities of Assur and Babel within the
Reader-Oriented Framework

At first glance, Jerusalem on the one hand and Assur and Babel on the
other hand seem very much alike. It is true that their names refer to na-
tions, but these are portrayed as cities, ruled over by a king. Both Jerusa-
lem and the enemy seem to be presented within the same city-pattern.
In the narration Isa. 7:1-17, which tells about a confrontation between
Jerusalem and an enemy for the first time, this city-pattern can be seen.
In the narration, the hostile attack from the north is not directed against
Jerusalem (verse 1); more specifically, against
Judah, but against
Jerusalems king (see the verb hi. to make king), as the enemies
express in their direct speech in verse 6. The message about the hostile
invasion, therefore, is primarily directed to the house of David (verse 2);
his people reacts secondarily, as a derivation of the kings reaction,
in exactly the same way. The enemy too is a king in a city. Not only are
all the kings name mentioned at the beginning in verse 1, but they are
also at the centre of interest in the form of their cities Damascus
and Samaria, as God announces his acts against these enemies in
the verses 8-9. Just as, at the conclusion of the narration, the great enemy
is mentioned with a slegdehammer-like effect, he appears exactly as
the King of Assur in verse 17.
Further on in the text-passage Isa. 6-12, this modelling of Assur as a
city with a king is elaborated upon. Just as Assurs domain in the form of
intentions and expressions are dealt with in Isa. 10:7a.7b.7d.7f-g.8b-
11.13b-14, this is about the King of Assur as well.14 This king appears to
have already taken other cities, among which the city Damascus
(verse 9).
Furthermore, this presentation, which agree with the ancient oriental
visiew on the city and state, cannot be separated from the reader-oriented
strategies which the book Isaiah makes use of. Because of the focus on
kings, who are in fact characters in the text, the even more parallel com-

13
For the diachronic consequences of these reader-oriented aspects, see A.L.H.M.
van Wieringen, The Reader-Oriented Unity Of The Book Isaiah (Amsterdamse Cahi-
ers voor Exegese van de Bijbel en zijn Tradities Supplement Series 6), Vught 2006,
especially 214-31.
14
See further: A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, The Implied Reader in Isaiah 6-12 (Bib-
lical Interpretation Series 34), Leiden/Boston, etc. 1998, 165-70.
 ASSUR AND BABEL AGAINST JERUSALEM 59

munication between the characters in Isa. 7:1-17 and between the text-
internal author and reader is created. Just as King Ahaz sits upon his
throne in Jerusalem, the implied reader is located in Jerusalem. From
their identical location, viz. the city of Jerusalem, their reaction is paral-
lelised. In this way, the implied reader can be expected to make exactly
the opposite choice of that made by King Ahaz.
Enemies, such as Assur, have to be immediately put into an unfavour-
able light on account of the reader-oriented strategies. In Isa. 2:2-5, the
nations are presented for the first time in the book Isaiah by using a solid
reader-oriented strategy. In Isa. 2:2-5, however, they are not portrayed as
kings or as cities: their coming is a coming of peace. In Isa. 7:1-17, con-
versely, a nation is coming to Jerusalem ans is presented as king-and-
city: the implied reader immediately recognises the contrast to 2:2-5.
Moreover, the reader-oriented strategies have another effect. The call
for confidence to the implied reader is possible because of the fact that
the implied reader notices the failure of the small northern enemies and,
subsequently, because he is able to transfer this failure to the great en-
emy Assur. Because of this, the effect is created implying that Assur will
be just the same as Rezin cum suis is. Thus a chain of enemies is formed,
which is determinative for the text-passages Isa. 13-22 and 36-39 as well.
The so-called oracles against the nations in Isa. 13-22 begins with a
statement against Babel. This is the first occurrence of the character Ba-
bel in the book Isaiah. Babels importance, also in relation to Assur, is
emphasised by the fact that the headings in this text-passage, formed by
using the technical term ( Isa. 13:1; 15:1; 17:1; 19:1; 21:1, 11, 13;
22:1; 23:1), occur in combination with Babel (viz. in 13:1), but not in
combination with Assur.15 As a first result, Babel shows himself to be
Assurs successor. Next, the new hostile chain of Rezin - Assur - Babel
is extended in Isa. 13:17 with a perspective beyond Babel by mentioning
the Medes.
Because of this literary construction, Babel is semantically modelled
after Assur. This modelling intends to indicate that both Assur and Babel
are one and the same, and even more, that there should be no fear for
both thanks to the Lord.
Just as Assur does not succeed in its military action against Jerusalem,
so Babel does not succeed either. Therefore, Isa. 13-14 starts from the

15
It is true that the word occur in Isa. 14:28, but that verse does not have
the syntactical form of a heading. Pace a vast majority of exegetes, who divide the
chapters 13-14 into something like ten subsections, for instance, recently W.A.M.
Beuken, Jesaja 13-27 (Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament),
Freiburg/Basel, etc. 2007, 23.
60 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

perspective of Babels decline having already occurred. A satirical hymn

to Babels deep downfall is even sung in Isa. 14:4c-21. This point of
view concerning Babel is a reminder of the prolepsis in Isa. 7:1 concern-
ing Remalyahu and his companions. Just as Rezin cum suis, Assurs
predecessor, is a prolepsis to the King of Assur in Isa. 7:1-17, Babel,
Assurs successor, takes on the prolepsis-role in 13-23 concerning Assur
as well (and concerning the Medes in 40-66).
This perspective, strengthened by way of an oracle concerning Assur,
is connected to the text about Babel in Isa. 14:24a. The verbal form
(he) had sworn is a qatal-form and has, therefore, a retrospective verbal
perspective. Moreover, in this direct speech, the Lord first says that he
executes that which he has considered and has decided to do, and, next,
talks about Assur.
Furthermore, the call for confidence, also directed to the implied
reader, is also possible because of the fact that God uses the enemies as
an instrument. Assur does not come of his own accord; in Isa. 7:1-17, he
lies ahead as a punishment by God, just as the Medes lie ahead as a pun-
ishment for Babel in 13:17. Thus both Assur and Babel are discussed in
instrumental terms in the book Isaiah.
Assur is an instrument in the Lords hand. This is already clear in the
statement in Isa. 7:17, in which the verbal form hifil ( he) makes
come is used. That the Lord causes Assur to come, is not the same as that
of Assur coming by himself. Assur claims to be more than just an in-
strument, as appears from Isa. 10:5-11, 15-19. The end of Assurs in-
strumentality automatically means the end of the threat by Assur (Isa.
10:20). It is worth remarking upon that, in particular in Isa. 14:5-7, ex-
actly the same desire to be more than just an instrument is put into Ba-
bels mouth.16 To do so, the following semantic parallels are used:
stick Assur 9:3; 10:5, 15, 24 // Babel 14:5
rod Assur 10:5, 15 // Babel 14:5
wrath Assur 10:5 // Babel 13:13; 14:6
anger Assur 10:5 // Babel 13:5
The same theme also occurs in Isa. 37:21-35. The word to descend
concerning Babel in Isa. 14:11, 15, 19 is also used in 47:1 concerning
Babel.

16
Cf., recently, M. Kszeghy, Der Streit um Babel in den Bchern Jesaja und
Jeremia (BWANT 173), Stuttgart (Kohhammer) 2007, 81-2.
 ASSUR AND BABEL AGAINST JERUSALEM 61

In spite of their strong reader-oriented parallels, Assur and Babel do

not fully coincide with each other.17 They differ as to the way they come
to the city of Jerusalem. That this coming does not succeed where Assur
is concerned, is carefully described in Isa. 1-39. In the verses 18, 19 and
20 of chapter 7, Assurs coming is discussed without mentioning the
place to which Assur is coming (suggesting that Jerusalem is not in fo-
cus). In Isa. 10:28-32, conversely, many topographical names are men-
tioned, but the name of Assur is lacking (suggesting that Assur is not
acting). Moreover, in that verse, the movement suddenly stagnates, for
the breakthrough towards Jerusalem fails to occur, strengthened by Isa.
10:33-34, Assurs destruction. It is true that the chapters 20 and 22 take
place at the time of the Assyrian threat, but nowhere does the text men-
tion the fact that Assur besieges Jerusalem, let done, captures it; and
even more, the proper name Jerusalem is lacking again.
At first sight, Assur seems to come further in Isa. 36-37 than in the
preceding chapters, but in fact this is not further than Jerusalems city
wall, and thus not in Jerusalem. Moreover, military action by Assur
against Jerusalem is not mentioned apart from this, neither is action by
Jerusalem against Assur; and even more, Assurs army remains in
Lakish and only a single military man though of high rank appears
at Jerusalems city wall (Isa. 36:2).
The story concerning Babel is quiet different. Babel sends a mission
in Isa. 39. This mission, however, is not meant to pay a visit to the pa-
tient Hezekiah, nor to congratulate him on his recovery; for the first way-
yiqtol-form, and thus the first narrative action in the story Isa. 39:1-8, is
thereupon he heard in verse 1b, an action taking place after send-
ing the mission.18 The goal of Babels mission is rather hidden in the
military importance of the armoury (verse 2): does Babel have military
intentions with its mission?
The position of Babels mission is totally different from the position
of Assurs army. Assurs army does not enter Jerusalem in the least;
Babels mission, conversely, enters Jerusalem without any problem.
Furthermore, it gets to see everything in Jerusalem. The most striking
difference between Assur and Babel, however, is the fact that, in contrast
to Assurs double withdrawal, no withdrawal by Babel is described any-

17
See also A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, The Reader-Oriented Unity Of The Book
Isaiah (Amsterdamse Cahiers voor Exegese van de Bijbel en zijn Tradities Supple-
ment Series 6), Vught 2006, 218-9. For a survey of the historical affairs between
Babel and Assur, see also, recently, M. Kszeghy, op. cit., 91-104.
18
See also A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, Notes on Isaiah 38-39, BN 102 (2000), 31-
2.
62 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

where in the text; and even more, the fact that Babel actually leaves Jeru-
salem is not mentioned in the text.19
Assur and Babel are also different from the Immanu-El as well, who
performs in Isa. 7:14-15 for the first time in the book Isaiah, also because
of the fact that the Immanu-El differs from Ahaz and Hezekiah. There-
fore, it is remarkable that the Immanu-El is not indicated by using the
term king either in Isa. 7:1-17 or in the following texts. It is true that
he receives royal names in Isa. 9:5 (deviser, hero, father, ruler), but the
word king is not used.20 The Immanu-El is not the king of a city in
the same way Ahaz is king. Conversely, he is the leader of a new group,
who has already became manifest in his proper name by using the
reader-oriented strategy of the inclusive first person plural. From this
perspective, it is significant that the proper name Jerusalem is not di-
rectly connected to the Immanu-El; an indirect relation is made, which
makes it possible to locate the implied reader in Jerusalem as well.
The reader-oriented parallels and distinctions between Assur and Ba-
bel and their contrasts to the city of Jerusalem, therefore, are supported
by the reader-oriented strategies in which the implied reader himself has
to demonstrate the acquired confidence in the Lord, in order to be able to
keep reading starting with chapter 40 from the perspective of Isa. 1-39. 21

19
Parallel to the treasures of Jerusalem, Hezekiah openly shows in chapter 39,
Babel apparently hid the treasures so well that, in chapter 45, God has to open the
doors for Kores to obtain access to the treasures (verse 3).
20
See further: A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, The Implied Reader in Isaiah 6-12 (Bib-
lical Interpretation Series 34), Leiden/Boston, etc. 1998, 130-1.
21
I am greatly indebted to Drs. Maurits J. Sinninghe Damst (Musselkanaal, the
Netherlands) for his correction of the English translation of this article.
 FROM DAMASCUS TO MOUNT ZION
A JOURNEY THROUGH THE LAND OF THE HARVESTER
(ISAIAH 17-18)

W.A.M. Beuken

1. Introduction

Between the larger parts of the book of Isaiah (henceforth BI), the series
of oracles dealing with foreign nations (chapters 13-23) has received the
least attention. This literary complex has often been considered a carry-
over from some of the prophecies: its place in the book then would not
have been well thought-out and it is seen lacking coherence. Still, in
recent research a different opinion is gaining ground: chapters 13-23 and
24-27 are seen forming an integral part of the over-all composition of the
book. U. Berges has worded the new insight in the following way: Die
Orakel gegen die Fremdvlker und das Gottesvolk erreichen ihr Ziel in
der Knigsproklamation JHWHs auf dem Zion (24:23). Damit JHWH
allein Knig sein kann, mssen zuvor die Knigreiche ob ihres Hoch-
muts gerichtet und die Frevler, zusammen mit allen widergttlichen
Mchten, von der Erde vernichtet werden.1
Chapters 13-23 consist of two sets of five oracles (each headed by the
characteristic inscription massa, ). The two sets (13-19; 21-23) are
clustered around the central prophetic symbolic action of chapter 20.2
The prophecies in chapters 13-19 in particular must have experienced a
long history, having come into being over an extended period of time. It
can be shown that each prophecy constitutes a unity identifiable with
earlier or later levels of redaction within this section of the prophetic
book. Considering the prominence of certain cities within these prophe-
sies, I believe that a study of the internal coherence of the fourth massa
oracle (chapters 17-18) will make an interesting contribution to this vo-
lume on The City in the Book of Isaiah.
The fourth oracle opens with the fall of Damascus, the capital of
Aram (Isa. 17:1-3), and closes with Mount Zion, where gifts will be

1
U. Berges, Das Buch Jesaja: Komposition und Endgestalt (Herders Biblische
Studien 16), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 1998, 140-1.
2
W.A.M. Beuken, Jesaja 13-27 (Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten
Testament), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 2007, 18-26.
64 W.A.M. BEUKEN

brought to Yhwh of hosts from a people tall and smooth, from a people
feared near and far, a nation mighty and conquering (18:7). This hig-
hlighted contrast is significant because only later is Damascus linked
with Aram, while its ally Ephraim is mentioned earlier as a country
(Isa. 17:3). Moreover, the capital of this kingdom, Samaria, is referred to
only in an allusion (Isa. 17:3: fortress), even though it is mentioned
several times in the first part of BI (7:9; 8:4; 9:8; 10:9-11; 36:19). Aram
and Ephraims opposition to Zion matches the inscription in chapter 7:
In the days of Ahaz the son of Jotham, son of Uzziah, king of Judah,
Rezin, the king of Aram, and Pekah, the son of Remaliah, the king of
Israel, came up to Jerusalem to wage war against it, but they could not
conquer it (v. 1; cf. vv. 5-9). This leads one to suspect that chapters 17-
18 might resume the ideological difference between Damascus-Samaria
and Jerusalem. Moreover, through the woe oracle, added in the redaction
process, Cush, i.e. Nubia, is placed on the same side as Damascus and
Ephraim (chapter 18). Principally, the hostility of these three groups of
people towards Yhwh results in their ruin. Though, in the light of 18:7,
this conclusion needs a little modification.
It is clear that the contrast between Damascus and the fortress Eph-
raim on the one side and Zion on the other, repeated at the beginning
and the end of the fourth massa oracle, is integral to the final redactional
design. The integration is confirmed by the geographical arrangement of
the first set of five oracles concerning foreign nations. This set opens
with Babylon, the chief representative of the nations (Isa. 13:1-14:27).
Then Philistia in the West (Isa. 14:28-32) and Moab in the East (chapters
15-16) precede the Northern Aram with its capital Damascus in political
alliance with Ephraim (chapter 17). The added woe oracle about Nubia
in chapter 18 connects, from a redactional point of view, with 11:11: On
that day the Lord will extend his hand yet a second time to recover the
remnant which is left of his people, from Assyria, from Egypt, from
Pathros, from Nubia.... Hereby the fourth massa oracle prepares the
readers for the fifth, which treats Egypt in the South (chapter 19) and
forms the counterpart of the oracle on Babylon (13:1-14:27). In this way
the massa oracles that mention these two empires enclose the first set of
five oracles dealing with foreign nations.
It is tentatively concluded that we may read the fourth massa oracle
as a literary and theological journey from Damascus to Zion. Therefore
the main title of this article is formulated as a journey. While the article
explores the texts redactional unity, we necessarily have to expand the
journeys implications as it skirts Nubia (Isa. 18:1-6). For the moment it
suffices to mention that the metaphor of the harvest, seen in the articles
 FROM DAMASCUS TO MOUNT ZION 65

subtitle, plays an important role in these chapters. It connects the prophe-

cy dealing with Damascus and Ephraim with the woe oracle on Nubia.

2. Translation (basically according to RSV) with Critical Notes

17:1 An oracle concerning Damascus.

Behold, Damascus is removed from being a city,
and will become a ruin, a heap of rubble.
2 The cities of Aroer are deserted;
they will be for flocks,
which will lie down, and none will make them afraid.
3 The fortress will disappear from Ephraim,
and the kingdom from Damascus.
The remnant of Aram will be
like the glory of the children of Israel,
says Yhwh of hosts.
4 It shall be on that day:
the glory of Jacob will be brought low,
and the fat of his flesh will grow lean.
5 And it shall be as when the reaper gathers standing grain
and his arm harvests the ears,
and it shall be as when one picks up the ears of grain
in the Valley of Rephaim.
6 Gleanings will be left in it,
as when an olive tree is beaten
two or three berries in the top of the highest bough,
four or five on the branches of a fruit tree,
says Yhwh, the God of Israel.
7 On that day
people will regard their Maker,
and their eyes will look to the Holy One of Israel.
8 They will not have regard for the altars,
the work of their hands,
and to what their own fingers have made,
they will not look,
either the asherah steles or the cultic stakes.
9 On that day
the cities of his refuge will be
like what is left behind of the wood and the highest bough,
which they left behind before the children of Israel
it will be a desert.
66 W.A.M. BEUKEN

10 Truly, you have forgotten the God of your salvation,

and have not remembered the rock of your refuge.
Therefore, though you plant pleasant plants
and set out slips of an alien god,
11 though you make them grow on the day that you plant them,
and make them blossom in the morning that you sow,
yet the harvest will flee away in a day of grief
and incurable pain.
12 Woe, the thunder of many peoples,
they thunder like the thundering of the sea!
And the roar of nations,
they roar like the roaring of mighty waters!
13 The nations roar
like the roaring of many waters,
but he will rebuke them,
and they will flee far away,
chased like chaff on the mountains before the wind
and whirling dust before the storm.
14 At evening time, behold, terror!
Before morning, they are no more!
This is the portion of those who despoil us,
and the lot of those who plunder us.
18:1 Woe, land of the winged beetle
which is beyond the rivers of Nubia;
2 which sends ambassadors by the sea,
in vessels of papyrus upon the waters!
Go, you swift messengers,
to a nation tall and smooth-skinned,
to a people feared near and far,
a nation mighty and conquering,
whose land the rivers divide.
3 All you inhabitants of the world,
you who dwell on the earth,
when a signal is raised on the mountains, look!
When a trumpet is blown, hear!
4 For thus Yhwh said to me:
I will quietly look from my dwelling
like clear heat in sunshine,
like a cloud of dew in the heat of harvest.
5 For before the harvest, when the blossom is over,
and the flower becomes a ripening grape,
 FROM DAMASCUS TO MOUNT ZION 67

he will cut off the shoots with pruning hooks,

and the spreading branches he will hew away.
6 They shall all of them be left to the birds of prey of the moun-
tains
and to the beasts of the earth.
And the birds of prey will summer upon them,
and all the beasts of the earth will winter upon them.
7 At that time gifts will be brought to Yhwh of hosts
from a people tall and smooth-skinned,
from a people feared near and far,
a nation mighty and conquering,
whose land the rivers divide,
to the place of the name of Yhwh of hosts, Mount Zion.

Critical Notes3
17:3 It is difficult to maintain the atnach. We prefer to take
with v. 3b, for if these words would be subject to the verb in v. 3a,
the term would have to be preceded by the preposition .
17:9a. The translation of RSV: like the deserted places of the Hivites
and the Amorites depends on LXX (,
). MT is regularly explained to be
like a forsaken place on the heights and summits.4 Yet the complicated
history of the verse shows that the comparison concerns chopped trees.
The interpretation of as wood and highest bough stems
from Jewish scholars.5
18:1. An old controversy concerns the correct meaning :
land of sailing ships or land of buzzing insect wings. The latter inter-
pretation is preferred as an allusion to the scarabaeus, the theriomorphic
appearance of the Egyptian deity Chepri, might be at stake: land of the
winged beetle. This explanation is based on recent studies that point to
the strong Egyptian background of the chapter as a whole.6

3
For a more elaborate discussion, cf. W.A.M. Beuken, op. cit., 146-8.
4
J.N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 13-39 (NICOT), Grand Rapids 1986,
351.
5
Rashi according to A.J. Rosenberg, Isaiah (Miqraot Gedolot), 2 vols, New
York 1982, 146-7; M. Friedlaender (ed.), The Commentary of Ibn Ezra on Isaiah,
London 1873, 83; D. Barthlemy, Critique textuelle de lAncient Testament (OBO
50/2), vol. 2: Isae, Jrmie, Lamentations, Fribourg/Gttingen 1986, 131-3.
6
Cf. A A. Niccacci, Isaiah XVIII-XX from an Egyptological Perspective, VT 48
(1998), 214-238; M. Lubetski, Beetlemania of Bygone Times, JSOT 91 (2000), 3-
26, 3-26; M. Lubetski, C. Gottlieb, Isaiah 18: The Egyptian Nexus, in: M. Lubetski
68 W.A.M. BEUKEN

18:7. MT unmistakably reads this verse as follows: At that time a gift

will be brought to Yhwh of hosts: a people tall and smooth-skinned, and
by a people feared near and far.... However, LXX, 1QIsaa and Vulgate
read the preposition by ( )also before the first occurrence of the word
people: At that time a gift will be brought to Yhwh of hosts: by a
people tall and smooth-skinned, and by a people feared near and far....
Another text tradition does not even render the preposition by ( )be-
fore the second occurrence of the term people and interprets this word
in both cases as the subject of the verb in active: At that time shall they
bring a present before the Lord of hosts, even the people that is robbed
and spoiled, and the people that was powerful from of old and on-
wards... (Peshitta, Targum). Nevertheless, the unanimous testimony of
LXX, 1QIsaa and Vg, and moreover, the equal syntactical treatment of
to a nation, tall and smooth-skinned and to a people feared near and
far, a nation mighty and conquering, in Isa. 18:2 make it likely that
MT represents a later text form as a result of glossing (maybe related,
from a redactional point of view, to 66:20).7

3. Geographical and Ethnical Mapping in connection with

Harvest Imagery

Different nations and places play a role in the development of chapters

17-18, but little by little they arrive at a common denominator. The jour-
neys focus shifts as we see changes being made to the ethnic groups
addressed and discussed.

3.1. Damascus, Ephraim, People and Judah (Isaiah 17)

First Damascus receives attention, but soon the focus switches to Eph-
raim. Already in Isa. 17:3 the names Damascus and Aram are en-
closed by Ephraim and Israel. The comparison in v. 3b: The remnant
of Aram will be like the glory of the children of Israel, functions as a
transition to v. 4: the glory of Jacob will be brought low.8 Ephraim is

(ed.), Boundaries of the Ancient Near Eastern World: A Tribute to Cyrus (FS C.H.
Gordon) (JSOT.S 273), Sheffield 1998, 364-84; pace L. Koehler, W. Baumgartner et
al., Hebrisches und Aramisches Lexikon zum Alten Testament, 6 vols, Leiden
1967-1996, 66; H. Wildberger, Jesaja 1-39 (BK 10), vol. 2, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1982,
679.
7
D. Barthlemy, op. cit., 135-7; A.J. Rosenberg, op. cit., 153.
8
The comparison in v. 3b does not imply that the ruin of Israel would precede the
fall of Aram and would therefore serve as a warning example to the latter country. It
only means that these peoples will share the same fate (as in v. 3a; E. Jenni, Die
 FROM DAMASCUS TO MOUNT ZION 69

henceforth placed under the enclosing names of Jacob (v. 4) and

Israel (v. 6). The proper interest of the prophecy lies here.
In v. 9, the focus on this country is strengthened by the resumed fram-
ing formula: It shall be on that day... before the children of Israel. Yet it
does not end with this country. The following comparison with a harvest
draws the attention to the adjunct of place in the Valley of Rephaim,
South East of Jerusalem (Josh. 15:8; 18:6; 2 Sam. 5:18, 22; 23:13; 1
Chron. 11:15; 14:9). In this way the prophecy on Israel is treated in the
perspective of Judahs inhabitants: the announcement of judgment to the
Northern kingdom becomes a warning for the Southern kingdom.9
The comparisons of vv. 5-6 play an important role in the progress.
The first simile suggests an almost closely-cropped field: gleaning ears
behind the reapers does not yield much (cf. Lev. 19:9; 23:22; Deut.
24:19-22; Ruth 2:15-16); thereafter nothing useful can be found. The
second simile in v. 6 modifies the tenor of v. 5 by pointing out that after
the gathering not of ears but of olives, gleanings take place that bring in
something (only grapes and olives are associated with the term glean-
ings, : Judg. 8:2; Isa. 24:13; Jer. 49:9; Obad. 5; Mic. 7:1). The
gleanings themselves are not portrayed but the trees on which some fruit
is left. The image is sophisticated: the almost bare trees suggest total
ruin, the few fruit remaining on them represents a positive remnant,
which is strengthened by the climax two, three / four, five (v. 6b).
In vv. 7-8 the ambivalent imagery of v. 6 (Gleanings will be left in
it) is elaborated: there will be people who acknowledge Yhwh as Crea-
tor (their Maker) and as the Lord of history (the Holy One of Israel)
and who will consequently renounce idolatry. This announcement shifts
the attention from specific nations to humanity in general. On the one
hand, the indefinite term people reduces Israel under judgment to the
essence of human existence, on the other it shows that the recognition of
Yhwh breaks through national boundaries because humanity as such will
be put to shame on account of its haughtiness (cf. people ][in Isa.
2:17, 20, 22; 5:15; 6:12; 13:12; 31:3, 8; 37:19; 38:11; 43:4; 44:11, 13,
15; 45:12; 51:12; 56:2). It is most appropriate that terminology of crea-
tion and salvation history here go hand in hand.
At first sight it is unclear how vv. 9-11 link up with the foregoing.
This is partly due to the complicated genesis of chapters 17-18. Never-
theless, two facts provide some consolation.

hebrischen Prpositionen, vol. 2: Kaph, Stuttgart 1994, 56: cf. Gen. 18:11; Num.
23:10; 2 Sam. 7:9; 17:10; 1 Kgs 19:2; 22:13; Isa. 30:29; Hos. 14:7-8; Sir. 2:15).
9
H. Wildberger, op. cit., 648.
70 W.A.M. BEUKEN

First, in the final shape of the text the possessive suffix in the phrase
the cities of his refuge (v. 9) cannot but refer to people (), the
primary subject of vv. 7-8. This word, for its part, refers to Jacob /
Israel in v. 4 and v. 6, in the broad interpretation mentioned. Subse-
quently and second, the person addressed by you (fem. sg.) in v. 10
makes an indirect appearance through the contrast between the cities of
his refuge (v. 9) and the rock of your (fem. sg.) refuge (v. 10). 10
Rock and God of salvation are divine names from the cult in Zion.
They express Yhwhs exclusive authority and protection (rock []:
Deut. 32:4, 15, 18, 31; 1 Sam. 2:2; 2 Sam. 23:3; Isa. 8:14; 26:4; 30:29;
44:8; Hab. 1:12; Pss. 18:3, 32, 47; 19,5; 28:1; 31:3; 62:3, 8; 73:26; 75:6;
78:35; 89:27; 92:16; 94:22; 95:1; 144:1; salvation [root ]: Isa. 25:9;
35:4; 37:20; 43:3; 45:15, 21; 52:7, 10; Jer. 11:12; Hos. 13:4; Hab. 3:18;
Zeph. 3:17; Pss. 3:3; 7:11; 18:47; 20:6; 24:5; 25:5; 27:9; 42:6; 44:5;
50:23; 54:3; 62:8; 65:6; 69:2, 36; 79:9; 80:4; 85:5; 88:2; 98:3; 106:47;
109:26; 1 Chron. 16:35).
On account of these two points the conclusion is reached that the
Northern kingdom is being addressed in vv. 9-10a. Even though the fe-
minine verb forms are peculiar here, they can be explained as personifi-
cation (cf. Amos 5:2): Zusammenschau mit dem fem. Land 11 or
as devotees of non-Yahvistic cults represented collectively as a female
(cf. Isa. 57:3-13).12 It might be possible that Zionisierung too could be
playing a role. The feminine address creates an opportunity to interpret
the passage as if it holds an accusation against Jerusalem.13 In the first
place, however, Jacob/Israel is the goal. He will arrive at the recognition
of his Holy One (vv. 7-8) when his cities where he had imagined him-
self to be safe turn into desolate wildernesses. Then it will be clear that
he (she) has paid no attention to the rock of your refuge, i.e. the God
who offers salvation on Zion (vv. 9-10a). Seen in this way these verses
contain a verdict on the Northern kingdom arranged in a paradigm that is
characteristic of the book of Isaiah.
Verse 9 returns to vv. 2-3 and interprets the deserted cities of Aroer
as cities of refuge which they, i.e. the Assyrian army (perhaps during

10
From a semantic point of view, can signify both refuge (root )and
strength (root ), but both roots interfere and in poetic texts, this often leads to
intended ambiguity (H.-P. Mller, Sprachliche und religionsgeschichtliche Beobach-
tungen zu Jesaja XVII 10f., VT 54 (2004), 91-103). In the context of God of your
salvation the meaning refuge is more probable.
11
E. Knig, Das Buch Jesaja, Gtersloh 1926, 196.
12
J. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1-39 (AB 19), New York 2000, 305.
13
H.-P. Mller, art. cit., 92.
 FROM DAMASCUS TO MOUNT ZION 71

the campaign of 732), have left for the children of Israel,14 since they
were not more valuable than what is left behind of the wood and the
highest bough. Historical information is most scarce here. Verse 2
presents the cities of Aroer as belonging to Damascus. When they are
attributed in v. 9 to Israel this change is not out of place from a theologi-
cal point of view because v. 3 has aligned Damascus and Israel under the
judgment of Yhwh. Moreover, the comparison with dead wood does not
appear out of the blue: in an associative way it links up with the ashera
steles / cultic stakes that were often made of wood (v. 8). This provides
v. 9 with a special connotation. The cities where the children Israel
sought refuge will offer as little security as do their idols: they are worth-
less timber.
With regard to 17:12-14, while it can hardly be doubted that this woe
oracle has an independent origin it is difficult to determine its source
more specifically. Efforts to situate this segment in the history of Jerusa-
lem at the time of the prophet Isaiah, especially during the Syro-
Ephraimite war (734-732) or the Assyrian siege of the city (701), remain
hypothetical. The motif, the battle of the nations, which is certainly
active here, occurs elsewhere in combination with the city of God (Pss.
46; 48; 76), yet the latter motif is not evident in this massa oracle on the
nations. A postexilic date, too, which would accompany an eschatologi-
cal explanation, finds no support in the text.15 The only sustainable and
meaningful framework lies in the oracles literary context.
The pair of words many peoples / nations cannot but refer to the
ethnic entities mentioned so far: Babylon, Assyria, Philistia, Moab, Da-
mascus and Jacob / Ephraim (chapters 13-17). They are situated here
against us (v. 14), i.e. the prophet and his own people. This opposition
is not necessarily meant in nationalistic terms, because in v. 7 Israel had
already been broadened to people, and the accusation of v. 10 can be
read with Jerusalem in mind, due to the feminine address. The nations
are not opposed at this point to Israel and Judah as ethnic groups but to
their victims: oppressed and plundered people (v. 14). The passage re-
flects an important motif in this prophetic book: the separation of the
pious and the wicked. Das Wehe in 17,12-14a, das in mythologischer
Sprache den Vlkeransturm und die wundersame gttliche Rettung the-
14
The adjunct before the children of Israel does not mean in favour of but ex-
presses physical desertion, distance, aversion (cf. in this sense, also without a
context of fear: Gen. 7:7; 27:46; Exod. 23:29; 34:24; 2 Kgs 11:2; Isa. 7:2; 10:27;
16:4; 19:20; 57:1; Jer. 1:13; 4:4; 13:17; Pss. 3:1; 17:9; 60:6; 61:4; 78:55; Job 17:12;
Lam. 2:3; 5:10; 1 Chron. 12:1; H. Simian-Yofre, pnm, TWAT 6 (1989) col.
655).
15
For a survey of opinions, cf. H. Wildberger, op. cit., 667-71.
72 W.A.M. BEUKEN

matisiert, ist in 17,14b durch den Nachtrag, dies ist das Los unserer
Plnderer, Anteil unserer Ausbeuter in einem ethisch-politischen Sinn
aktualisiert worden (cf. Isa. 13:9-11; 14:20-21, 30; 16:4-5).16

3.2. Nubia (Isaiah 18:1-6)

The most difficult question concerning the fourth oracle treating the
nations is the following: Along what line of thought is chapter 18 con-
nected to chapter 17? It is not surprising to find a prophecy on Nubia in
the book of Isaiah (cf. Cush in 11:11; 20:3, 5; 37:9; 45:11; Jer. 46:9;
Ezek. 38:5; Zeph. 3:10; Ps. 87:4; Job 28:19). Egypt is aligned with Judah
as Nubia relates to Egypt (Ezek. 30:4, 9; Nah. 3:9; Ps. 68:32). Within
Isaiahs time, the second half of the 8th century, the 25th or so-called
Nubian dynasty tried to gain hegemony over all of Egypt.17 The smaller
states in Palestine always grouped together with Egypt to form an al-
liance first against Assyria and then against Babylon (cf. 2 Kgs 19:9).
Isa. 18 has to be read against this general background.
It is, however, an arduous task trying to situate the delegation men-
tioned here in the history of the Ancient Near East, the more so because
it is not said where they are going. It can be asked whether the ambassa-
dors are being encouraged to continue their journey to Mesopotamia.
Maybe they have been sent to negotiate a treaty that will delineate the
political influence between Egypt (with Nubia) and Assyria? Or could
they have been requested, perhaps summoned, to return to their land after
they had tried, successfully or in vain, to conclude a pact in Jerusalem
against Assyria?18 The Assyrian sources offer no leads, although such a
delegation could be plausible during the reign of Sargon II (722-705).
His policy aimed at conquering a way open to Egypt.19 However, even as
historical information in Isa. 13-27 is as scant as it is, it is hardly likely
that a delegation sent from one foreign empire to another would offer a
Judean prophet sufficient reason to pronounce an oracle. The woe oracle
of chapter 18 must some how pertain to Judah and Jerusalem. As in the
case of the ambassadors mentioned in 14:32; 16:1-4 and 39:1, we cannot

16
U. Berges, op. cit., 171-181, esp. 177.
17
K.R. Veenhof, Geschichte des Alten Orients bis zur Zeit Alexanders des Gros-
sen (ATD.E 11), Gttingen 2001, 249-50.
18
For the former interpretation, cf. J.D.W. Watts, Isaiah 1-33 (WBC 24), Waco
1985, 245-6; A. Niccacci, art. cit., 216; for the latter, cf. H. Wildberger op. cit., 686-
8. M.J. de Jong, Isaiah among the Ancient Near Eastern Prophets: A Comparative
Study of the Earliest Stages of the Isaiah Tradition and the Neo-Assyrian Prophecies
(VT.S 117), Leiden 2007, 115 distinguishes between Nubian envoys in v. 2a and
Judean messengers in v. 2b.
19
K.R. Veenhof, op. cit., 255-258.
 FROM DAMASCUS TO MOUNT ZION 73

establish the historical context of the Nubian delegation. The best hypo-
thesis proposes that these messengers are not being encouraged to con-
tinue travelling to Assyria but to return to their country.20 A secondary
motivation behind persuading the delegation to return home is then in-
tended to dissuade the inhabitants of Jerusalem from becoming involved
in foreign alliances or placing their trust in such matters (cf. Isa. 7:1-7;
8:1-4).
This means that the people described in v. 2, to whom the prophet is
sending the ambassadors, are not the Assyrians. 21 A reference to the
Assyrians might have been possible were the qualifications to a people
feared near and far, a nation mighty and conquering (cf. Isa. 5:26-30;
9:3-4; 10:5-6, 13-14; 20:4, 6; 28:18-19; 52:4; Jer. 50:17; conquering
[ ]as a military term: Isa. 14:25; 22:5; 63:6; Zech. 10:5; Pss. 44:6;
60:14; 108:14), but hardly likely for the apposition a nation, tall and
smooth-skinned. There are no known statements supporting that Israe-
lites or other Semites considered the Assyrians to be taller than them-
selves. Besides, Herodot (c. 485 - c. 425) called the Ethiopians (he meant
the Nubians) the tallest and most beautiful of all people.22 Moreover,
the term smooth-skinned reflects on the habit of Egyptian and Nubian
men of shaving themselves clean with oil. Finally, the phrase whose
land the rivers divide may allude to Mesopotamia but could also refer to
the territory of the Nile, since this river is fed by several streams that
meander through the countryside between the 3rd and the 6th cataract.
Finally, people in Israel probably had no distinct geographical concept of
the two countries.
The call in Isa. 18:3 to all you inhabitants of the world, you who
dwell on the earth, can be linked up with vv. 1-2 because the political
situation dealt with in these verses is not specifically clarified. The land
( )of the winged beetle broadens to world / earth ( / ;cf.
Isa. 13:11). It would be wrong, however, to consider this call a sheer
warning or threat. Precisely the term world (), limited in BI almost

20
In this case, according to some interpreters, one would expect here the impera-
tive return ( ;J.N. Oswalt, op. cit., 360). However, to go ( )can mean to
go away (Gen. 18:33; 32:1; Jer. 22:10; Amos 7:12) and to disappear (Gen. 15:2;
Isa. 38:10; Ps. 74:39; Job 7:9; 14:20; Cant. 2:11, Sir. 1:4; W. Gesenius, Handwrter-
buch ber das Alte Testament, bearbeitet von F. Buhl, Leipzig, 171921, 277; E. K-
nig, op. cit., 199).
21
There are many divergent explanations about this verse, both in Jewish and lite-
rary-critical traditions. For a survey, cf. A.J. Rosenberg, op. cit., 149-51 and J.A.
Alexander, Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah I-II, Philadelphia 21875 (reprint:
Grand Rapids 1976), 344-345.
22
Herodotus, Historiae, 2 vols., Oxonii 31926 (11908), III,20.
74 W.A.M. BEUKEN

exclusively to chapters 13-23, functions in the theme that injustice

worldwide will vanish under Gods dominion (13:11; 14:17, 21; 24:4;
26:9, 18; 27:6; 34:1). The call summons the inhabitants of the earth to
attend to how Yhwh cuts down the military powers. 23 The theme of
paying full attention with eyes and ears focussed on Gods action in his-
tory, which will cure Israels stubbornness, is a distinct thread running
through this prophetic book (for to look / to hear in this context, cf. Isa.
6:9, 10; 21:3; 29:18; 30:30; 32:3; 33:15, 19; 42:18, 20; 52:15; 64:3; 66:8,
19). The attention is drawn in the prophets call, not to Nubias messen-
gers and the politics of the nations (vv. 1-2), but to two other specific
events: when a signal is raised on the mountains / when a trumpet is
blown (v. 3).
The first event, the raising of a signal, refers to the proceedings
Yhwh will initiate by activating the shoot of Jesse: the gathering and
return of Israels dispelled (11:10, 12). The proceedings start with the
submission of Babylon (13:2; cf. 31:9; 33:23; 49:22; 62:10). The fact
that the banner is raised on the mountains, anticipates the promise that
the political rivalry between the nations will cease and be replaced by a
banquet that Yhwh is preparing for them (Isa. 14:25; 17:13; 25:6, 7).
The second event, blowing a trumpet (shofar), is in itself a military
signal, used either by the population when they were in danger (Jer. 4:5,
19, 21; 6,1; Hos. 5:8; 8:1; Amos 3:6; Neh. 4:12, 14), or by the army be-
fore or during a battle (Josh. 6 passim; Judg. 3:27; 6:34; 7:8, 16, 20; 1
Sam. 13:3; 2 Sam. 2:28; 18:16; 20:22; Jer. 42:14; Amos 2:2; Job 39:24-
25). Significantly, it was also used to indicate the inauguration of kings
and princes, and metaphorically signalled the presence of Yhwh (Exod.
19:16, 19; 20:18; 2 Sam. 15:10; 1 Kgs 1:34, 39, 41; 2 Kgs 9:13; Pss.
47:6; 98:6; 150:3). In this way the motif found a place in the great theme,
the day of Yhwh (Joel 2:1; Zeph. 1:16; Zech. 9:14).24 Thus, in the final
verse of the extended composition of chapters 13-27, the blowing of the
trumpet announces that after their gathering, Israels dispersed will come
to venerate Yhwh on his holy mountain in Jerusalem (Isa. 27:13). It
seems that this event is anticipated in Isa. 18:3. The text announces the
indebted tribute by the tall and smooth-skinned people for Zions God
(v. 7).25

23
M.J. de Jong, op. cit., 115.
24
H. Ringgren,
r, TWAT 7 (19) col. 1195-6.
25
K.D. Jenner, The Big Shofar (Isaiah 27:13): A Hapax Legomenon to be Un-
derstood Merely as a Metaphor or as a Crux interpretum for the Interpretation of
Eschatological Expectation?, in: H.J. Bosman, H. van Grol et al. (eds), Studies in
Isaiah 24-27 (OTS 43), Leiden 2000, 173.
 FROM DAMASCUS TO MOUNT ZION 75

In Isa. 18:4 the prophet records the word that Yhwh had spoken to
him. Precisely the modifier to me earmarks this oracle as eventually
destined for those who should or do recognize him as intermediator: the
inhabitants of Jerusalem. They should know that Yhwh is addressing the
nations. Yet, the purport of this divine oracle remains partly hidden be-
hind veiled imagery: I will quietly look from my dwelling like clear heat
in sunshine, like a cloud of dew in the heat of harvest. For the present it
does not say more than this: Yhwh watches without taking action. This
standoffish attitude means dass nur eines wichtig ist: Handelndes Sub-
jekt in der Geschichte ist Jahwe allein.26
The intent of the statement relies mainly on the term harvest (),
which connects the divine statement (v. 4) and the word of the prophet
(v. 5). On the one hand Yhwh refrains from disturbing the power and
politics of the nations (v. 4a), on the other, his glance weighs heavily on
them, like heat and dew on the light (v. 4b). The comparison necessarily
asks for an explanation: How do these phenomena influence the harv-
est? 27 The prophet provides an explanation by specifying the element
harvest: Before the harvest... he will cut off the shoots. In this way he
resumes the oracle concerning Damascus (and Ephraim) in chapter 17:
when the reaper gathers standing grain and his arm harvests the ears
(v. 5: ... )and the harvest will flee away (v. 11: ). This
comparison concerns firstly the desolation of the fields after the harvest
(Isa. 17:5) and secondly the poor gathering of olives (17:6) as imagery of
Israels ruin, which allows for only a slight rest. In 18:5, the purport
concerns a different action: disbudding the vine, which always takes
place in the perspective of the grain harvest.28 Whatever the nations are
planning (Isa. 18:3), it will be frustrated in order to protect and favour
the gathering of grapes. Here too, Yhwh does not specifically intervene
but remains veiled behind the impersonal he of the comparison.

3.3. A Foreign Nation Brings Gifts to Yhwh of Hosts on Mount Zion

(Isaiah 18:7)

The closure of the woe oracle on Nubia and the fourth massa (Isa. 18:7)
presents an unexpected turn on the prophetic path. At first sight the
movement from judgment to honouring Yhwh comes unprepared. The
opening adjunct at that time indicates a redactional addition but has no

26
H. Wildberger, op. cit., 689.
27
J.A. Alexander, op. cit., 345.
28
H. Wildberger, op. cit., 679.
76 W.A.M. BEUKEN

eschatological meaning. It announces a new event in the plurality of the

future (cf. Jer. 3:17; 4:11; 8:1; 31:1; Zeph. 3:20).29 The reader is invited
to look at Yhwhs inauguration from the perspective of the judgment.
What are the elements that connect these two events (vv. 1-6 and v. 7)?
The most conspicuous element is a nation (people) tall and smooth-
skinned, a people feared near and far, a nation mighty and conquering.
In v. 2 they are the destination of the ambassadors, and in v. 7 they arrive
with gifts (according to LXX, 1QIsaa, Vulgate) at the place of the name
of Yhwh of hosts, or they themselves are the tribute brought there (ac-
cording to MT; cf. the Critical Notes above). The variegated role of
Yhwh in the chapter has to do with this: in v. 4 he looks on quietly with-
out acting, in v. 5 he is metaphorically the punisher (he will cut off the
shoots), in v. 7 he receives the homage. A contrast of secondary impor-
tance but not insignificant draws on the difference between the moun-
tains where a signal is raised (v. 3) with the chopped shoots /
branches that provide nesting for animals (v. 6) on the one hand, and on
the other, the unique Mount Zion where the foreign nation brings ho-
mage to Yhwh (v. 7). Precisely the repetition of the extensive description
of this nation (v. 2 and v. 7) underlines that it has to submit to Yhwhs
dominion in spite of its dreaded power. The anonymity has a generaliz-
ing impact: Will this be the destiny of all mighty nations (cf. 66:18-23)?
We have to be careful not to force the different so-called universalistic
passages of BI into one line. They do not all exhibit the same tendencies,
partly because they stem from different traditions, partly because they
function in different contexts of the prophetic book. Yhwhs being ho-
noured by the tall and feared nation in chapter 18 does not imply that
they are responsible for realizing the vision of 2:1-5, in which the nations
accept Gods torah on his mountain. Seen as the redactions purpose,
chapter 18 is directed at the own people: the prophecy should evoke or
strengthen among them the conviction that Yhwh does not allow his
name to dwell on Mount Zion without far reaching consequences for the
world, regardless of what famous and mighty nations or cities are plan-
ning. The Deuteronomistic expression for his presence in v. 7, the place
of the name of Yhwh of hosts, holds a promise and an obligation for
Israel (cf. Deut. 12:5, 11, 21; 14:23-24; 16:2, 6; 26:2; 1 Kgs 8:29; Neh.
1:9; 2 Chron. 6:20). In this way, the acceptance of the torah by the na-
tions but also by Gods own people comes into view, taken up and recol-
lected from the beginning.
29
S.J. De Vries, From Old Revelation to New: A Tradition-Historical and Redac-
tional-Critical Study of Temporal Transitions in Prophetic Prediction, Grand Rapids
1995, 65, 73, 125.
 FROM DAMASCUS TO MOUNT ZION 77

4. Conclusion

4.1. Isaiah 17-18: from Damascus to Zion

This investigation has brought to light that prophetic material from very
different origins and meant for different purposes has been used in a new
frame in the fourth massa dealing with the nations, in which cities are
set against each other. The composition of chapters 17-18 opens where
Damascus is removed from being a city... the fortress (Samaria) will
disappear from Ephraim (Isa. 17:1-3) and it ends with the place of the
name of Yhwh of hosts, Mount Zion (18:7). In this way, Damascus, the
head of Aram, and Samaria, the head of Ephraim (Isa. 7:8-9), vanish
from world view, and consequently from the vocabulary of BI. They
were so reckless as to wage war against Jerusalem even though they
could not conquer it (Isa. 7:1). They vanish by a far more comprehen-
sive process than foretold by the prophet and more radically than Yhwh
had announced (Isa. 7:7: It shall not stand and it shall not come to
pass).
From the ruin of Aram, the foreign nation, and its political ally Eph-
raim, i.e. Jacob / Israel, whose God Yhwh wants to be called (Isa. 17:6),
the prophetic scribe determines that people in general will recognize
this very God who had created them and who leads Israel through history
(17:7-8). Strikingly, Israel too is remembered. He is remembered by his
desolate cities, by his God whom he had forgotten: the God of your
salvation / the rock of your refuge (Isa. 17:9-10). The name Zion is not
mentioned yet, but the city looms up on the horizon. This horizon is the
sea of roaring nations. The reference to nations is not general but deter-
mined as those who despoil us / those who plunder us (Isa. 17:12-14).
Under Gods judgment they vanish from sight.
At the conclusion of chapter 17 the fourth massa presents itself as a
theology of the nations and not as a theology of cities, because until
this point Zion has not emerged openly as the counterpart of the king-
dom of Damascus and the fortress of Ephraim (Isa. 17:3). This hap-
pens in the woe oracle on Nubia (chapter 18). The Nubians act as the
prototype of the roaring nations (Isa. 17:12-13).
The woe oracle first describes what attitude Yhwh, the God of your
salvation / the rock of your refuge (Isa. 17:10), assumes towards a
people feared near and far, a nation mighty and conquering (18:2). In
the imagery of the atmospheric constitution in which crops thrive, Yhwh
appears as the Lord of the vine: first he waits and watches (Isa. 18:4),
then he cuts off at the appropriate time (18:5). Only this aspect, the re-
moval of useless buds and shoots, is explicitly mentioned, not the gather-
78 W.A.M. BEUKEN

ing of the grapes. Although the essence of the woe oracle is an apology
of Yhwhs dilatory attitude towards hostile nations, the harvest itself
remains a literary gap, an opportunity for creative and theological inter-
vention. The redaction adds that the repudiated foreign nation, Nubia,
will bring tribute to God (Isa. 18:7), which serves as the harvest that
Yhwh gathers in. Therefore, it is not that strange that MT, using a philo-
logical trick, promotes this very people to a gift for God (cf. the Critical
Notes above, under Isa. 18:7).
This homage forms the starting-point for the theme Mount Zion in-
troduced in the final words of the fourth massa. Up and until this point it
had been hinted that God resides somewhere. It is said that he is a rock
of your refuge (Isa. 17:10). He says, I will quietly look from my dwel-
ling, like clear heat in sunshine, like a cloud of dew (Isa. 18:4). Indeed,
my dwelling in the context of sunshine and cloud of dew refers to
the heavens. Yet, for tributes to be brought to Yhwh some sort of pres-
ence on earth is necessary (Isa. 18:7). The expression the place of the
name of Yhwh of hosts (perhaps a Deuteronomistic wording) meets this
need, and simultaneously allows for Yhwhs transcendence from an
earthly habitation.
On the theological route, the specific adjunct of place Mount Zion,
is envisaged and set within the series of massa prophecies. In the oracle
on Philistia, quite similar to the Nubian oracle seen in the theme of mes-
sengers, the people are answered: Yhwh has founded Zion, and in her
the afflicted of his people find refuge (Isa. 14:32). The oracle on Moab
(chapters 15-16) presents a contrast between Sela (rock) by way of the
desert, where desolation and death govern, and the mount of the daugh-
ter of Zion, where Moabs refugees will find protection (Isa. 16:1). As a
matter of course these texts, certainly the second, do not mention that
Yhwh resides on Zion. The programmatic perspective of the song that
concludes Isa. 1-12 (12:6: Shout and sing for joy, O inhabitant of Zion,
for great in your midst is the Holy One of Israel), and anticipates chap-
ters 13-27, is in many ways not fully realized in Isa. 14:32 and 16:1.
Finally, the text of Isa. 18:7 plays a role in the contrast between the
mountains, the scene of the judgment on the nations (13:2, 4; 17:13;
18:3, 6), and Mount Zion, where Yhwh will establish his kingship for
their well-being (24:23; 25:6-7, 10; 27:13). In short, if at the beginning
of the fourth massa oracle, Damascus / the fortress of Ephraim
represent powerful city-states that adore alien gods but neglect the God
of Israel, at the end of this composition Mount Zion comes to the fore as
the place where a dreaded nation, Nubia, will pay homage to Yhwh.
Between Damascus and Mount Zion lies the land, the harvest of which
 FROM DAMASCUS TO MOUNT ZION 79

belongs to him (Isa. 17:5-6; 18:4-5). He will gather his harvest when he
establishes his rule on earth (Isa. 27:12; cf. 27:6).

4.2. The City as Focus of Isaiah 1-39

This case study on chapters 17-18 raises the question whether the city
is a constitutive theme of BI that contributes to its redactional cohesion.
A second question is related: How does the presentation of the city in
these chapters relate to the book as a whole?
From the point of view of word statistics the city is a coordinating
theme in BI, but on considering semantics, clear differences between the
various parts are discernable. One Hebrew term for city, , occurs 43
times, of which 31 times appear in chapters 1-39. Another term, ,
occurs 10 times, exclusively in chapters 1-39. Though statistics admit for
various interpretations, the occurrence of 15 times and 5 times
within the limited range of chapters 13-27 indicates the importance of the
topic for this part of BI. Moreover, chapter 1 introduces the theme of
Zions restoration as a city of justice using both terms (vv. 21-26).
This means that the theme city is seen especially in light of the
theme Zion / Jerusalem. Whether city has an independent function in
BI should become clear from this volume of studies as a whole. Yet, the
city of Jerusalem has a counterpart, named with a pithy expression in Isa.
24:10: city of chaos () . Remarkably enough, this actant does
not play a role in the first collection of Isaianic prophecies (chapters 1-
12). In this composition, the image of Zion / Jerusalem is established in
stages: in 1:21-26 (27) as the city that will acquire new justice; in 2:1-5
as the destination of peoples pilgrimage; in 4:2-6 as the city cleansed for
Gods dwelling; in chapter 7 as city protected against hostile attacks; in
9:1-6 as siege of Davids righteous government; in chapter 12 as the
place from where Israel will proclaim Yhwhs great deeds to the nations.
On a side point, we ascertain that in the prophecy against Assyria, Nine-
veh does not serve as Jerusalems counterpart.
It is not until the series of oracles on the nations that an antitype of Je-
rusalem is presented: that is, Babylon. This happens in the first oracle of
each of the two series of massa prophecies (chapters 13-19 and chapters
21-23): first in the larger discourse of chapters 13-1430 and second in the

30
W.A.M. Beuken, A Song of Gratitude and a Song of Malicious Delight: Is
Their Consonance Unseemly? The Coherence of Isaiah Chs. 13-14 with Chs. 11-12
and Chs. 1-2, in: F.-L. Hossfeld, L. Schwienhorst-Schnberger (eds), Das Manna
fllt auch heute noch: Beitrge zur Geschichte und Theologie des Alten, Ersten Tes-
taments (FS E. Zenger) (Herders Biblische Studien 44), Freiburg 2004, 96-114. It
should be noted that 14:24-27 is not directed against Nineveh, but Assyria.
80 W.A.M. BEUKEN

shorter Isa. 21:1-10. Sandwiched between these Babylon compositions

we find the following oracles: chapters 15-16 deal with the land of Moab
and chapter 19 with the land of Egypt, while chapters 17-18 present the
contrast between the city of Damascus along with Samaria and Mount
Zion. After the second prophecy against Babylon (Isa. 21:1-10), the
theme of the city of Jerusalem is developed further, not to say falsified:
as far as it has no eye for Gods works (22:1-14), Jerusalem figures along
with Tyre and Sidon as arrogant cities (chapter 23). Thus, if we look over
the series of oracles concerning foreign nations as a whole, it turns out
that the antitype of Zion is not confined to Babylon, the most powerful
city on land, but is extended to Tyre (with Sidon), the city that rules over
the sea, and even, in an almost contradictory way, to incredulous Jerusa-
lem. Indeed, Zion, because it will proclaim Gods praise to the nations
(chapter 12), has an antitype in Jerusalem, as it pays no attention to him
(Isa. 22:11). This broadening of the image of the antitype results in the
condemned city no longer carrying a geographical name in the subse-
quent chapters in which the establishment of Gods kingdom over all
earthly powers is announced (chapters 24-27). The condemned city is
only called city of chaos (Isa. 24:10; cf. 24:12; 25:2-3; 26:5; 27:10),
just as Jerusalem is no longer called by its own name (26:1).
It may seem that city as a topic reaches it journeys end in chapters
24-27. Nevertheless, it remerges in chapter 28 with the mentioning of
Samaria: Woe to the proud crown of the drunkards of Ephraim (v. 1).
Alongside this city doomed to ruin, sinful and threatened Jerusalem /
Zion is recalled (28:14, 16; 29:1; 30:19; 31:4; 32:14; 33:5, 14, 20), ap-
pearing finally as the city of Gods preferential protection (chapters 36-
37). While it is beyond the confines of this contribution to describe the
course of the themes related to the topic city further in BI, I wish to men-
tion that it undergoes a new development in chapters 40-66: it is personi-
fied as a mother and a wife, which introduces completely new aspects
and perspectives. Moreover, the development throughout the whole book
is not straightforward or logical but pragmatic, i.e. it aims at evoking a
reaction from the reader. This is indicated at the end of the book in the
summons: Rejoice for Jerusalem and be glad for her, all you who love
her (Isa. 66:10). 31

31
I wish to express my gratitude to Petrus Maritz (Leuven) for correcting my ar-
ticle into fluent English.
THE DISEASED KING AND THE DISEASED CITY (ISAIAH
36-39) AS A READER-ORIENTED LINK BETWEEN ISAIAH
1-39 AND ISAIAH 40-66
A.L.H.M. van Wieringen

1. Introduction

At first glance, there seems to be a considerable gap between the chap-

ters 39 and 40 of the book Isaiah, as a consequence of which a distinction
is manifest between the chapters 1-39 on the one hand and 40-66 on the
other hand.
In the first place, this gap manifests itself at the level of the text sort.
Whereas the chapters 1-39 contain an alternation of discursive and narra-
tive texts, 40-66 exists exclusively of only discursive texts. Because a
narrative text (Isa. 36:1-38:8; 38:21-39:81) is used at the end of Isa. 1-39,
this distinction between the two main text blocs 1-39 and 40-66 is even
more emphatically marked.
Moreover, the chapters 1-39 have several headings, which can be sub-
divided according to their importance (Isa. 1:1; 2:1; 13:1 as the main
headings and 15:1a; 17:1a; 19:1a; 21:1a, 11a, 13a; 22:1a; 23:1a; 30:6a;
38:9 as the other headings). Such macro-syntactical signs are missing in
the chapters 40-66. At the most, a kind of colophon can be perceived in
Isa. 48:22; 57:21, but, from a technical literary viewpoint, these do not
function as the headings in the first part of the book.2
At the level of the characters, there are several changes between the
chapters 1-39 and 40-66 as well. Not only is the character Hezekiah the
last king mentioned in Isa. 1-39, but also the character prophet Isaiah
does not occur anymore in the book Isaiah after chapter 39.
On the other hand, the location Jerusalem occurs in both Isa. 1-39
and 40-66 and gives rise to continuation in the text. In my view, this
single semantical observation is not sufficient to describe and to under-
stand the unity of the book Isaiah. This observation, therefore, has to be

1
It is true that the text Isa. 38:9-20, which forms the writing concerning Heze-
kiah, is a discursive text, but it forms a single unit 36-39 with the narrative texts 36:1-
38:8; 38:21-39:8.
2
See also A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, The Reader-Oriented Unity Of The Book
Isaiah (Amsterdamse Cahiers voor Exegese van de Bijbel en zijn Tradities Supple-
ment Series 6), Vught 2006, 36-52.
82 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

dealt with within the framework of the reader-oriented strategies which

bridge this gap and enable the continuation of the book Isaiah. I have
described these strategies elsewhere in this volume. Now, I wish to focus
on the character Hezekiah, King in the city of Jerusalem, who, also be-
cause of his illness and recovery, contributes to this bridge.

2. Hezekiah, Ahaz and the Immanu-El

The various differences between the characters Ahaz and Hezekiah, both
King in Jerusalem, in the narrative texts Isa. 7:1-17 and 36-39 are obvi-
ously striking.3
For Ahaz and Hezekiah, the narrative starting-point is identical: both
of them are faced with a military threat against Jerusalem. This military
action is described in both narratives in the first verse by using the word
to go up (Isa. 7:1 and 36:1). The spatial dcor, in which both narra-
tives begin, is the same as well

at the end of the conduit of the upper pool, at the way to the

fullers field in Isa. 7:3 and

at
the conduit of the upper pool, at the way to the fullers field in 36:2. Both
kings are addressed by the prophet Isaiah using the expression:
do not fear! (Isa. 7:4 and 37:6), a call not to fear the military threat. Both
kings are offered the opportunity to accept a sign which will guarantee
the deliverance of Jerusalem (Isa. 7:10-12 and 37:30-32).
Otherwise, however, Ahaz and Hezekiah only contrast with each other
in the way they cope with the situation and in their reaction to the
prophet Isaiah. In this contrast, Hezekiah seems to be the realisation of
the Immanu-El.
1. Simply the fact that the house of David did not end with the character
Ahaz, but that there is continuation, namely in the form of King Heze-
kiah, gives the contours of the Immanu-El to Hezekiah. From this per-
spective, it is striking that the character Hezekiah is not really introduced
in the narrative; even more, nowhere in the book Isaiah, is mentioned
whose son Hezekiah is (see especially Isa. 1:1; 36:1; 38:9, in contrast to
Ahaz in 7:1).

3
Many publications describe various observations concerning this contrast; for a
survey of these observations see also E.W. Conrad, The Royal Narratives and the
Structure of the Book of Isaiah, JSOT 41 (1988), 67-81; E.W. Conrad, Reading
Isaiah (OBT 27), Minneapolis 1991; C.R. Seitz, Zions Final Destiny: The Develop-
ment of the Book of Isaiah: A Reassessment of Isaiah 36-39, Minneapolis 1991.
 DISEASED KING AND DISEASED CITY 83

2. The proper name David, mentioned in Isa. 7:2, 13; 9:6, occurs in
the Hezekiah-narratives as well: 37:35; 38:5. Just as David is the motive
in the case of the Immanu-El, David has the same function in the an-
nouncement of Jerusalems deliverance in Isa. 37:21-35. This function
does not only apply to the deliverance of Jerusalem, but also to Heze-
the God of
kiahs salvation. Isaiah, therefore, speaks about
your (= Hezekiahs) father David ( Ahaz) in Isa. 38:5-6.
3. At a semantic level, the words peace in Isa. 9:5 and 38:17; 39:8,
kingship in 9:6 and 37:16 and
spirit in 11:2-4 and 38:16 con-
stitute this realisation as well.
4. The announcement of Jerusalems deliverance in Isa. 37:30-32 implies
an abundance of food, among others indicated using the word har-
vest. This abundance also occurs in Isa. 7:15 in the sign of the Immanu-
El using the term coagulant and, in the follow-up texts concerning
the Immanu-El, using the word harvest in 9:2 and the thematic issue
of the fertility in 11:1.
5. Finally, the core term, directed to the implied reader in the verses 9c-d
in chapter 7, confidence (the root ), occurs in the Hezekiah-narratives
in Isa. 38:3, 18-19; 39:8.
Although all these aspects seem to create a realisation of the Immanu-El
in Hezekiah, Hezekiah, nevertheless, does not coincide with the Im-
manu-El: he only seems to be the realisation of the Immanu-El.
1. The position of the terms peace and truth in Isa. 39:8
clearly indicates that Hezekiah is not the Immanu-El. Apart from that,
the deliverance of Jerusalem in Hezekiahs days appears to be only a
temporal liberation.
2. In chapter 39, the same becomes clear in the fact that the character
Hezekiah shows everything to the Babylonian delegation; an act con-
cerning which the character prophet Isaiah is not amused. Hezekiah ap-
pears not to be able to distinguish fully between good and evil, as the
Immanu-El is able to do (Isa. 7:15).
3. In this way, it also becomes clear that the positive relation with the
nations, which is described concerning the Immanu-El in chapter 11, is
not realised with Hezekiah.
Nonetheless, there is still another aspect in the relation between the
Kings Hezekiah and Ahaz: their continuation.
84 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

Ahaz is out of the picture. In Isa. 7:11-12, he refuses the sign offered
to him, whereupon the prophet Isaiah gives another sign, not to him, but
to the house of David: the Immanu-El is the sign that the house of David
and thus Jerusalem will go on, in spite of and in contrast with Ahaz.
Hezekiah behaves in a different way than Ahaz did: he complies with
the prophet Isaiah and accepts the sign which Isaiah offers to him on
behalf of God. However, his continuation too is at stake. Hezekiah gets
ill. This situation is the central issue in chapter 38, which functions as a
parallel narrative to Isa. 36-37: while Jerusalem is besieged, King Heze-
kiah falls ill in Jerusalem.
Of course, the implied reader, familiar with confidence, because of
the reader-oriented techniques which he has already experienced, under-
stands that, exactly as Jerusalem is saved in Isa. 36-37, King Hezekiah
too will be saved, all the more because of the fact that both Jerusalem
and Hezekiah form a unity. Chapter 38, therefore, is, as it were, not
meant for building confidence on the implied readers part, but on the
part of the character Hezekiah, exactly as Ahaz confidence was at issue
in Isa. 7:1-9b, 10-17.
The difference between the characters Hezekiah and Ahaz is the most
manifest concerning their attitude with regard to Gods signs. Within the
narrative of the chapters 36-37, a first sign is formulated in Isa. 37:20,
expressed by the prophet Isaiah, addressed to Hezekiah. The acceptance
is indirectly assumed because of the successful outcome for the besieged
Jerusalem.
In chapter 38, this contrast between the characters Ahaz and Hezekiah
is explicitly increased introducing a new sign, with a special focus on
Hezekiah himself. Whereas Ahaz refuses the sign and does not want to
ask for a sign (Isa. 7:10-12) and whereas, instead of the sign refused, a
different sign is given by the prophet Isaiah (7:14b-15), Hezekiah does
accept the sign (38:7-8) and he does ask for a sign himself (38:22).
Semantically, the sheol plays a special part here. In Isa. 7:11,
Ahaz was allowed to ask for a sign even in the depth. The
sheol, however, is not a nice place: it is the place where Hezekiah does
not wish to go to because of Gods absence (Isa. 38:10, 18). In this way,
the character Hezekiah not only contrasts with the character Ahaz, but
also with the sheol. By the way, it is striking that Babel, which turns up
in chapter 39, is connected to the sheol in Isa. 14:9, 11, 15.
As a demonstration of Hezekiahs faith, chapter 38 contains a writing
concerning Hezekiah, in which the I-figure sings how he got close to the
sheol and came back with Gods help, so that he is able again to enter the
house of the Lord. In this poem, a shift occurs from the I-figure to a we-
 DISEASED KING AND DISEASED CITY 85

group, exactly at the moment that the salvation has become reality (verse
20). Because of this, a parallellity arises with the sign of the ,
Immanu-El, in which a we-group becomes manifest as well, contrasting
with Ahaz.
In this way, the implied reader is invited, once again, to get involved
in a we-group. To make this relation possible between the implied reader
and the we-group, Hezekiahs request for a sign is narrated after the
genesis of the we-group. Because of the fact that the narrative is told
chronologically (after all, both verbal forms
in the verses 21-22 are
not plusquamperfecta, but narrativi), the narrative ends with Hezekiahs
question concerning a sign for his ascent to the house of the Lord (verse
22). Subsequently, it is assumed that the implied reader is able to answer
this narrative final question, to go up to the house of the Lord in Jerusa-
lem.

3. Hezekiah and the Shift from Assur to Babel

The character Hezekiah is related not only to the character Ahaz, but also
to the characters Assur and Babel. Hezekiah evokes the shift from Assur,
the main external enemy in the chapters 1-39, to Babel, the main external
enemy in 40-66. This shift is possible because of the fact that both the
hostile Assur and the hostile Babel come to Jerusalem in the chapters 36-
39. In this way, Hezekiah is a reader-oriented bridge over the gap be-
tween Isa. 1-39 and 40-66.
In Isa. 36-37, Assur even comes (in Isa. 36:1 expressed using the verb
), in a double movement, first from Lakish (in 36:2 the verb is
used) and next from Libnah (in 37:8 the verbs and are used).
This double military movement is answered by Hezekiah making a dou-
ble movement as well, namely to the house of the Lord: in Isa. 37:1, this
movement is described using the verb to come, and, in 37:14, using
the verb to go up. Both times, Hezekiahs ascent to the house of the
Lord is accompanied by a religious act: the first time, he tears his clothes
and puts on a sack (Isa. 37:1), the second time, he prays in the house of
the Lord (37:15-20). Both times, the house of the Lord is the spatial d-
cor where Hezekiah receives Isaiahs prophecy of deliverance. The con-
trast between Assur and Hezekiah (and, in the background, between
Ahaz reaction to the military threat and Hezekiahs reaction) is obvious.
However, a different coming to Jerusalem occurs as well; a coming of
Babel in Isa. 39. From the perspective of all the hostile comings, this
coming of Babel immediately evokes the question to the implied reader,
as to how the Babylonian coming should be evalued.
86 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

Babels coming in chapter 39 is very ambiguous. The Babylonian

delegation comes farther into Jerusalem than any preceding hostile army,
for example Assur. Moreover, the delegation is shown everything:
the treasury house, the armoury house, the store-
rooms, in sum: everything in his (= Hezekiahs) house and
in his (= Hezekiahs) realm is shown (Isa. 39:2).

It is true that a delegation is not the same as armed forces, but this ob-
servation itself does not clarify the nature of the Babylonian mission. As
Isa. 39:1 makes clear, Hezekiahs illness and / or recovery is not Babels
reason to send a delegation: the mission already appears to exist, when it
hears about Hezekiahs illness and recovery. Actually, the text says noth-
ing about the reason of Babels delegation. So the more remarkable are
the facts that Hezekiah shows everything to the delegation of Merodach-
Baladan (including the militarily important armoury house) and,
subsequently, that the prophet Isaiah is infuriated. All things considered,
the text suggests in this way that Babel has a military purpose sending
his delegation. The Babylonian mission thus becomes a prefiguration of
the Babylonian coming to capture Jerusalem and to destroy it; a coming
which is only present in the book Isaiah in the ellipse between the chap-
ters 39 and 40.
After Assurs coming before Jerusalems walls, its retreat is described.
Assurs military action was in vain. In three short movements, directly
following each other, Assurs exit is described: he de-
parted, went and returned (Isa. 37:37). Using the verb to return, a
reference is made to Isaiahs announcement of Assurs return in Isa.
37:7, 29.
Assurs retreat, however, is increased. Not only Assurs returns is nar-
rated, but also that he stays away: [ ] whereupon he stayed [at
Nineveh] (Isa. 37:37). Because of this, the text even suggests that there
will no longer be a hostile army which will go to war against Jerusalem.
Next, Assurs retreat is increased once again: the Assyrian King San-
herib is killed (Isa. 37:38). Here too, a reference is made to the an-
nouncement of the character prophet Isaiah, namely in Isa. 37:7. The
murder is described very sarcastically. The homicide takes place in the
spatial dcor of an idols temple, i.e. a spatial dcor of a totally power-
less deity. Moreover, the murderers stay safe and sound; notwithstanding
the fact that they need to make a movement even farther away from Jeru-
salem to Mount Ararat. The successor of King Sanherib, his son Eser-
haddon, is not able to frighten the implied reader: after all, a king who
does not deal with the murderers of his predecessor, does not look very
 DISEASED KING AND DISEASED CITY 87

powerful. Or, could Eserhaddon himself have had a hand in the murder,
seeing that he implicitly gives the murderers safe-conduct? In that case,
however, the murder is even more sarcastic.
In short: in the book Isaiah, every threatening approach, both Assurs
coming in Ahaz time and Assurs coming in Hezekiahs time, is por-
trayed as a coming which will not succeed and which will end in a hu-
miliating retreat. Babels crypto-threat in the form of his delegation,
however, only seems to be a contrast. Not only does the delegation really
enter Jerusalem and is shown everything, even the military things, but
neither does the text narrate that the delegation leaves Jerusalem. Be-
cause of the fact that Hezekiah welcomes the Babylonian delegation,
Babel is already present in Jerusalem. It is clear to the implied reader that
Babel remains present in Jerusalem as a time bomb.
The narration Isa. 39, therefore, is a totally different story from the narra-
tive texts in the chapters 36-38. It is not about Assur, it is about Babel.
Both the character Hezekiah and the implied reader have learned to have
confidence and they have both proved they are able to show this confi-
dence. Both the character Hezekiah and the implied reader have learned
this by their own routes in the narrations in Isa. 36-38. How will they
practise their confidence in chapter 39?
The character Hezekiah reacts with enthusiasm to Babels coming and
shows everything to Babel in verse 2, his financial possibilities
the treasury house, silver, gold), his religious possibilities
( the perfumery, the good oil), as well as his military
possibilities ( the armoury house, the storerooms). What
does the character Hezekiah intend? For a war, you need weapons, and,
in case of a lengthy siege, stores and provisions, of course money, and, to
maintain Babels assistance, a religious deal. However, nowhere in the
narration, is mentioned that Hezekiah has real war plans himself. Maybe
the character Hezekiah is only audacious? A feeling of immunity which
grows into a daring confidence? However, neither does the narration give
exact information about such an attitude. Nevertheless, it is clear that the
character prophet Isaiah is furious. On behalf of God, he announces the
coming of days (verse 6), as he announced the coming of days
to Ahaz (Isa. 7:16-17). Like the days related to Ahaz are filled with
the King of Assur (Isa. 7:17), the days related to Hezekiah are filled
with the King of Babel (39:7). In Isa. 7:17, these days come
over Ahaz and his people ( over you and over your people),
in 39:7, they come over Hezekiahs sons ( your sons). Whereas Ahaz
is not spared, Hezekiah is, but his sons are not.
88 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

Although the character Hezekiah was able to show confidence, in con-

trast to the character Ahaz, he fails in the narration Isa. 39. The exile is
coming close, but is connected only to his sons.
For the implied reader, the shift from Assur to Babel is not totally
new; the transition between chapter 12 and Isa. 13-14, the start of the text
unit 13-35, was characterised by the same shift as well. Because of that,
the confidence, shown by the implied reader in the narrative chapters 36-
38, seems to be more easily continued in chapter 39 than the confidence
by the character Hezekiah.
Nevertheless, this continuation of the implied readers confidence is
severely tested. Isa. 39 has no prolepsis like 7:1-17, and neither a happy
end like 36-37. Instead of these literary phenomena, the implied reader is
a narrative witness of the words of the character prophet Isaiah concern-
ing the exile announced. The question is whether the implied reader has
acquired enough confidence in Isa. 1-38 to get through chapter 39, even
more, to be able to risk the leap to 40:1-11, where he suddenly is located
in a position from which he can look back to the evil which was an-
nounced in 39:6-7 a position, however, also located in the city of
Jerusalem, to which the inhabitants are returning, in contrast to the en-
emy Babel (and Assur).

4. Hezekiah and the Shift from King to Servant

At the level of the characters, Hezekiah bridges the gap between Isa.
39:8 and 40:1 once again. As a king, Hezekiah is the personification of
the community, concerning which he has the leader function. Parallel to
the Immanu-El, therefore, he creates a we-group in recovering from his
illness. Because of the fact that Hezekiah is not the definitive realisation
of the Immanu-El, however, this incomplete realisation before the ellipse
between Isa. 39:8 and 40:1 evokes a new realisation after the ellipse.
In this process, the word King is not decisive. After all, in the de-
scription of the Immanu-El the word King is expressly avoided (for
example, see the word leader in Isa. 9:5). The leader role, therefore,
can be shaped in the chapters 40-66 in the role of the Servant.4
In the book Isaiah, the parallellity between the Servant and the royal
leader figure is increased because of the fact that there are only two ill

4
For an elaborated discussion, see: A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, op. cit., 141-6.
 DISEASED KING AND DISEASED CITY 89

characters in the entire book: Hezekiah in chapter 38 and the Servant in

Isa. 52:13-53:12.5 The illness metaphor further occurs in Isa. 1:5-6.
Hezekiah prays for his own recovery, but the Servant passes through
the entire suffering. Although, at first glance, Hezekiahs recovery seems
to guarantee continuation, in chapter 39, his sons future appears to be in
exile. Although the death of the Servant seems to imply an end to con-
tinuation anyhow, this death, conversely, gives to him a lasting continua-
tion in his seed (Isa. 53:10). As from Isa. 53:11 onwards, the word
Servant is, therefore, only used in plural: Servants.
The unity of the book Isaiah cannot be situated in the continuation of the
proper names as roles. Only the role of the character God / the Lord is
continued by using the same proper name throughout the whole book
Isaiah and, following in this characters wake, also the role of Sion /
Jerusalem. The continuity of the roles is situated at a different level. The
focus is directed on how the (ideal) leader of Gods people should act
and on the tension this ideal causes in its (failing) realisations. A first
tension is formed by the confrontation between Ahaz and Hezekiah as
Kings of Juda in relation to the Immanu-El in Isa. 7:14-15 (and the Im-
manu-Els further modelling in 8:23c-9:6 and 10:28-11:16). In the end,
Hezekiah appears to be not the final realisation of the sign of the Im-
manu-El and disappears in the ellipse between the chapters 39 and 40. It
is exactly this ellipse which evokes a new realisation formed by the Ser-
vant, who, because of that, also becomes the continuation of the Im-
manu-El.

5. Hezekiah and the Continuation of Time

Hezekiah evokes continuation from Isa. 1-39 to 40-66 not only because
of his contrast to Ahaz and because of his parallellities with the Immanu-
El, but also because of his involvement in the reader-oriented aspect
time.
According to the heading in Isa. 1:1, Hezekiah belongs in the series of
Judean Kings Uzziah, Jotham and Ahaz. Whereas, only the year of death
of Uzziah is mentioned (Isa. 6:1) and
Jotham is only indirectly
present in the text (7:1), Ahaz is introduced as such in 7:1 and he is
mentioned as acting character in the verses 3, 10 and 12 of chapter 7 as
well.

5
Confer also: M. Barker, Hezekiahs Boil, JSOT 95 (2001), 38-9; Z. Kustr,
Durch seine Wunden sind wir geheilt: Eine Untersuchung zur Metaphorik von
Israels Krankheit und Heilung im Jesajabuch (BWANT 154), Stuttgart 2002, 42-219.
90 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

After chapter 7, the proper name Ahaz occurs in Isa. 14:28, where it is
used in an expression of time: in the year of death
of King Ahaz. This implies, that, from the perspective of the headings in
Isa. 1:1, Isa. 7:1-14:27 can be considered as related to the days of King
Ahaz and that, therefore, the days of King Hezekiah start in Isa. 14:28.
Finally, the proper name Ahaz occurs in Isa. 38:8. This text is a
part of the narration in Isa. 38:1-22, in which Hezekiahs illness and
recovery are narrated. In that narration, the proper name Ahaz is con-
nected to a kind of steps (verse 8). The ancient translations such as
the Targum ( ) 6 and the Vulgate (in horologio) 7 interpret this
as a kind of sundial, so that the proper name Ahaz is connected to a
time instrument. Anyhow, at the moment the shadows are getting longer,
night is falling. This aspect is metaphorically used to indicate the peril-
ous situation in which the character Hezekiah is situated. Using the
proper name Ahaz, the text refers to the comparable situation of the
character Ahaz in Isa. 7:1-17.
After the heading in Isa. 1:1, the proper name Hezekiah is not men-
tioned again till 36:1: in the fourteenth
year of King Hezekiah. This notice corresponds with the observation that
the days of King Hezekiah have already begun in Isa. 14:28; after all, in
36:1, Hezekiah has already been king for fourteen years.
From this perspective, the time indication in Isa. 38:5 is important: the
Lord promises Hezekiah to add to his days fif-
teen years. This means that the implied reader in Isa. 36:1 is situated
roughly halfway through Hezekiahs period of being king. It seems that
Hezekiahs days have come to an end because of the siege of Jerusalem
and because of his illness; the days of King Hezekiah, conversely, are
merely halfway up. This corresponds with the expression in the Hezekiah
writing in Isa. 38:10: the rest of my years (the Vulgate strik-
ingly renders: in dimidio dierum meorum [in the midst of my days]).
All this evokes the question as to where in the text the days of King
Hezekiah end. This question is all the more interesting because, in con-
trast to the explicit mention of the death of both Uzziah and Ahaz and in
contrast to the implicit mention of Jothams death, the death of Hezekiah
is mentioned nowhere in the book Isaiah.

6
See: A. Sperber, The Bible in Aramaic based upon Old Manuscripts and Printed
Texts, vol. 3: The Latter Prophets according to Targum Jonathan, Leiden 1992 [=
1962], 77.
7
Confer also: A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, Notes on Isaiah 38-39, BN 102 (2000),
28.
 DISEASED KING AND DISEASED CITY 91

After Jerusalems deliverance, the text creates an open end for the
chapters 38 and 39 as to the aspect of time. In chapter 38, the verses
21-22 form this open end, in which Hezekiah asks for a sign. After all,
this sign is not concerning Hezekiahs recovery; because, in verse 22,
Hezekiah is already recovered. The sign, asked for in verse 22, concerns
the issue whether Hezekiah will go up to the house of the Lord. In this
way, verse 22 refers to the conclusion of the Hezekiah writing, in which
an ascent up to the house of the Lord (verse 20) is connected
to the expression all the days of our life. The sign, asked for
in verse 22, is not given anywhere in the narration Isa. 36-39. Neither is
narrated anywhere that Hezekiah really goes up to the house of the Lord.
This is all the more striking because of the fact that, in the narration be-
fore Isa. 38:22, signs are given (37:30; 38:7) and Hezekiah does go up to
the house of the Lord (37:14). The narration in chapter 38, therefore, has
an open end.
In chapter 39, this open end is intensified. The character Isaiah furi-
ously reacts to the character Hezekiah, because he has shown everything
to the delegation from Babel. All the things shown have to do with
Hezekiahs house. The word house frequently occurs in chapter 39:
three times in verse 2, twice in verse 4 and once in verse 6. The expres-
sion the good oil in verse 2 suggests that the house of the
Lord is involved as well. Anyhow, an ascent to the house of the Lord is
not at issue. Isaiah, conversely, foresees in the events the decline of
Hezekiahs house. Days will come, he states in verse 6. Because of the
fact that, in verse 7, these days are about Hezekiahs sons, however,
these days, announced by Isaiah, are not the days of King Hezekiah. This
means that the implied reader is informed about days which are beyond
the days enumerated in the heading in Isa. 1:1:

in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah. When these new
days will be, is not communicated to the implied reader. Even more, the
last word in Isa. 39 is in my days (verse 8). This expression is about
Hezekiahs days, which seem to go on and which seem to be prosperous
with peace and truth.
From the perspective of the heading in Isa. 1:1, the implied reader
seems to be informed that the days of Hezekiah are present in 14:28-
66:24. It is true that this idea is not contradicted by any mention of
Hezekiahs death, but the announcement of days beyond the days of
Hezekiah in chapter 39 does. For the implied reader, it is of importance
when these days-beyond-Hezekiahs-days start. As from Isa. 40:1, this
appears to be the case. Comfort appears to be necessary, a situation
which does not match the situation of peace and truth in
92 A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN

Hezekiahs days and which, therefore, can refer only to the days men-
tioned in Isa. 39:6.
This also implies that the (Babylonian) exile, as described in Isa. 39:6,
is present only in the form of the literary device ellipse, namely be-
tween 39:8 and 40:1: although the exile is not described in the text any-
where, the exile is nevertheless present. The text Isa. 40-66, therefore, is
beyond the time indication in the heading in 1:1; even more, the text 40-
66 is characterised by the absence of any heading, exactly because there
are no days anymore as mentioned in the heading in 1:1.

6. Hezekiah and the Shift from the Character Prophet Isaiah

to the Character Heraldess of Good Tidings / Herald of Good Tidings

Hezekiah is related not only to his fellow-characters and to the develop-

ment in the aspect time, he also enables the shift to a new communica-
tive order for the prophet figure, which arises in the chapters 40-66 of the
book Isaiah.
At the communicative level of the characters, two main characters act
in chapter 39: King Hezekiah and the prophet Isaiah. By means of utter-
ances of the character prophet Isaiah, the days beyond the days of the
character Hezekiah are announced and, because of that, implicitly the
death of the character Hezekiah as well. In this way, however, it is also
suggested that the character prophet Isaiah will quit the scene; after all,
nothing will be left (verse 6). From this perspective, it is not striking that,
after Isa. 39:8, not only the character Hezekiah or whatever kingly char-
acter acts, but that also the character prophet Isaiah cannot act anymore.
At first, therefore, an anonymous voice will take over Gods call in Isa.
40:1-11.
Shifts do not only occur at the characters communicative level, but also
with regard to the communication between the discursor/narrator and the
implied reader. Chapter 39 ends with a direct speech, namely of the
character Hezekiah. As a matter of course, a narrator has to be responsi-
ble for the fact that a character can say a direct speech. Moreover, this
narrator/discursor has got the proper name Isaiah in Isa. 1:1. The
last direct speech in Isa. 36-39 makes this clear once again by using the
introductory formula whereupon he said (verse 8d). From the per-
whereupon Hezekiah said to
spective of verse 8a
Isaiah, this introductory formula seems to be even superfluous. Chapter
40 starts with a direct speech. This means that there must be a discursor
 DISEASED KING AND DISEASED CITY 93

once again. From the perspective of Isa. 36-39, this discursor cannot be
anyone else than the narrator Isaiah.
As from Isa. 40:1, the implied reader is thus informed that the discur-
sor/narrator is continued from 38:8 to 40:1. Nevertheless, the implied
reader wonders whether this sender instance will have the proper name
Isaiah again. This will not be the case. The proper name Isaiah for the
sender instance discursor/narrator remains an aposiopesis in Isa. 40-66.
This aposiopesis, however, is carefully prepared in Isa. 1-39, in which
the proper name Isaiah for the discursor/narrator does not occur anymore
after 13:1 and only the character Isaiah still occurs in which the
discursor/narrator Isaiah takes shape at the characters level. The
implied reader, however, will meet a new character in Isa. 40-66 in
which the discursor/narrator takes shape again, namely the her-
aldess of good tidings / herald of good tidings.8
This new shaping of the discursor/narrator at the characters commu-
nicative level is also arranged by the conclusion of chapter 39. Because
of the fact that Isa. 39:5-8 indirectly mentions the death of the character
Hezekiah, the text indirectly mentions the death of the character prophet
Isaiah as well. For the implied reader, this evokes the question as to how
the prophet figure will be present at the characters level and as to who
will keep speaking on behalf of God, also in the days beyond the days of
the character Hezekiah. This question is answered in the character her-
aldess of good tidings / herald of good tidings, which is connected to
Jerusalem as a messenger (esp. Isa. 40:9-10) in the same way as the
character prophet Isaiah was connected to Jerusalem. This communica-
tive development is further emphasised by the explicit initiation of this
character by the character the Lord in Isa. 41:27.
In short: in a continued time, namely beyond the exile, with continued
characters, namely in the form of the Servant, in a continued communi-
cative setting, namely with the same discursor/narrator, however without
using its proper name anymore, but within a new characterisation in the
form of the heraldess of good tidings / herald of good tidings, the con-
tinuance of the book Isaiah in the chapters 40-66 is enabled by Hezekiah,
King in the city of Jerusalem.9

8
For an elaborated discussion, see: A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, op. cit., 110-7.
9
I am greatly indebted to Drs. Maurits J. Sinninghe Damst (Musselkanaal, the
Netherlands) for his correction of the English translation of this article.
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55
U. Berges

1. Introductory Remarks

That Zion and Jerusalem play a central role in the Book of Isaiah be-
comes immediately evident if one sees how often both terms occur in
this prophetic book:
Proto Isa. Deutero Isa. Trito Isa. total
Zion: 29 11 7 47
Jerusalem: 30 10 9 49
From a total of 154 times that Zion occurs in the Hebrew Bible, nearly
one third of the entries is to be found in the Isaianic corpus. This distri-
bution is even more impressive if one takes into account that Zion occurs
only 17 times in Jeremiah and not even once in Ezekiel (no entries either
in Hosea; Jonah; Nahum; Habakkuk; Haggai and Malachi).1
Regarding Jerusalem the statistic is less impressive but still worth no-
ticing: from a total of 669 times in the Hebrew Bible, Jerusalem figures
49 times in Isaiah, 107 times in Jeremiah and 26 times in Ezekiel but
there not even once in the chapters 40-48 which present the post-exilic
restoration of the temple and the priestly cult (again no entries in Hosea;
Jonah; Nahum; Habakkuk; Haggai). In comparison to Jeremiah and Eze-
kiel, it is only in Isaiah that Zion and Jerusalem are used with an equal
frequency throughout the book. In 17 cases both terms stand parallel to
each other and in none of them a pre-exilic provenience seems plausible.2
The present study builds upon some earlier publications on the posi-
tion of Zion / Jerusalem in the threefold division of the book, on her

1
Th. Renz, The Use of the Zion Tradition in the Book of Ezekiel, in: R.S. Hess;
G.J. Wenham (eds), Zion, City of Our God, Grand Rapids 1999, 97: God will not
return to Zion or the ark of his covenant, because Zion is a holy place and the ark a
guarantee of his presence, but Zion will again be a holy place (if Zion it will be),
because God will return to Zion. The best way to make sure that the priorities are
right, seems to have been not to mention Zion at all in the restoration program.
2
Isa. 2:3; 4:3, 4; 10:12, 32; 24:23; 30:19; 31:9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27;
52:1, 2; 62:1; 64:9; that is more often than in the whole rest of the prophetic corpus:
Jer. 26:18; 51:35; Joel 3:5; 4:16, 17; Amos 1:2; Mic. 3:10, 12; 4:2, 8; Zeph. 3:14, 16;
Zech. 1:14, 17; 8:3; 9:9.
96 U. BERGES

personification and on the quality as the place where the new creation
takes shape.3 What will be analysed here is the function Zion / Jerusalem
plays in connection with the theme of the kingship of Yhwh in Isa. 40-
55.. The objective is not to re-open the debate about the so-called
Thronbesteigungsfest or to tackle the questions on the historical roots
of the concept of the kingship of Yhwh in the Hebrew Bible.4 What is of
interest here is the fact that in Isa. 40-55. the motif of Yhwh as king and
the one of Zion as imperial city profit from each other in a very special
way.
That the mlk-Yhwh-statements in the Hebrew Bible are intimately
connected with the tradition of Zion as the chosen dwelling place of
Yhwh is well known (cf. Exod. 15; Pss. 24; 29; Isa. 6).5 From the 13
times that Yhwh is the subject of qal in nearly all the places of this
poetic-liturgical usage (sic!) the connection with Zion / Jerusalem / tem-
ple is explicitly or implicitly made.6 This picture is to be completed with
the 41 times that Yhwh receives the titel in the Hebrew Bible. Again
the poetical usage is almost without exception (only 1 Sam. 12:12) and
one encounters this hymnical statement at some very crucial moments
(blessing of Bileam: Num. 23:21; Moses: Deut. 33:5; Nebuchadnezzar:
Dan 4:34). The Zion / Jerusalem-context plays explicitly or implicitly
once again an important role (Isa. 6:5; Jer. 8:19; Mal. 1:14; Zech. 14:9;
Zeph. 3:15; esp. in Pss. 24:7, 8, 9, 10; 29:10; 47:3, 7, 8; 48:3; 68:25;
74:12; 84:4; 95:3; 98:6; 99:4; 149:2). At times a strong polemical ten-
dency has to be noted; nobody else than Yhwh is king (cf. in the disputa-
tion speeches: Isa. 41:21; 43:15; 44:6) and nobody else can claim that
dignity (cf. Jer. 10:7, 10; 46:18; 48:15; 51:57).
The following conclusion of K. Seybold is very much to the point and
will serve as starting point for our investigation about the function of
Zion in the post-exilic restoration programme in Isa. 40-55: Er (=

3
U. Berges, Sion als thema in het boek Jesaja: Nieuwe exegetische benadering
en theologische gevolgen, TTh 39 (1999), 118-38; Idem, Die Zionstheologie des
Buches Jesaja, EstB 58 (2000), 167-98; Idem, Personifications and Prophetic
Voices of Zion in Isaiah and Beyond, in: J.C. de Moor (ed.), The Elusive Prophet:
The Prophet as a Historical Person, Literary Character and Anonymous Artist (OTS
45), Leiden 2001, 54-82; Idem, Gottesgarten und Tempel: Die neue Schpfung im
Jesajabuch, in: O. Keel, E. Zenger (eds), Gottesstadt und Gottesgarten: Zu
Geschichte und Theologie des Jerusalemer Tempels (QD 191), Freiburg 2002, 69-98.
4
Cf. the literature mentioned by K. Seybold, mlk, TWAT 4 (1984) col.
926-30.
5
See for the following data Ibidem.
6
Exod. 15:18; Isa. 24:23; 52:7; Ezek. 20:33; Mic. 4:7; Pss. 47:9; 93:1; 96:10 (= 1
Chron. 16:31); 97:1; 99:1; 146:10; The only real exception is the prosaic verse 1
Sam. 8:7.
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 97

Yhwh) steht den Vlkern und ihren Gttern explizit als melek Israels
gegenber Die Theophanie des Weltenknigs dient dazu, die alte Re-
sidenz Zion wiederherzustellen. Darum soll die Botschaft verkndigt
werden, da auf Zion wieder sein Gott und kein anderer als Knig regie-
ren wird (52,7 perfektiver Aspekt in visionrer Perspektive). DtJes ak-
zentuiert (1) den universalen und zugleich partikularen, (2) den superla-
tivischen und (3) den eschatologischen Aspekt des Knig-Theolo-
gumenons, indem er schon angelegte Linien metaphorisch weiter aus-
zieht.
The question is: how does Deutero-Isaiah re-use the value
(Sinnraum) Zion / Jerusalem in order to affirm the kingship of Yhwh.
The term metaphorisch in Seybold has to be clarified (more in the
sense of mythological background).
What has to be stressed: the renewal of the Yhwh-mlk-creed by the re-
use of the Zion-tradition in the prophetic corpus,7 was not as successful
as it had been the case in the Psalms. Quite interesting is the fact that Isa.
52:7 is the last statement about the kingship of Yhwh in Isaiah.8

2. The Place of Zion in the Mental Map of Biblical Israel

In publications and commentaries the role of Zion in the dramatic devel-

opment of Isa. 40-55. is seen so far mainly as the place where to the
Babylonian exiles, the dispersed Jews and Yhwh-followers from the
nations are called to direct their path (cf. Auszugsbefehle: Isa. 48:20-21;
52:11-12; 55:12-13). In the German speaking exegesis the different em-
phasis on Jakob in Isa. 40-48 and on Zion in 49-55 tends to be worked
out in redaction-critical model(s) in which Jacob represents Gods people
walking under the guidance of Yhwh and in which Zion embodies the
perspective of reaching the final destiny. The underlying observations
are certainly not totally of the mark and the predominance of Jakob in
these chapters remains impressive. 9 But Zion / Jerusalem is not at all
absent in these chapters.10 Surprisingly enough the message of redemp-

7
Ibidem, 952: Mic. 2:13; 4:7; Obad. 21; Zeph. 3:15; Jer. 3:17; 10:7, 10; 17:12;
51:57; Mal. 1:14.
8
Against W. Eichrodt, Theologie des Alten Testaments, 3 Bde, Stuttgart, etc.
3
1957-1961 (11933-1939), 125: Der Gebrauch des Knigstitels gerade fr Jahves
Herrschaft ber die Vlker brgerte sich mehr und mehr ein (cf. Ps. 22:29; Isa.
24:23; Zech. 14:16f).
9
Jacob: Isa. 40:27; 41:8, 14, 21; 42:24; 43:1, 22, 28; 44:1, 2, 5, 21, 23; 45:4, 19;
46:3; 48:1, 12, 20; 49:5, 6, 26 (mostly followed by Israel; only in Isa. 41:8 preceded
by it); thereafter in 58:1, 14; 59:20; 60:16; 65:9.
10
Jerusalem: Isa. 40:2, 9; 41:27; 44:26, 28; 51:17; 52:1, 2, 9; Zion: 40:9; 41:27;
98 U. BERGES

tion in the so called prologue is not directed to the exiles in Babylonia or

elsewhere but to Jerusalem / Zion herself (Isa. 40:2, 9; cf. 41:27). The
next time one finds Jerusalem mentioned (without Zion) is Isa. 44:26, 28,
where Yhwh reveals the task of the Persian king in the restoration of
Gods people: who says of Jerusalem, It shall be inhabited, and of the
cities of Judah, They shall be rebuilt, and I will raise up their ruins
(v. 26)... who says of Cyrus, He is my shepherd, and he shall carry out
all my purpose; and who says of Jerusalem, It shall be rebuilt, and of
the temple, Your foundation shall be laid (v. 28). The third and last
time that Zion is mentioned in Isa. 40-48 is 46:13, a verse that shows all
signs of a later addition (cf. 51:5): I bring near my deliverance, it is not
far off, and my salvation will not tarry; I will put salvation in Zion, for
Israel my glory.11 It is amazing to see that the theme of the rebuilding of
Jerusalem and the sanctuary is not linked with the permission of the Per-
sian authorities to the Babylonian exiles to return to their home land as it
is the case in 2 Chron. 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-3. On the other hand, equally
amazing is the fact that the texts which present the transformation of the
desert into a lively habitat, do not speak of a return to Zion (Isa. 40:3;
41:18-19; 43:19-20; 51:3).12 It is for the first time in Isa. 51:11 that the
motif of the restoration and redemption of Zion is explicitly connected
with the theme of returning exiles: So the ransomed of Yhwh shall re-
turn, and come to Zion with singing; everlasting joy shall be upon their
heads; they shall obtain joy and gladness, and sorrow and sighing shall
flee away. This happy return which finds its high point in the proclama-
tion of the kingship of Yhwh (Isa. 52:7) is not rooted in the permission of
the Persian authorities but in the victory of Yhwh in his battle against the
forces of chaos. Like in a triptychon the three events of Gods slaughter-
ing of the monster in the days of old (Rahab / tanin), his drying up of the
sea to prepare in the depths of the waters a way for the redeemed [out of
Egypt] and Gods bringing back of the ransomed to Zion are presented in
Isa. 51:9-11 as one act of liberation. Through Yhwhs restoration of Zion
and the repopulation of Jerusalem he reveals his victory over the forces
of chaos and destruction. What is important to recognize is the fact that
in the worldview of the ancient Near East and thus of biblical Israel the
distinction between history and mythology does not apply. The empirical
world was seen as manifestation and symbolization of the hidden world
of gods and demons:

46:13; 49:14; 51:3, 11, 16; 52:1, 2, 7, 8.

11
This is the only place in Isaiah which parallels Zion and Israel.
12
Cf. U. Berges, art. cit., 69-98.
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 99

Es findet eine stndige Osmose zwischen Tatschlichem und

Symbolischem, und umgekehrt auch zwischen Symbolischem und
Tatschlichem statt. Diese Offenheit der alltglichen, irdischen
Welt auf die Sphren gttlich-intensiven Lebens und bodenloser,
vernichtender Verlorenheit ist wohl der Hauptunterschied zu unse-
rer Vorstellung der Welt als eines praktisch geschlossenen mecha-
nischen Systems.13
The rebuilding of Jerusalem with its sanctuary and the return of exiles
and other displaced Jews are seen as clear manifestations of Yhwhs
regained control over the forces of chaos: a perfect osmosis between
historical and mythological event.
The importance of Zion / Jerusalem at the beginning (Isa. 40:1-9),
near the centre (44:26-28) and near the end (51-52) of Deutero-Isaiah
cannot be sufficiently explained by a change of perspective14 but has to
do with the intrinsic connection of Jerusalem / Zion as royal and temple
city with the kingship of Yhwh.
In order to grasp the importance of this connection one has to take
into account not only the places of Zion / Jerusalem in Deutero-Isaiah
but also the impact of the holy city in the perception of Biblical Israel.
To do so the interpreter of the biblical text should get acquainted with a
branch of the study of religion, called geography of religion (Re-
ligionsgeographie). It studies in a systematic way the relationship be-
tween religion and its geographic environment.15 What are the environ-
mental conditions that give items like mountains, desert, springs,
rivers, trees etc such a predominant place in Deutero-Isaiah? 16 It
should be evident that religious concepts are not to be decoded automati-

13
O. Keel, Die Welt der altorientalischen Bildsymbolik und das Alte Testament:
Am Beispeil der Psalmen, Neukirchen/Zrich, etc. 1972, 47.
14
J. Werlitz, Redaktion und Komposition: Zur Rckfrage hinter die Endgestalt
von Jesaja 40-55 (BBB 122), Bonn, etc. 1999, 2: Gegenber Jes 40-48 mit seiner
Auszugsperspektive liegt also in Jes 49-55 deutlich Ankunftsperspektive vor.
15
See still the fundamental study of J.-F. Sprockhoff, Religise Lebensformen
und Gestalt der Lebensrume: ber das Verhltnis von Religionsgeographie und
Religionswissenschaft, Numen 11 (1964), 85-146; and also K. Hoheisel, Religions-
geographie, HRWG 1 (1988), 108-20; G. Rinschede, Religionsgeographie (Das
Geographische Seminar), Braunschweig 1999; D. Pezzoli-Olgiati, Immagine urbane:
Interpretatione religiose della cit antica (OBO), Freiburg/Gttingen 2002, 21f.
16
Still very helpful A. Schwarzenbach, Die geographische Terminologie im Heb-
rischen des Alten Testaments, Leiden 1954; H. Weippert, Altisraelitische Welter-
fahrung: Die Erfahrung von Raum und Zeit nach dem Alten Testament, in: H.-P.
Mathys (ed.), Ebenbild Gottes Herrscher ber die Welt: Studien zur Wrde und
Auftrag des Menschen (BThS 33), Neukirchen 1998, 9-34.
100 U. BERGES

cally from such geographic data17 but that they have to be placed in what
is called a mental map, i.e. an inner model of perception, evaluation
and interpretation of these selected items. 18 To put it simply: temples,
royal cities, kingly gardens, city-walls, gates, wilderness, desert, rivers,
hills, mountains etc were experienced not only and in the first place as
geographic items or architectural entities but as road-signs for the reli-
gious and social identity. They show individuals and groups where they
are, what position they occupy in their own world.19 Thus the question
here is the following: what is the place of Zion / Jerusalem in the mental
map of exilic-postexilic Israel as it is encoded in the Isaianic literature?
First of all, as the city of Yhwhs dwelling place Jerusalem occupies
the central position in the mental map of Biblical Israel and especially in
the Book of Isaiah. This is to be seen in the fact that in no other prophetic
book Jerusalem / Zion plays in all parts such an important role; further-
more the inclusion of the Book of Isaiah by the chapters 1-2; 66 and the
central position of Isa. 36-39 strengthen the centrality of Jerusalem. The
invitation towards the nations to receive Gods Tora from mount Zion in
Jerusalem (Isa. 2:2-4) and their pilgrimage there to at the end of the book
(chapter 66) shows clearly that Zion and Jerusalem stand in the centre of
the horizontal axis in this perception of the world. Everything what is not
included in the realm of the sacred city belongs to the periphery20 which
is characterized by wilderness, desert, fierce and unclean animals, de-
mons and also by aggressive uncivilized persons (the contrast is perfectly
seen in the diptychon of Isa. 34-35).21
But by the location of the sanctuary of Yhwh in Jerusalem the holy
city presents not only the centre of the horizontal but also that of the
vertical axis of the whole world. As it is clearly seen in Isa. 6 the Jerusa-
lem temple connects the earthly domain with the heavenly realm. The
17
K. Hoheisel, art. cit., 116: Zeugnisse fr entsprechende Landschaftswahrneh-
mungen, mental maps, mssen den Zusammenhang zustzlich besttigen.
18
R.M. Downs, D. Stea (eds), Image and Environment: Cognitive Mapping and
spatial Behavior, Chicago 1973, 9: Cognitive mapping is a process of a series of
psychological transformations by which an individual acquires, codes, stores, recalls,
and decodes informations about the relative locations of phenomena in his spatial
environment (quoted from: R. Gehlen, Welt und Ordnung: Zur soziokulturellen
Dimension von Raum in frhen Gesellschaften (RWR 8), Marburg 1995, 124).
19
R. Gehlen, op. cit., 124: Mental maps sind Hilfsmittel fr die Orientierung, die
jedoch nicht nur ein Wissen, wo man sich befindet, sondern auch wohin man
gehrt beinhalten.
20
Cf. B. Pongratz-Leisten, Mental map und Weltbild in Mesopotamien, in: B.
Janowski, B. Ego (eds), Das biblische Weltbild und Seine altorientalische Kontexte
(FAT 32), Tbingen 2001, 272-3; R. Gehlen, op. cit., 111.
21
See the importance of midbar in Isa. 35:1, 6; 40:3; 41:18, 19; 42:11; 43:19;
43:20; 50:2; 51:3; 63:13; 64:9 (furthermore in 14:17; 16:1, 8; 21:1; 27:10; 32:15, 16).
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 101

city with its temple was thus experienced as the axis mundi where the
horizontal and the vertical lines come together.22
Mount Zion, in liturgical confession elevated to be the highest of the
mountains (cf. Pss. 46; 48; 93-100) was additionally perceived as the
Urhgel where Yhwh dominated the waters of chaos and transformed
them into the four life giving rivers (Gen. 2:10-14). In Zion the garden of
Eden was located (Isa. 51:3) and the inner decoration of the temple and
the artefacts in the temple area made clear that here one enters the cos-
mic centre of creation. Thus the axis mundi was experienced at the same
time as imago mundi. This mapping of Jerusalem as the city of Yhwh
and of mount Zion as the place of his earthly abode (Isa. 8:16: Yhwh
Zebaoth, who dwells on Mount Zion: ) has
analogies in the conception of other imperial and / or temple cities in the
Ancient World.23 These cities build by or under the auspices of the Gods,
elevated above and protected against the forces of chaos and destruction,
were experienced as holy spaces as sacred landscapes where the
communication with the divine powers of creation were assured by the
priestly elite. The last aspect has always to be kept in mind while relying
on the mental maps of holy cities. The most persuasive witnesses to a
locative, imperial world-view are the production of well organized, self-
conscious scribal elites who had a deep vested interest in restricting mo-
bility and valuing place. The texts are, by and large, the production of
temples and royal courts and provide their raison dtre the temple,
upon which the priests and scribs income rested, as Center and mi-
crocosm... In most cases one cannot escape the suspicion that, in the
locative map of the world, we are encountering a self-serving ideology
which ought not to be generalized into the universal pattern of religious
experience and expression.24
22
See B. Janowski, Die heilige Wohnung des Hchsten: Kosmologische Impli-
kationen der Jerusalemer Tempeltheologie, in: O. Keel, E. Zenger (eds), Gottesstadt
und Gottesgarten: Zu Geschichte und Theologie des Jerusalemer Tempels (QD 191),
Freiburg 2002, 229-60.
23
See S.M. Maul, Die altorientalische Hauptstadt Abbild und Nabel der
Welt, in: G. Wilhelm (ed.), Die orientalische Stadt: Kontinuitt, Wandel, Bruch
(Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 1), Saarbrcken 1997, 109-24 (he
focuses on Babylon, Nippur, Assur; but see an analogous concept in case of the
in the central sanctuary of Delphi). Cf. furthermore A.R. George, Bond of
the Lands, Babylon, the cosmic capital, in: G. Wilhelm (ed.), Die orientalische
Stadt: Kontinuitt, Wandel, Bruch (Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft
1), Saarbrcken 1997, 125-45; and W. Sallaberger, Nippur als religises Zentrum
Mesopotamiens im historischen Wandel, in: G. Wilhelm (ed.), Die orientalische
Stadt: Kontinuitt, Wandel, Bruch (Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft
1), Saarbrcken 1997, 147-68.
24
J.M. Smith, Map is not Territory: Studies in the History of Religions (SJLA
102 U. BERGES

With this in mind one can even more appreciate the enormous loss
which must have presented the destruction of Jerusalem and its sanctuary
by the Babylonians in 587/6 BCE for the theologians of the Yhwh-
religion in Judah and beyond.25 Not the exile and hardships as such were
the greatest problems (cf. Lam.) but the apparent defeat of Yhwhs king-
ship and his loss of control over the forces of chaos which invaded the
sacred space (cf. Lam. 1:10). Through the destruction of the temple (not
reported in Isaiah) the vertical axis by which connected heaven and earth
was broken and chaos challenged the cosmic order. The destruction of
Jerusalem, the royal city, effected also the horizontal axis. The devasta-
tion of Jerusalem and her city walls brought the fauna and flora of the
wilderness into the holy city (see Lam.) and made her part of the domain
of the chaotic forces (dryness or flood; life-threatened environment; Isa.
34).

3. The Re-establishment of the Holy City and the Re-creation of Order

3.1. The New Initiative of Yhwh to Restore Zion / Jerusalem

That there is a surprisingly new initiative of Yhwh is made evident by
the so-called Deutero-Isaiah prologue Isa. 40:1-11, in which Zion / Jeru-
salem and the cities of Judah play an important role: Get you up to a
high mountain, O Zion, herald of good tidings ( ;) lift up your
voice with strength, O Jerusalem, herald of good tidings (

), lift it up, do not fear; say to the cities of Judah, Here is your
God! (v. 9). Through the repeated verbal actions of speaking ( )and
crying out ( )the different domains of the heavenly world (vv. 1-2),
the desert (midbar) (vv. 3-5), the fields (sadeh) (vv. 6-8) and the hu-
man civilization (vv. 9-11) are interconnected. The message of redemp-
tion reaches the centre Zion / Jerusalem having passing all obstacles of
the periphery. In this sense the way through the wilderness has to be
interpreted as a new kind of geography in which the life bringing pres-
ence of Yhwh overcomes all adversities.26 The main focus lies not if at

23), Leiden 1978, 293 (from D. Pezzoli-Olgiati, op. cit., 25).

25
For the historical reconstruction see R. Albertz, Die Exilszeit: 6. Jahrhundert
v. Chr. (Biblische Enzyklopdie 7), Stuttgart 2001, 65-85.
26
M. Grg, Revision von Schpfung und Geschichte: Auf dem Wege zu einer
Strukturbestimmung von Jes 40,1-8(11), in: F. Diedrich; B. Willmes (eds), Ich
bewirke das Heil und schaffe das Unheil (Jesaja 45,7): Studien zur Botschaft der
Propheten (FS L. Ruppert) (FzB 88), Wrzburg 1998, 153: Der Bau der Strae
Gottes signalisiert eine neuformierte Geographie, einen Lebensraum, der sich in der
neugeschaffenen Welt ausbreitet.
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 103

all upon the return of exiles from Babylonia through the terra inter-
media back to Zion but on Yhwhs renewed care for his people. The
motif of God as shepherd ought to be interpreted in this sense and should
not be reduced to the affirmation of Yhwh as king.27 A look onto the
mental map of biblical Israel with at the periphery the cosmic mountains
(cf. Mic. 1:3-4; Amos 4:13; Hab. 3:6) and in between the wilderness
shows how Yhwhs glory ( )reaches the centre of the world. The
communication from heaven to earth does not proceed via the sanctuary
as it was the case in Isa. 6 (sic!) but through Zion / Jerusalem herself. It
is a high mountain ( ) that the personified royal city spreads the
good tidings to the [devastated] cities of Judah (v. 9; cf. Isa. 6:11; 44:26;
54:3; 61:4).
Only with the strategic position of Zion / Jerusalem in mind one can
appreciate the intimate connection between the restoration of Jerusalem,
the rebuilding of the ruins of the Judean cities (
( ) Isa. 44:26) and
the command at the deep water to dry up (( ) 44:27)28 together with
the command given to Cyrus by Yhwh to lay the foundations of the new
Jerusalem temple (( ) 44:28).29
The restoration of the ruins and the drying up of deep waters are the
two aspects of one and the same divine act: They shall be rebuilt, and I
will raise up their ruins (

;) who says to the deep, Be
dry (
) I will dry up your rivers; who says of Cyrus, He is
my shepherd, and he shall carry out all my purpose; and who says of
Jerusalem, It shall be rebuilt, and of the temple, Your foundation shall
be laid (
( ) Isa. 44:26-28).
Finally it is through the re-foundation of the temple ( )in the midst
of the restored city of Jerusalem that the chaotic forces which evaded
Yhwhs city and his house are again put under control. In the Babylonian
mental map (cf. Enuma Elish) the temple of Marduk, the esagil, was the
place from where all life came forth, including Marduk himself, and that
temple was constructed above the aps, the primordial waters.30 In the

27
See R. Hunziker-Rodewald, Hirt und Herde: Ein Beitrag zum alttestamentli-
chen Gottesverstndnis (BWANT 155), Stuttgart 2001, 137-9.
28
LXX saw this connection also and translates accordingly: (v. 26) and
(v. 27). For the mythical significance of the sea, cf. O. Kaiser, Die my-
thische Bedeutung des Meeres in gypten, Ugarit und Israel (BZAW 78), Berlin
3
1962 (11959).
29
See also R.G. Kratz, Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch: Redaktionsgeschichtliche Un-
tersuchungen zu Entstehung und Theologie von Jes 40-55 (FAT 1), Tbingen 1991,
88.
30
Cf. B. Janowski, Das biblische Weltbild: Eine methodologische Skizze, in: B.
Janowski, B. Ego (eds), Das biblische Weltbild und Seine altorientalische Kontexte
(FAT 32), Tbingen 2001, 3-26; F. Hartenstein, Wolkendunkel und Himmelfeste:
104 U. BERGES

mental map of the Hebrew Bible the temple of Yhwh in Jerusalem was
the axis mundi, where heaven and earth are connected (Isa. 6) and where
the creation of all life took place.31 This belief in the secure foundation of
Zion on top of the holy mountains () , i.e. on top of the
mythical world-mountain, is clearly expressed in Ps. 87.32 The waters of
chaos and destruction are converted in her to the four life giving rivers
which assure fertility and prosperity (Gen. 2:10-14; cf. Pss. 36:9; 46:5;
65:10; Ezek. 47:1-12; Zech. 14:8; Joel 4:18).33 Therefore all the members
of the nations drawing near to mount Zion will sing: All my springs are
( ) Ps. 87:7).34 This concurs with what one encounters
in you (
in the restoration programme for Zion in the Book of Isaiah: it is through
the [re]-foundation of the sanctuary in Jerusalem that the chaotic forces
are subdued and security is again reassured. The huge cultic object of the
molten sea ( ) with a diameter of nearly 5 meters and a height of
around 2,5 meters (1 Kgs 7:23-26), standing in the Jerusalem temple
symbolized the victory of Yhwh over the waters of chaos and their trans-
formation into the life assuring ocean of freshwaters.35
The creator of the earth and of humankind, the one who expanded the
heavens and gave order to its stars, levelled the path for Cyrus, the king
of the Medes and the Persians, to rebuild Jerusalem and to release his
; LXX: ) (Isa. 45:13).36 What
captives (
surprises here and in the earlier passage is the fact that just in the context
of the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the release of the Gola no explicit
mention is made of a return home to Zion and Judah.37 Instead, it is un-

Zur Genese und Kosmologie der Vorstellung des himmlischen Heiligtums JHWHs,
in: B. Janowski, B. Ego (eds), Das biblische Weltbild und Seine altorientalische
Kontexte (FAT 32), Tbingen 2001, 125-80; B. Pongratz-Leisten, art. cit.; Maul, art.
cit., 114ff.
31
Cf. M. Grg, Wo lag das Paradies?: Einige Beobachtungen zu einer alten
Frage, in: BN 2 (1977), 23-32.
32
See the interpretation in F.-L. Hossfeld, E. Zenger, Psalmen 51-100 (Herders
Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 2000, 548ff.
33
B. Ego, Die Wasser der Gottesstadt: Zu einem Motiv der Zionstradition und
seinen kosmologischen Implikationen, in: B. Janowski, B. Ego (eds), Das biblische
Weltbild und Seine altorientalische Kontexte (FAT 32), Tbingen 2001, 361-89.
34
LXX reads [].
35
See the discussion and literature in B. Ego, art.cit., 382f. Her conclusion that
the destruction of the Jerusalem temple in 587 caused a break between symbol and
reality has to be modified: the Deutero-Isaianic texts which she did not consider
show that the symbolism of the life assuring waters in Zion plays an important role in
the restoration programme of the book of Isaiah.
36
K. Baltzer, Deutero-Jesaja (KAT 10/2), Gtersloh 1999, 274-5 sees in the
twice explicit mentioning of Cyrus the turning point in the drama: In seiner Person
wird die Wende deutlich.
37
This fact is rightly seen by K. Kiesow, Exodustexte im Jesajabuch: literarkri-
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 105

derlined that Egypt, Ethiopia and the Sabeans will come in chains to
Zion (to you sg. fem.) to serve her and to confess that in her the only
true God dwells (Isa. 45:14). With the release of the captives through the
Persian king, not Marduk or Ahura-Mazda showed their power but
Yhwh, the God who resides in Zion and who created the world not as a
chaos but as a place to be inhabited (( ) Isa.
45:18). Neither did he say to the offspring of Jacob to seek him in chaos
(again: tohu), but in his right and true words and declarations (Isa.
45:19). What is more: the release from exile effects not only the Judean
deportees but also those from the nations who equally suffered under
Babylonian imperialism. These survivors from the nations ( )
should realize that they were set free not by the power of their wooden
idols but by the power of the only righteous God and Saviour (


) (Isa. 45:20-21). The rebuilding of Zion and the temple
and the release of the captives from Babylon effect the whole inhabited
world. All the ends of the earth (
) and every knee ( )
shall acknowledge that Yhwh is the only God and that in him are right-
eousness and strength ( ; ) (Isa. 45:22-23; cf.
46:9). But this process of a world-wide recognition of Yhwh as the only
true God and Saviour has to start with the remnant of the people of God
(
( ) Isa. 46:3). The greatest resistance
which Yhwh encounters does not come from the Babylonian gods or
from the imperial city of Babel their powerlessness becomes evident
in Isa. 46-47 but from the stubborn unbelief of his own people (
) which keeps it [still] far away from deliv-
erance ( ( ) Isa. 46:12). Their unbelief is not directed
against Yhwhs power to break the Babylonian dominion but against his
promise to guarantee a new future for Zion and Israel. Therefore Yhwh
makes it very clear that neither his salvation in Zion will tarry nor his
glory for Israel (Isa. 46:13) ( ;
).

3.2. The Command to Leave Babylon and to Head towards Zion

The decision to leave Babylon or to stay in the land of the idols (Isa. 46-
47) marks the last chapter of the Babel-section (chapters 40-48). For
those who are called by the name of Israel and who came forth from the

tische und motivgeschichtliche Analysen (OBO 24), Fribourg/Gttingen 1979, but his
solution: Exodus without Zion (ohne Zielperspektive) in 40-48 is not fully to the
point. But also H.J. Hermisson, Deuterojesaja (BKAT 11/2), Neukirchen-Vluyn
1987-2003 (Jacob and Zion as two figures of the people of God) is not enough.
106 U. BERGES

waters of Judah ( ; ) it is not enough

to swear by the name of Yhwh, to confess the God of Israel, or to call
themselves after the holy city (( ) Isa. 48:1-2), because
the only thing what matters, is the firm decision to leave Babylon and to
flee from Chaldea (Isa. 48:20). Only by doing that the fact that Yhwh
redeemed his servant Jacob ( ) will be made known to
the end of the earth (Isa. 48:21). This order to leave Babylonia and its
capital looks very much like the one in Jer. 50:8 (Flee from Babylon,
and go out of the land of the Chaldeans, and be like male goats leading
the flock)38 but the motivation to do so is quite different: in Isa. 48 it is
seen as an escape from the land of the idols, in Jer. 50 as an evacuation
before the final destruction of Babylon. This is explicitly stated in Jer.
51:6: Flee from the midst of Babylon, save your lives, each of you! Do
not perish because of her guilt, for this is the time of Yhwhs vengeance;
he is repaying her what is due (cf. Zech. 2:10-11). According to Isa.
48:9 it is only for the sake of his own name (honour / fame) that Yhwh
restrains his anger so that he may not cut off the stubborn exiles (
) . The God who laid the foundation of the earth and spread out
the heavens (Isa. 48:13) is also the one who governs the vicissitudes of
world history. It is not by chance that in this last Babylonian chapter
one encounters for the first time in Deutero-Isaiah an I-figure other than
Yhwh himself: And now the Lord Yhwh has sent me and his spirit
(v. 16c). The one who speaks here for the first time is the collective en-
tity of those Judeans, purified by the hardship in exile (v. 10), who ac-
cept the divine order to return to Zion39. Living in the alluvial plains of
Mesopotamia (cf. Jer. 51:13) already in the third or even forth generation
the house of Jacob in Exile should remember that they came forth from
the waters of Judah (
) (Isa. 48:1) and that following
Gods orders their peace would have been like a river, their righteous-
ness like the waves of the sea, their offspring like the sand and their de-
scendants like its grains (vv. 18-19). The agricultural scenery of the
Mesopotamian landscape is transposed to the religious behaviour of the
exilic community (v. 17: I am Yhwh your God, who teaches you for
your own good, who leads you in the way you should go).40 The ones of
the Gola who decide to leave Babylonia in direction of the waters of
38
LXX Jer. 27:8: wie Drachen (?) vor den Schafen.
39
H. Leene, De vroegere en de nieuwe dingen bij Deuterojesaja, Amsterdam
1987, 330: The new is Israels purification. This purification is achieved in the
performative 48:16. The listeners share in this through the speech of the Servant
beginning in 48:16. The purified Israel is this speaking Servant; totally different K.
Baltzer, op. cit., 374-8, with his mosaic interpretation of this I-figure.
40
In contrast to the worshipper of idols who will go astray (Isa. 47:15).
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 107

Judah (sic!) make the same experience as those who left centuries earlier
Egypt for the promised land: They did not thirst when he led them
through the deserts; he made water flow for them from the rock; he split
open the rock and the water gushed out (Isa. 48:21; cf. Exod. 17:1-7;
Num. 20:1-13). Thus the motif of water forms an inclusion around the
whole of Isa. 48. Following the logic of this chapter only those from the
exiles who put their decision to leave Babylonia really into practice be-
long to his servant Jacob (( ) v. 20) and only these do experi-
ence the marvels of divine guidance (v. 21). This is in contrast to what
happened during the first exodus from Egypt where all the Israelites
marched out of the land of oppression (cf. Exod. 12:37f). The exodus-
typology is clearly present in Isa. 48:20-21 but it did not develop into a
narration of the long journey back to Zion and Judah. Actually there is
not one place in the Hebrew Bible where the so-called second Exodus is
presented in concreto; names of places or people are never mentioned,
neither do we hear about the actual route back home! This lack of infor-
mation underlines that what matters is not the presentation of the actual
way home through the desert but the divine help by his guidance in the
ruins [of the devastated Jerusalem] ( ( ) LXX: '
). Through the choice of the word ruins ( ) the second
exodus motif is integrated into the motif of the restoration of Jerusalem
and Judah in post-exilic times. The root I. with its two basic mean-
ings to be dry and to be desolate41 was very useful to express the
theological conviction of Deutero-Isaiah that Yhwh was the God who
could master the forces of nature and of history alike.42 Thus he was the
one who made the sea (papyrus sea?) dry land ( ) so
that the first exodus group could pass through the chaotic forces to flee
from the land of Egypt (Exod. 14:21). The reuse of this text in Ps. 106:9
makes clear that the most important point is seen in the life preserving
guidance of Yhwh: He rebuked the Red Sea, and it became dry (;)
he led them through the deep as through a desert (
) .

41
D.J. Clines (ed.), The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, vol. 3: , Sheffield
1996, 306-7.
42
O. Kaiser, hrab, TWAT 3 (1982) col. 161: Die theologische Verwen-
dung des Verbs wie der abgeleiteten Nomina ergibt sich aus dem Glauben an JHWHs
Herrschaft ber den als Wirkungszusammenhang verstandenen einen Bereich von
Natur und Geschichte.
108 U. BERGES

3.3. The Restoration of Zion as the Garden of Yhwh

The earlier mentioned double meaning of the root I. is to be seen

once more in Isa. 51:3, again in the context of the restoration of Zion:
For Yhwh will comfort Zion; he will comfort all her waste places
(

) , and will make her wilderness like Eden () , her
desert like the garden of Yhwh () . The LXX puts the
two parallel comparisons of the MT into one image and strengthens the
aspect of the divine action by putting the verb in the 1. pers. sg.: And I
will make her desert like the paradise of the Lord (
). With the restauration of the city and the
sanctuary the primordial garden is reestablished in Zion: her ruins and
her drought are converted in the garden of Yhwh. The expression gar-
den of Yhwh does appear only once more in the Hebrew Bible:43 in the
narration of the separation of Lot from Abraham when Lot saw the plain
of the Jordan that was well watered everywhere like the garden of Yhwh
(Gen. 13:10). Read in the light of this passage Isa. 51:3 declares that
Zion, after the judgement will be as prosperous as Sodom and Gomorrah
were before Yhwh had destroyed them (Gen. 13:10b; cf. Isa. 1:9). From
the restored paradisiacal place of Zion the Tora of Yhwh will go out, his
justice for a light to the peoples (Isa. 51:4). This announcement is clearly
to be read and understood in the context of the Tora for Israel and the
nations in Isa. 2:2-4.44 But in the search of the place and function of Zion
in the mental map of Biblical Israel it seems to be equally important to
point to the phenomena of imperial and temple gardens in the Ancient
Near East.45 In these the cosmic order of the Gods and the function of the

43
But see also the same image of Zion as a garden in Jer. 31:12 and Lam. 2:6; in
Isa. 58:11 this motif is individualized: and you shall be like a watered garden, like a
spring of water, whose waters never fail. Wider spread is the expression from Gen.
2-3 garden of Eden (Ezek. 28:11-19; 31:8-9, 16, 18; 36:35; Joel 2:3).
44
B.D. Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40-66, Stanford
1998, 79, points out that these passages are connected by the word-play their ruines
(
( ) Isa. 51:3) and their swords (
( ) Isa. 2:4).
45
M. Dietrich, Das biblische Paradies und der babylonischen Tempelgarten:
berlegungen zur Lage des Garten Eden, in: B. Janowski, B. Ego (eds), Das bibli-
sche Weltbild und Seine altorientalische Kontexte (FAT 32), Tbingen 2001, 281-
324; cf. M. Novk, Die orientalische Residenzstadt: Funktion, Entwicklung und
Form, in: G. Wilhelm (ed.), Die orientalische Stadt: Kontinuitt, Wandel, Bruch
(Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 1), Saarbrcken 1997, 182f (knig-
liche Grten in assyrischen Residenzstdten); K. Sthler, Der Grtner als Herr-
scher, in: R. Albertz (ed.), Religion und Gesellschaft: Studien zu ihrer Wechselbe-
ziehung in den Kulturen des Antiken Vorderen Orients 1 (AOAT 248), Mnster 1997,
109-14; A. Hultgrd, Das Paradies: Vom Park des Perserknigs zum Ort der Seli-
gen, in: M. Hengel et al. (eds), La Cit de Dieu: Die Stadt Gottes (WUNT 129),
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 109

kings as representatives of the Gods were illustrated in a concrete man-

ner. Thus the restoration of the ruins of Zion into the garden of Eden
identifies Yhwh as the one who will accomplish his kingly duties again.
The primordial time and the immediate historical future are merging in
one and the same divine act which takes place at the centre of creation:
in Zion.46 In contrast to Isa. 44:26-28 is Cyrus not mentioned anymore:
his only task was to announce ( ) the re-building of city and temple
and not to accomplish the work itself.
It is not by chance that in Isa. 51:1 the ones who pursue righteousness
and seek Yhwh, i.e. the ones who are open for a return to Zion, are called
to look to the rock from which they were hewn ( ) and to
the excavation of a pit from which they were bored (
) . In spite of the designation of Yhwh as rock (Isa. 8:14; 17:10;
26:4; 30:29; 44:8), the context and the image of the waters of Judah in
48:1 suggest that rock and pit points to Zion as the place of Gods
firm foundation and the place where the life giving waters flow. From
that location the Judean deportees and refugees had been violently sepa-
rated and now they have the opportunity and the duty to come back
home.47 But most of them were reluctant because of their minority posi-
tion in front of the Judeans who remained in the land and considering the
devastation of Jerusalem (cf. Ezek. 11:15; 33:24). The example of the
former emigrants from Chaldea, Abraham and Sarah, should foster the
hope that Yhwh will take care of the growth48 of those who decide to
come home (v. 2). They will return, not to a devastated city, but to the
paradisiacal garden of Yhwh (v. 3).

3.4. The Defeat of Chaos and the Proclamation of Yhwhs Kingship

What in the former chapters of Deutero-Isaiah was announced, Yhwhs
new initiative in favour of his people, his temple-city and his own king-

Tbingen 2000, 1-43.

46
K. Baltzer, op. cit., 434: Urzeit (Eden und Garten Jahwes) und Zukunft
werden miteinander verbunden. Da alle Traditionen im Zion ihr Ziel finden sol-
len, ist deutlich (v. 3).
47
O.H. Steck, Zions Trstung: Beobachtungen und Fragen zu Jesaja 51,1-11, in:
E. Blum, C. Macholz, E.W. Stegemann (Eds), Die hebrische Bibel und ihre zweifa-
che Nachgeschichte (FS R. Rendtorff), Neukirchen-Vluyn 1990, 269-70; U. Berges,
Das Buch Jesaja: Komposition und Endgestalt (Herders Biblische Studien 16), Frei-
burg/Basel, etc. 1998, 389.
48
This is the only place outside the patriarcal narratives in Genesis that Sarah is
mentioned; because of the semantic link between the hapax legomenon maqqebet
(pit / quarry) and neqeba (female), the medieval exegetes (e.g. Ibn Ezra) thought of
Sarah and Abraham as the rock and the pit in Isa. 51:2; cf. J. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40-
55 (AB 19A), New York 2002, 326.
110 U. BERGES

ship becomes reality in the literary triptych of Isa. 51:9-52:12. These

three panels are interconnected by the imperatives (three times) (Isa.
51:9), (2) (51:9)49 and they show a well-
( 2) (51:17),
balanced usage of the parallel terms Zion / Jerusalem. The re-
establishing of Yhwhs kingship is presented in a threefold manner:
. Isa. 51:9-16: mythological chaos-fight which opens the way to Zion as
the central place of creation and order (Zion: v. 11, 16)
. Isa. 51:17-23: language of the Ancient Near Eastern city-laments and
the end of Jerusalems sufferings (Jerusalem: v. 17)
. Isa. 52:1-2, 7-10, 11-12: personification of daughter Zion and the holy
city Jerusalem as Yhwhs bride, proclamation of his kingship and gather-
ing of the dispersed (Zion: vv. 1, 2, 7, 8; Jerusalem: vv. 1, 2, 9 [2])
. In Isa. 51:9-16 the power of Yhwh to subdue once again the chaos is
expressed in highly mythological language 50 : Awake, awake, put on
strength, O arm of Yhwh! Awake, as in days of old, the generations of
long ago! Was it not you who cut Rahab in pieces, who pierced the
dragon? Was it not you who dried up the sea () ,
the waters of the great deep; who made the depths of the sea a way for
the redeemed to cross over? ( ) . So the
ransomed of Yhwh shall return, and come to Zion with singing (
) .51 Similar to Marduk who according to the

basic myth of Babylon (Enuma Elish) slaughtered the female sea mon-
ster Tiamat and established thus his dominion over the chaos, Yhwh
establishes his power over the cosmic forces of destruction and assures
the liberation of the ones who were separated from their rock and pit
Zion.52 The slaughtering Rahab and the liberation of the exiles are seen

49
For the demarcation of this macrostructure see M.C.A. Korpel, J.C. de Moor,
The Structure of Classical Hebrew Poetry: Isaiah 40-55 (OTS 41), Leiden 1998,
542-4.
50
See the anti-mythological corrections and omissions of LXX: the addressee in
51:9a is not any more the arm of Yhwh but Jerusalem (
) and v. 9b (the slaughter of the sea monster) is omitted all together; see
J.L. Koole, Isaiah 49-55 (Historical Commentary on the Old Testament 2/3), Leuven
1998, 168-71.
51
For the interdependence between 51:11 and 35:9b-10 see below (see the differ-
ent translation in the LXX of the terms: it seems that LXX 35:10 reads it more in the
direction of the gathering from the diaspora).
52
J. Day, Gods Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea: Echoes of a Canaanite
myth in the Old Testament (University of Cambridge Oriental publications 35), Cam-
bridge 1985, 38ff., 56f.; J. Blenkinsopp, op. cit., 332, who mentions in this context
also the Ugaritic myth of the fight of Baal against yam, the embodiment of primeval,
oceanic chaos (ANET 130-1).
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 111

as one divine victory over the cosmic and historical forces of chaos. The
event of Israels liberation from the slavery of Egypt is re-enacted by
Yhwhs new initiative to path a way for the redeemed through the deep
waters. In contrast to Exod. 14-15 the sea is here not the site where lib-
eration takes place but the enemy against whom Yhwh acts in favour of
his people.53
On the other hand, like in Exod. 15, the act of liberation comes to full
completion only in the sanctuary of Yhwh [in Jerusalem]: In your stead-
fast love you led the people whom you redeemed ( ;) you
guided them by your strength to your holy abode (( ) v. 13).
That the sanctuary in Jerusalem is meant, is clarified by Exod. 15:17
beyond doubt: You brought them in and planted them on the mountain
of your own possession, the place, Yhwh, that you made your abode, the
sanctuary () , Adonai, that your hands have established. This is the
very first time in the Hebrew Bible that the word sanctuary is men-
tioned! In the restoration programme of Deutero-Isaiah. the emphasis lies
not on the temple but on Zion / Jerusalem as Gods firm foundation
where his people finds refuge and security.
The motif of Yhwhs dominion over the chaotic waters returns in Isa.
51:15: For I am Yhwh, your God, who stirs up the sea so that its waves
roar Yhwh Zebaoth is his name. But in addition to the earlier motif
of the chaotic waters in Isa. 51:9ff, Yhwhs creational activity is stressed
here. At the primordial time when Yhwh stretched out the heavens and
laid the foundation ( )of the earth he has hidden the inhabitants of
Zion in his hands: I have put my words in your mouth, and hidden you
in the shadow of my hand, stretching out the heavens and laying the
foundations of the earth, and saying to Zion, You are my people (Isa.
51:16). Against the roaring of the cosmic sea and its huge waves Yhwh
managed to create a firmament by separating the waters from the waters
(Gen. 1:6ff) and to give space for the appearance of Zion. Transgressing
all borders of time, the inhabitants of Zion were already in the hands of
Yhwh at the moment he founded heaven and earth.54 Thus Zion / Jerusa-
lem stands at the centre of the axis which connects heaven, earth and the
forces of chaos (vertical axis). It is the umbilicus mundi where Yhwh

53
E. Haag, Der Weg zum Baum des Lebens: Ein Paradiesmotiv im Buch Jesaja,
in: L. Ruppert, P. Weimar, E. Zenger (eds), Knder des Wortes: Beitrge zur Theo-
logie der Propheten (FS J. Schreiner), Wrzburg 1982, 44.
54
Against J. Blenkinsopp, op. cit., 334-5, who considers 51:16a possibly as an
editorial attempt to read the entire passage as addressed to the prophetic servant of
50:4-9.
112 U. BERGES

subdues once again the chaotic waters to secure once again his all em-
bracing kingship.
The re-creation of the temple-city could only have been conceived
as a reenthronement of YHWH after a long period in which his
palace lay in ruins, and his faithful subjects seemed abandoned
and helpless. The reconstruction of the temple-city was not only a
recovery of national honour, but also a renewal of the cosmos, of
which the Temple was a miniature. It is for this reason that
YHWH is here said not to build Jerusalem [Isa. 65:17-18; U.B.],
but to create it, just as he creates the new heaven and the new
earth.55
. Isa. 51:17-23: language of the Ancient Near Eastern city-laments and
the end of Jerusalems sufferings
In this second panel the main tradition used is not anymore that of the
mythical combat but that of the Ancient Near Eastern city-laments.56 In
these compositions which have literary followers down to the Seleucid
period one notices mostly at the end (in the Nippur-lament already in the
middle) a turning point from disaster and destruction to restoration and
return of the Gods:
Enlil speaks a friendly word to his son Sin:
May Ur be built in joy, may (its) people bow before you
May Ur, the city blessed by An, be restored for you
At the word spoken by An (and) Enlil, it (Ur) is delivered.
Father Nanna went head high to his city Ur,
The valiant Sin enters his Ekishnugal,
Ningal refreshes herself in her holy Ganum,
He (Sin) enters his Ekishnugal in Ur.
(LSUr 465ss; ANET 619s).57
In Isa. 51:17 the imperative to rouse and to get up is not anymore di-
rected to the arm of Yhwh but to Jerusalem herself who has drunken at
the hand of Yhwh the cup of his wrath, the bowl of staggering (

55
J.D. Levenson, Creation and the Persistence of Evil: The Jewish Drama of Di-
vine Omnipotence, San Francisco 1988, 78-99 (esp. 89-90); Idem, The Jerusalem
Temple in Devotional and Visionary Experience, in: A. Green (ed.), Jewish Spiritu-
ality: From the Bible through the Middle Ages, New York 1987, 32-61 (esp. 51-53);
Idem, The Temple and the World, JR 64 (1984), 275-98.
56
U. Berges, Klagelieder (Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testa-
ment), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 2002, 46-52.
57
F.W. Dobbs-Allsopp, Weep, O Daughter of Zion: A Study of the City-Lament
Genre in the Hebrew Bible (BibOr 44), Roma 1993, 92-4.
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 113

( ) cf. v. 22; Lam. 4:21). The themes of destruction ( ) by

famine ( ) and sword () , the dying children at the head of
every street ( ) because of Yhwhs wrath ( ) link
this passage closely to Lam. 4: Both texts claim that YHWHs wrath
against Jerusalem is spent, but against her enemies is just begun.58 It
seems not to be by chance that just in the panel which shows such clear
connections with the genre of the city-lament in general and with Lam. 4
in particular only the more political term Jerusalem is used. The mythi-
cal aspect which is intimately related to Zion as was to be seen in the
first panel is avoided in the second one.
. Isa. 52:1-2, 7-10, 11-12: personification of daughter Zion and the holy
city Jerusalem as Yhwhs bride, proclamation of his kingship and gather-
ing of the dispersed
The last panel (Isa. 52:1) opens as the first one (51:9) with the impera-
tives awake, awake, put on strength. But as in the middle one (Isa.
51:17) the verb awake does not apply anymore to the arm of Yhwh but
to Zion / Jerusalem, the holy city () . Even more than in the
second panel all negative experiences of Zion and Jerusalem are appar-
ently overcome. It is only in this last of the three panels that Zion (vv. 1,
2, 7, 8) and Jerusalem are named (vv. 1, 2, 9 [2]), each of them four
times.59 The invitation to rejoice in v. 9 is directed not to Zion or the holy
city (cf. Isa. 52:1-2) but to the ruins of Jerusalem (
) . They
play a very important role in the restoration programme of Deutero-
Isaiah and subsequent traditions.60
The order that no uncircumcised and unclean ( ) shall enter
the holy city is not to be read as a restriction to the pilgrimage of the
nations to Jerusalem but as an expression of hope that all foreign domi-
nation has ended.
As kingly bride Zion shall put on her royal garments and take seat
([ ) next to her bridegroom Yhwh]. This creates a word-play with
her former status as captive daughter Zion ( ) who looses
61
the bounds around her neck. Once again one encounters the language of

58
P. Tull Willey, Remember the Former Things: The Recollection of Previous
Texts in Second Isaiah (SBL.DS 161), Atlanta 1997, 164; she underlines also some
distinct discontinuities... the lament discussed cannibalism, but Second Isaiah only
suggests loss.
59
In vv. 1-2 both terms form a chiasm (ab//b'a'); in vv. 7-9 they are not mixed
(aa'//bb'). The absence of these words in vv. 3-6 and their prose-style speak in favour
of a later addition; thus P. Tull Willey, op. cit., 115; M.C.A. Korpel, J.C. de Moor,
op. cit., 543 suggest that vv. 4-6 were added.
60
Cf. 44:26; 48:21; 49:19; 51:3; 52:9; 58:12; 61:4; 64:10; and 5:17.
61
K. Baltzer, Stadt-Tyche oder Zion-Jerusalem?: Die Auseinandersetzung mit
114 U. BERGES

the city laments: the once defeated and devastated city-[state] is given a
new future by the decision of the Great Gods. The time of sorrow and
mourning has ended and new life is at hand.
The climax of Isa. 40-52 is reached in the passage 52:7-10 and it
comes as no surprise that the themes kingship of Yhwh and Zion are
now explicitly joined. It is to Zion ( ) that the messenger of good
news announces: Your God reigns ( ) . Only in few places in
the Hebrew Bible the kingship of Yhwh is connected as closely as here
with Zion.62 The proclamation of Yhwhs kingship in Isa. 52:7 sounds as
an positive answer to the desperate question in Jer. 8:19: Is Yhwh not in
Zion? Is her king not in her? Much more evident is the fact that the
statement of the feet of a messenger, a proclaimer of peace, on the moun-
tains (Isa. 52:7a) is literally quoted from Nah. 2:1a.63 If there remained
any doubt about the direction of that borrowing this question is resolved
by the fact that Isa. 52:1b (

) quotes Nah. 2:1b liter-
ally. It seems to be that one encounters here one more example of the so
called omkering in which the borrowing passage quotes first the last
part of the original text and then the first part of it (Isa. 52:1b // Nah.
2:1b; Isa. 52:7a // Nah. 2:1a).64 Be that as it may, the two quotations from
Nah. 2:1 in Isa. 52:1, 7 strengthen the assumption that 52:3-6 is to be
considered as an intrusion between the original passage 52:1-2, 7-10.
More important than these diachronic observations is the intended
goal of the quotations from the second chapter from Nahum, a prophetic
book which celebrates the defeat of the Assyrian capital Niniveh by the
Babylonians in 612 BCE: Nahums reminder of the vulnerability of
even the most powerful enemy, the one that had destroyed Israel, Syria,
and the majority of Judah, may well have supplied hope for the exiles
futureIn addition, by drawing his explicit analogy, the poet renders
Nahums surrounding rhetoric available as a key for interpreting Baby-
lons fate: Babylon, like Niniveh, will soon cease to be a world crushing
power.65 The historical and highly political perspective to which Isa. 52

den Gttern der Zeit bei Deuterojesaja, in: J. Hausmann, H.-J. Zobel (eds), Alttesta-
mentliche Glaube und biblische Theologie (FS H.D. Preu), Stuttgart 1992, 116: in
contrast to the bound city-godess.
62
Isa. 24:23; Jer. 8:19; Mic. 4:7; Zech. 9:9; Pss. 146:10; 149:2.
63
See P. Tull Willey, op. cit., 116-20; K. Spronk, Nahum (COT), Kampen 1999,
106.
64
See P.C. Beentjes, Jesus Sirach en Tenach: Een onderzoek naar en een classifi-
catie van parallellen, met bijzondere aandacht voor hun functie in Sirach 45:6-26,
Nieuwegein 1981, 71-81.
65
P. Tull Willey, op. cit., 119-20.
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 115

points by quoting Nah. 2:1, is made later explicit by the addition of Isa.
52:3-6.
The acclamation of the restored kingship of Yhwh in v. 7 does not
represent an article of faith but rather a dramatic event: it means that the
God of Israel is about to resume his active rule among his people with
the defeat of his enemies and the restoration of his city. But the acclama-
tion also carries with it echoes and reverberations from familiar mythic
patterns: the primordial victory over the forces of Chaos and negativity
(the rivers, the great waters, the sea, Ps. 93:1), the placing of the earth on
its foundations (Ps. 96:10), the theophany in the cloud and lightning (Ps.
97:1).66 What has to be stressed for Isa. 52:7 is the fact that Yhwh is not
about to resume his kingship but that he has actually resumed it. This is
important for the close connection and perhaps even the deliberate
counter to the ideology of imperial power expressed in the liturgical
celebration of the New Year akitu festival in Babylon and the creation
myth Enuma Elish, recited on the fourt day of the festival.67 While the
proclamation of Marduk by the assembly of the Great Gods (Marduk is
king! [ANET, 66]) forms the prelude to his combat with Tiamat, the
subsequent creation of the world and the foundation of his sanctuary
esagila in Babylon, the announcement of Yhwhs kingship in Isa. 52
comes as the result of his interventions in favour of Jerusalem, his holy
city and of Zion, his kingly bride.
The kind of downward movement which characterized Isa. 40:1-11 is
also to be noticed in 52:7-10: from the mountains (v. 7a) to the sentinels
(v. 8a) [on top of the walls] and the ruines of Jerusalem (v. 9a). The rea-
son for their singing is explicitly stated: for Yhwh has comforted his
people, he has redeemed Jerusalem () . Only
here the two positive aspects of Yhwh in Deutero-Isaiah, his comfort
(Isa. 40:1; 49:13; 51:3 [2], 12, 19; 52:9) and his liberation68 are put side
by side.69 With Yhwhs comfort and liberation effectuated, his kingship
is finally re-established; that will have world-wide consequences: Yhwh
has bared his holy arm before the eyes of all the nations; and all the ends
of the earth shall see the salvation of our God (

66
J. Blenkinsopp, op. cit., 342-3.
67
J. Blenkinsopp, op. cit., 343.
68
Isa. 41:14; 43:1, 14; 44:6, 22, 23, 24; 47:4; 48:17, 20; 49:7, 26; 52:9; 54:5, 8
(the only finite forms (qatal) in the ki-sentences: 44:23; 48:20; 52:9; in all others
participial form goel.
69
F. Matheus, Singt dem Herrn ein neues Lied: Die Hymnen Deuterojesajas (SBS
141), Stuttgart 1990, 152: Hier wird Jerusalem befreit und Israel getrstet. Befrei-
ung und Restauration werden so als zwei Seiten einer Medaille verstanden, und beide
haben im heilvollen, schpferischen Tun Gottes ihren Grund.
116 U. BERGES

) . This statement is nearly identical with the one in Ps.

70
98:3 but there the seeing of all the ends of the earth is presented as an
already accomplished fact () . Without moving into the discussion of
the diachronic relationship between Isa. 40-55 and the malak-Yhwh-
psalms (Pss. 93-100) it seems to be the safest assumption that both com-
positions come from closely related circles in post-exilic Israel.71
More important is the synchronic observation that our God does oc-
cur only three times more, at very strategic points in Deutero-Isaiah:
twice at the beginning (Isa. 40:3, 8) and once at the end (55:7). 72
Through this literary device the audience is brought close to the group of
those who stand behind the composition of Isa. 40-55.73
The last two verses of Isa. 52:11-12 spell out the world-wide conse-
quences of the renewed kingship of Yhwh and his return to Zion (
( ) v. 8b).74 In contrast to Isa. 48:20 Babylon and Chaldea are not
mentioned which underlines the fact that the order to depart and go out
from there ( ) is not directed to the Judean exiles Babylon but to the
dispersed Jews among the nations (v. 10).75
Once Yhwh had resumed his kingship, comforted his people and re-
deemed Jerusalem (v. 9), there is no reason not to move back to the holy
city. Because of the holiness of Jerusalem, in which no uncircumcised
and unclean shall enter anymore (v. 1), the dispersed among the nations
should not touch anything unclean ( ) .
The parallel in Lam. 4:15 is very striking and the diachronic relationship
remains controversial.76 But the reversal of meaning seems undisputable:
in Lam. 4:15 the priests and prophets, fleeing from Jerusalem, are so

70
See also in Isa. 52:9a and Ps. 98:4; his holy arm in Isa. 52:10a and
Ps. 98:1.
71
See H. Leene, The Coming of YHWH as King: The Contemporary Character
of Psalms 96 and 98, in: J.W. Dyk, et al. (eds), Unless Some One Guide Me (FS
K.A. Deurloo) (Amsterdamse Cahiers voor Exegese van de Bijbel en zijn Tradities
Supplement Series 2), Maastricht 2001, 227, who favours a borrowing of Deutero-
Isaiah: At best one might say that Isa. 40-55 and Ps. 93-100 must have been com-
posed in the same spiritual environment.
72
Different from 42:17: you are our Gods; but see Isa. 1:10; 25:9; 26:13; 35:2;
36:7; 37:20; 59:13; 61:2, 6.
73
The LXX avoids the translation our God in Isa. 52:10 (
) as well as in 55:7 (); the same holds true for 1:10 ( ); 35:2
( ); 61:2 (omits) and 61:6 ( ).
74
LXX does not speak about Gods return but about his compassion on Zion
( ).
75
Cf. U. Berges, Das Buch Jesaja: Komposition und Endgestalt (Herders Bibli-
sche Studien 16), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 1998, 378-380.
76
P. Tull Willey, op. cit., 125-30; U. Berges, Klagelieder (Herders Theologischer
Kommentar zum Alten Testament), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 2002, 256.
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 117

defiled by blood (i.e. crimes) that they are not even allowed to stay
among the nations. In Isa. 52:11 the dispersed Jews are reminded not to
touch anything unclean because they are supposed to go back to Jerusa-
lem.
Those among the Jews of the Diaspora who decide to return to the
holy city will experience the support of Yhwh which exceeds even his
sustain during the first exodus out of Egypt. The pentateucal allusions
start with the command in Isa. 52:11b to go out from the midst of it
(
) which reminds of the order of Pharaoh given to Moses and
Aaron: go away from the midst of my people () go, wor-
ship Yhwh (Exod. 12:31).77 It might be that the mentioning of Aaron
and the worship of Yhwh lead to the order in Isa. 52:11b for the ones
who carry the vessels of Yhwh78 to purify themselves. The allusions to
the first exodus get even more explicit in Isa. 52:12: they do not have to
hasten any more (( ) cf. Exod. 12:11; Deut. 16:3) and Yhwh will
march not only in front of them (cf. Exod. 13:21; Num. 10:33; Deut.
1:30) but also as their rearguard, i.e. as the one who gathers the last ones
() .79
The re-establishment of Yhwhs kingship by the re-foundation of Zion
as axis mundi against all forces of chaos imply his return to his holy city,
the comfort of the ruins of Jerusalem and the liberation of his people.
Once that is accomplished before the eyes of the world the dispersed
Jews from the Diaspora will find their way home, back to Zion, their
once barren woman and desolate city (cf. Isa. 54:1-3). Expressis verbis
Zion / Jerusalem is not mentioned anymore in Isa. 55 but it seems logical
that the last command, For you shall go out ( ) in joy, and be led
back in peace which refers to Isa. 48:20; 52:11-12, implies the holy city
as point of reference.80 The theme of the eternal Davidic covenant in Isa.
55:3 (cf. 2 Sam. 7; Pss. 89; 132) points to the same direction but nowhere
in Deutero-Isaiah is Jerusalems restoration linked to the restoration of
the Davidic kingship (cf. Amos 9:11-12; Isa. 11). In several passages of
the Hebrew Bible (cf. Isa. 12:3; 33:20-22; Ezek. 47; Joel 4:18; Zech.
13:1; 14:8-10; Ps. 46:4) it is Zion / Jerusalem where abundant water,
food and prosperity are to be found. Therefore the following interpreta-

77
See also for the combination to go out from Exod. 7:5; 11:4; 1 Kgs 8:51; Ps.
136:11. In the context of a flight from Babel, Jer. 50:8; 51:45.
78
Cf. 2 Kgs 25:13-17; Jer. 27:16; 28:3, 6; Ezra 1:7-11.
79
The same image is re-used in an ethical context in Isa. 58:8; in 11:12 it is Yhwh
who gathers the nations (cf. 43:9: nations gather together); 49:5 (Israel is gathered to
Yhwh).
80
The theme of the eternal Davidic covenant in Isa. 55:3 (cf. 2 Sam. 7; Pss. 89;
132) points in the same direction.
118 U. BERGES

tion of Isa. 55 is very much to the point: We may conclude that Yah-
wehs kingship in Zion, as well as the abundance of water, fruit, wine
and milk are typical features in descriptions of a new and restored Jeru-
salem.81
But in comparison to the earlier calls to leave ( )in Isa. 48:20
(from Babylon) and 52:11 (from there, i.e. from among the nations),
the final appeal in 55:12 does not mention any place from which the
addressees should depart. From the context it seems reasonable to sup-
pose that all thirsty ones where they may be, including those from the
nations (v. 5), are called to draw near to the place of free water, wine and
nutrition.82 The verb in parallelism you will be carried ( ) under-
lines by its passive voice (ho.) the divine initiative of their coming which
is supported by Jer. 31:9: With weeping they shall come, and with con-
solations I will carry them back (
) (hi.), I will let them walk by
brooks of water, in a straight path in which they shall not stumble. It is
there that a whole picture of the returning people is presented: See, I am
going to bring them from the land of the north, and gather them from the
farthest parts of the earth, among them the blind and the lame, those with
child and those in labour, together; a great company, they shall return
here (Jer. 31:8). But different from Jer. 31:12 where the returned people
sing aloud on the height of Zion because of the fantastic life-conditions
there (their life shall become like a watered garden ( ) cf. Isa.
51:3; 58:11), in 55:12b mountains, hills and the trees of the field rejoice
and clap their hands. The whole creation will be renewed and freed from
hostile conditions: Instead of the thorn shall come up the cypress; in-
stead of the brier shall come up the myrtle (v. 13a). Compared to the
exodus-motifs in Isa. 48:20 and 52:11-12 in this last passage the situation
is described in a different way. Once the exodus-motifs get incorporated
into the Zion-tradition, they are used to present an eschatological scene.83
Through Yhwhs comfort Zions desert was made as the garden of Eden
(Isa. 51:3). At the end of the process of restoration in Isa. 55 not only the
final destiny of the return is transformed into a paradisiacal land but also
the way itself. The verb to come up in v. 13 (2) pointing to the

81
H.C. Spykerboer, Isaiah 55:1-5: The Climax of Deutero-Isaiah: An Invitation
to Come to Jerusalem, in: J. Vermeylen (ed.), The Book of Isaiah. Le livre dIsae:
Les oracles et leurs relectures unit et complexit de louvrage (BEThL 81), Leuven
1989, 357; cf. S. Paganini, Der Weg zur Frau Zion, Ziel unserer Hoffnung: Auftau,
Kontext, Sprache, Kommunikationsstruktur und theologische Motive in Jes 55,1-13
(SBB 49), Stuttgart 2002, 86-99.
82
M.C.A. Korpel, Metaphors in Isaiah LV, VT 46 (1996), 49 points out that this
is to be read as a call to receive torah (cf. Isa. 51:11 with Deut. 8:3).
83
Cf. K. Kiesow, op. cit., 186; 201-2.
 ZION AND THE KINGSHIP OF YHWH IN ISAIAH 40-55 119

sprouting vegetation (cf. Isa. 5:6; 34:13), alludes to the return to Jerusa-
lem and Juda; it is the terminus technicus for the return to the promised
land from Egypt (Gen. 13:1; 45:25; Exod. 12:38; 13:18; Num. 32:11;
Judg. 11:13, 16; Isa. 11:16) and from Babylon (Ezra 2:1, 59; 7:6, 7, 28;
8:1; Neh. 7:5, 6, 61; 12:1). In Isa. 2:3 the verb is used in the mouth of the
nations who decide to go up to mount Zion to receive from there the
divine instruction (cf. 55:1-3). The restoration of Zion as the abode of the
heavenly king creates a dynamic which effects not only the Babylonian
deportees and their brethren in the Diaspora but the creation as such
because she gets renewed while Gods people returns home. That re-
creation shall be to Yhwh (sic!) for a memorial, for an everlasting sign
that shall not be cut off (
) . The connection
to the davidic everlasting covenant ( ) in v. 3 is undisputable
as it is the allusion to the everlasting covenant with Noah (Gen. 9:8-17):
I establish my covenant with you, that never again shall all flesh be cut
off by the waters of a flood, and never again shall there be a flood to
destroy the earth (v. 11). The last words in Isa. 40-55 mark the absolute
climax of the re-establishment of Yhwhs kingship and the restoration of
Zion. As Yhwh established an eternal covenant with the whole creation
after the primordial disaster he will be reminded to protect Zions flour-
ishing forever.
 THE NOTION OF THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13
P. Lugtigheid

1. Introduction

In this article I will investigate the notion of the City in Isa. 44:21-46:13.
Different words are used to identify The City: Jerusalem, my city, or
Zion. My city only occurs in Isa. 45:13 1 ; Jerusalem is used two
times, in 44:26b and 28b2; and Zion is only used one time in 46:13.3
The first question is: Why are these names used in these contexts?
To give an adequate answer to this question a syntactic analysis of Isa.
44-46 is necessary. The different names are used in syntactical structures
which attract attention: the three sections in which reference is made to
this notion, Isa. 44:24-28, 45:9-13 and 46:9-13, contain remarkable links
between Yhwh, Cyrus, and the city. In each unit they form a structure
with two characteristics: a. The self-predication and b. Yhwhs ability to
predict and direct history with his instrument Cyrus on behalf of his
people and his city.
Concerning a, the formula is frequently used in Isa. 44-46
(44:24; 45:5, 6, 7, 8, 14b (in a variation), 18, 19, 21, 22; 46:9). In these
sections a combination of nominal clauses / participles / yiqtol-forms4
(Isa. 44, 46) or Yhwhs request / qatal-forms / yiqtol-forms with a strain
of pronomina or ( Isa. 45) are used.
Concerning b, Yhwhs ability to predict and direct history to prove
that only He is God. This is an element in the trial speeches, as demon-
strated in the example of the flop of the Babylonian soothsayers (Isa.
44:25). It is part of the scenery, in which Yhwh stakes his claim in con-

1
See 5.
2
See 3.
3
See 6.
4
In discursive texts, like Isa. 44-46, the imperfect is the main tense, and indicates
what Yhwh is going to do, see E. Talstra, Text Grammar and Biblical Hebrew: The
Viewpoint of Wolfgang Schneider, JSOT 5 (1992), especially 276-278. H. Leene,
De vroegere en de nieuwe dingen bij Deuterojesaja, Amsterdam 1987, 32: De yiqtol
vormen kan men m.i. het beste begrijpen als appl aan de hoorders om de vertelde
handeling mee te maken. R. Abma, Bonds of Love: Methodic Studies of Prophetic
Texts with Marriage Imagery (SSN 40), Assen 1999, 47 makes the following descrip-
tion: The impact of these forms would be: Look, what is happening, Mark what I
am doing.
122 P. LUGTIGHEID

frontation with the nations and their gods. More than anything else, these
two elements, the self-predication in relation to the predictions of histo-
ry, are characteristic of Isa. 44-46.
A second question for this investigation is: is there any kind of rela-
tionship between these three structures, which use the different names for
The City? Do they form a unity and if so, what kind of unity? In advance
I pose the following hypothesis for this question. The chapters Isa. 44-46
use the scenery of trial speech to create a platform for Yhwhs arguments
to persuade his people to return to Yhwh, 44:22. The return to Yhwh
here is connected with the return to Zion (Isa. 46:13), where Yhwh will
give liberation in Zion and equip Israel with his glory. Our assumption
shall be that Isa. 44:21-46:13 is one line of argumentation, in the style of
a trial speech. The choice of the different names for The City will find
their natural explanation in this line of argumentation. In this argumenta-
tion Isa. 44:24-28 has a special role. To accomplish this investigation,
the syntactic analysis corresponds with the following presentation 5 of
pericopes:
3: Isa. 44:24-28;
5: Isa. 45:9-13;
6: Isa. 45:14-17.
I will give an analysis of Isa. 45:1-8; and 45:18-19 as well. But these
presentations will help us make a sound syntactical analysis by which to
ground our conclusions.
Two of the main participants in Deutero-Isaiah are the servant and
Zion. While the servant is primarily associated with chapters 40-48
and Zion with chapters 49-53, both participants occur together in chap-
ters 44-46. The relationship between these two participants in chapters
44-46 is the subject of these chapters. In the course of this article I will
answer the third question, posed by this volume of the Jesaja
Werkgroep: is The City a unity generating perspective in Deutero-
Isaiah?

5
The presentation of this segmentation is developed by Leene, who owed much to
A.P. den Exter Blokland, In Search for Text Syntax (Applicatio 14), Amsterdam
1995. He realised his method in cooperation with Talstra. For my analysis, I owe
much to his work, especially: E. Talstra, art. cit., 269-89 and Idem, Reading Biblical
Hebrew Poetry: Linguistic Structure or Rhetoric Device, JNWSL 25/2 (1999), 94-
119.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 123

2. The Choice of Words

Reading (Latin legere) means the gathering of words. If the reader

gathers the right combination of words and meanings in their own con-
text, one may feel that he/she understands the text. In this process of
understanding, all elements of the text play their own part. Hence the
question of why different names are used for The City is a pertinent one.
Why, for example, is Isa. 44:28b formulated as: , about
Jerusalem, it must be rebuilt, while different words are chosen in
45:13b: , he is the one, who shall build my city? The
answer may be that in the latter text the parallel with my exiles may
require a general term instead of Jerusalem. For I assume that the text
wants to repeat the possessive pronoun my (from my exiles) in my
city, needed to stress that both, the exiles and the city, belong to Yhwh,
continuing the personal pronoun of the first person I, vv. 12a-13a, who
will stand firm for them. The reader may be satisfied by this answer. It
seems to be an answer to a part of our first question (the different names
for The City). But here is another question: Why is the person involved
in Isa. 45:13b indicated with the stringent and distant , despite the
fact that he is described in the direct context as the person who Yhwh
roused to build the city of God and let the exiles go? He, the one doing
the action, is not even mentioned by his own name! The choice for this
personal pronoun, however, does not appear out of thin air! In the con-
text of Isa. 45:1-13, in which he can only refer to Cyrus (v. 1), the per-
sonal pronoun is meant as a contrast to the threefold / I in the
previous lines. Thus, clarifies that Cyrus is an instrument in Yhwhs
hands. He, Yhwh, is the real actor here, not Cyrus!6

3 Isaiah 44:24-287

24a Thus speaks Yhwh, who redeems you,

and He who models you since the womb: |

I am Yhwh-who-brings-about-everything,

B who stretch forth the heavens, I alone,
who hammer out the earth: Who is with me?

6
See v. 13a , I am the one who roused him for the right or-
der.
7
Translations are from my hand.
124 P. LUGTIGHEID

25a who lets the signs of the oracle priests come to noth-
ing
and hence He turns soothsayers into fools, |

B who forces the wise to step backward
and hence He turns their knowledge into a mockery, |

26a who elevates8 the word of his servant
and hence He fulfils the counsel of his messengers, |

B he is the one who therefore speaks of Jerusalem: |

It shall be inhabited, |

and concerning the cities of Judah: |

Let them be rebuilt,

and I shall elevate her ruins, |

27 he is the one who speaks to the deep: |

Dry up,
B and I shall wither your streams, |

28a he is the one who speaks about Cyrus: |

my shepherd, |
for he shall bring about my whole wish
B by saying of Jerusalem: |

It shall be rebuilt
and the temple must be founded. |

8
The translation to elevate has been chosen because in Hebrew there is an allite-
ration between , v. 26a and , v. 26b.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 125

Legendum:
This presentation of texts has been developed by H. Leene, who owes a
great deal to A.P. den Exter Blokland.9 The presentation is akin to the
method of recording texts on syntactic grounds as elaborated by E. Tal-
stra.
two elements taken together to form a higher unit (two clauses, two segments
or a clause and a segment10)
direct speech

| end of a clause (a construction in which predication is realized once11) or a

clause atom.

3.1. Isaiah 44:24b

Isa. 44:24-28 is dominated by a proclamation in v. 24b:
, I am Yhwh-who- brings-about-everything. This claim introduces
Yhwhs plans. After dealing with the relation between vv. 21-23 and 24
(A), I will concentrate on: this claim in v. 24b (B), the continuation of
v. 24b in vv. 25-26a, especially the servant (sg.) parallel to his mes-
sengers (pl.) in v. 26a as conveyers of a message (C), the identity of his
(Yhwhs) servant and his (Yhwhs) messengers, in v. 26a (part I; D).
The identity of his (Yhwhs) servant and his (Yhwhs) messengers
will also be addressed in 3.3. I will conclude with a diachronic obser-
vation (E).

3.1.1. The Relation between the Verses 21-23 and 24

The oracle of Isa. 44:24-2812 is addressed to you see the suffixes of
the two attributes of Yhwh: , who redeems you and

9
Cf. A.P. den Exter Blokland, op. cit.
10
The principle of presentation is that two elements are continually taken together
to form a higher unit, whether they be two clauses or two segments or a clause and a
segment. Because the breaks between three formally equivalent elements are hardly
ever entirely equivalent from a semantic point of view, the proposal does not account
for three-part segments, cf. H. Leene, Unripe Fruits and Dull Teeth (Jer.31,29; Ez.
18,2), in: E. Talstra (ed.), Narrative and Comment (FS W. Schneider), Amsterdam
1995, 87.
11
Cf. H. Leene, art. cit., 84. The definition from the clause is conform F. I. An-
dersen, The Sentence in Biblical Hebrew, Den Haag 1974, 28; see also T. Walton,
Experimenting with Qohelet (Amsterdamse Cahiers voor Exegese van de Bijbel en
zijn Tradities Supplement Series 5), Maastricht 2006.
12
P. Lugtigheid, The Kingship of Yhwh and his servant, Dutch Studies Near
Eastern Languages Literatures 4 (2001), 213.
126 P. LUGTIGHEID

models13 you since the womb. For the identification of the second per-
son masculine suffix, the only addressee to be considered is Jacob/Israel
(v. 21). Also the two verbs in the attributive constructions, and
refer to vv. 21-23. They repeat two important concepts from these
verses. 14 The twofold appearance of the qatal in v. 22 and v. 23
marks the delivery of Jacob/Israel as an accomplished fact, from which
the latter person can make a new start. This data connects both units.15
Syntactically v. 23 is different. Here, a third person communication indi-
cates that a comment is given about Jacob/Israels formation as Yhwhs
servant by an X. When cosmic powers are invited to jubilee in v. 23, this
request provides the exact liturgical stage for the interaction between
Yhwh and Jacob/Israel in vv. 21-22. This qualifying interpretation makes
this person behind the curtains instead of a narrator or a prophetic
commentator a stage manager.

3.1.2. The Claim in Verse 24b

The direct discourse which follows this messenger formula reads:
. In our translation I am Yhwh-who-brings-about-
everything the whole phrase is the predicate. Arguments for this transla-
tion are as follows: This clause is completed by two attributive clauses,
which include heaven and earth, v. 24b. These clauses repeat the first
clause: Yhwh created it all on His own (, alone; ,who is
with me16). This is important for the interpretation of the nominal clause
: because also here the subject is the most impor-
tant part of the clause. The pronoun I is best understood as an answer to
the question: who is bringing about everything? The direct discourse
does not express that it is Yhwh who brings everything about (the
translation: I am Yhwh who brings everything about), but that it is I
who does so (my translation). With this data in mind, the nominal clause
appears to be a claim Yhwh stakes. Connected to Yhwhs plan which

13
The translation of remains difficult, because the word simultaneously em-
ploys a pedagogical form and it refers to the work of artistic modelling.
14
For see v. 21b: Yhwh says I model (form) you herewith to be ,
you a servant for me. The verbal form ( v. 21b) is a performative (see my
thesis: P. Lugtigheid, De Terugkeer van Jhwhs Dienaar: Jes. 44-46 als betoog [in
preparation]). is used in the argumentation of vv. 22 and 23: Return to Me, for I
have redeemed you, and v. 22b; for Yhwh has realised Jacobs redemption and
shows his glory to Israel, v. 23b.
15
The prepositional construction is used together with and in Isa.
49:5 and Jer. 1:5.
16
The Qere , supported only by Targum and Peshitta, is inadequate, because
it leaves out the jod ( )and the white space between the two words in the Ketib.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 127

follows it is part of a trial speech. To bring about everything is repeated

in Isa. 45:7 + ( I am Yhwh-who-brings-about-all-these-things). The
natural interpretation of , these things refer to all things that hap-
pened, reported in Isa. 44:24-45:7.

3.1.3. The Servant (sg.) Parallel to His Messengers (pl.) in Verse 26a
as Conveyers of a Message and the Continuation of Verse 24b in the
Verses 25-26a
Earlier investigation showed that the placement of the word of his ser-
vant (sg.) next to the counsel of his messengers (pl.) is witnessed by
the majority of all old translations.17 This single singular attracts atten-
tion. Who is meant by this singular (and who is meant by this plural)?
We could consider the possibility that an earlier word of his servant is
meant in the sense of a word about his servant (genitivus objectivus,
meaning for example David, in 2 Sam. 7:25, or Israel, in Deut. 9:5b). But
let us consider the following data in v. 26a: the two words , servant,
and , messengers, are specified by , word, and , coun-
sel. The phrases are connected with the verbal constructions , who
elevates, and , he fulfils, both referring to Yhwh (v. 24a). To-
gether these points clarify the text: Yhwh is going to realise the
, the word of his servant and will fulfil the , the coun-
sel of his messengers, as they are conveyers of a message (implying a
genitivus subjectivus). This means that the connections with 2 Sam. 7:25
or Deut. 9:5 are invalid.
Further, the participles (hi.) in vv. 25-26a continue those in the direct
discourse. But although they also illustrate what is ascribed to Yhwh
they do not proceed in a strict, syntactic way because of the third person
imperfects in the second half: , he turns into fools, , he turns
into a mockery, , he fulfils. These imperfect verb forms would be
first person, if they continue the direct discourse in v. 24b! From a do-
main analysis, it appears that, from v. 25a, the only possible speaker is
the stage manager, whom we met in v. 23 and speaks the messenger
formula (v. 24a).18 With the attributive forms ( your redeemer) and

17
Only in the Targum do we find the plural , his servants: who confirms
the word of his servants, the righteous, and performs the counsel of his messengers.
The Targums , his servants, in the plural (v. 26a) probably developed
under the influence of his messengers in the plural (v. 26a). We must
conclude that MTs version, , his servant, is probably the correct text, because
the majority of the manuscripts and text witnesses agree about this.
18
Many exegetes come to the conclusion that the participles refer to Yhwh in
the direct discourse, like K. Elliger, Deuterojesaja (BKAT 11/1), Neukirchen-Vluyn
1978, 462-3; H.J. Hermisson, Diskussionsworte bei Deuterojesaja, EvTh 11/12
128 P. LUGTIGHEID

( He, who shaped you from the womb) he introduces an ad-

dressee. As I mentioned this person must be identified with Ja-
cob/Israel, vv. 21, 23. In v. 24b we recognize Yhwhs speech from the
use of the threefold I. This construction only makes sense if we under-
stand that the stage manager identified for the first time in v. 23, is
telling Jacob/Israel about Yhwhs actions in vv. 25a-26. The stage man-
ager uses the domain shifting word again in v. 26b, i.e. to call upon
the person he talks about in the article ( also in v. 27 and 28a). This
person must be Yhwh, who is the subject in the preceding verses.
Vv. 25a-26a have a peculiar construction: part. hifil-object group (but
in v. 25b)-conj.-object group-impf. According to Quest19 they ap-
pear to be imitations of Proverbs like the one in Job 5:12:
, who let the devices of the crafty come
to nothing, so that their hands achieve no success.20 The second part of
this line uses the imperfect to concentrate on the outcome of the first
part: Yhwh who lets the thoughts of , the crafty ones come to
nothing (21). Exactly the same thing applies to Isa. 44:25: the fact
that the signs of the oracle priests come to nothing ( )has its out-
come in the shame of the soothsayers, whom Yhwh turns into fools,
( v. 25a, second half). The wise are forced , to step
backward because of their own knowledge, which Yhwh , turned
into a mockery (v. 25b, second half); their wisdom was not enough for
them to hold their place and to save their face. The second half of both
lines in v. 25 thus concentrates on the flop of the predictions of the oracle
priests and the wise ones in Babel.
There is thus a good argument for perceiving the second parts of
vv. 25a, 25b and 26a as attributive because they contain forms of the
third person imperfect in constructions. These lines imitate proverbs in
wisdom literature. Clearly their intention is to portray Yhwh with the
hifil participles and their apodoses with imperfect forms, as the direct
discourse did with the participles , , . The text thus implies a
consecutive meaning (so that) or a durative one (always) for these

(1971), 674; R.G. Kratz, Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch: Redaktionsgeschichtliche

Untersuchungen zu Entstehung und Theologie von Jes 40-55 (FAT 1), Tbingen
1991, 73. The serious syntactical challenges can be solved by assuming that also here
the stage manager created a line of argumentation by using a word of Yhwh, v. 24b.
He calls upon Yhwh in vv. 24a and 26b, 27 and 28a.
19
Cf. J.A. Groves, H.J. Bosman et al., Quest: Electronic Concordance Applica-
tion for the Hebrew Bible, Haarlem 21994.
20
See also Job 12:17, 19 for lines with a similar construction.
21
2 Sam. 15:34: defeat for me the counsel of Achitophel. Yhwh frustrates their
intention.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 129

imperfects, as often appears in translations of these proverbs. In my

translation, I prefer the consecutive meaning (hence).
Concerning their peculiar construction, the three lines vv. 25a- 26a
are, as a group, highly regular. Concerning their vocabulary, however,
these verses demonstrate two great contrasts between the first two lines
and the last line: the deconstructive verbs in v. 25 (come to nothing, to
turn into fools, to force to step backward, to turn into a mockery)
differ from the constructive verbs in v. 26a (to elevate and to com-
plete); and the possessive pronouns used (their in v. 25b in contrast
with a twofold his in v. 26a). Also we have in v. 26a one more word
than in the previous lines of v. 25a and b: a full object group in the first
(the word of his servant) and a full object group (the decision of his
messengers) in the second half of this line. With this threefold contrast,
the failure of the oracle priests with their predictions is compared in
v. 26a with and placed opposite to the elevation of Yhwhs word and the
completion of Yhwhs plan. I conclude:
The three lines of vv. 25-26a continue Yhwhs proclamation: I am
Yhwh-who-brings-everything-about (v. 24b). I understand everything
as an umbrella term: Yhwh is bringing everything about in causing (hi.)
the negative (the humiliation of the group with the possessive pronoun
their, v. 25 a and b) and by realizing (hi.) the positive: who realizes the
word of his servant and hence fulfils the counsel of his messengers (the
elevation of the group with the possessive pronoun his).
Also, in v. 26a, the completion of the decision conveyed by the mes-
sengers is the outcome of the first half of the line: Yhwh realises the
word that his servant conveys. In other words: the reality of the word of
his servant which Yhwh elevates is consequently materialized by Yhwh
through the completion of his decision which is conveyed by his mes-
sengers.
A contrast is being made between these two groups, and the texts
sympathy is with the last group, the one associated with the pronoun
his.
Clearly in vv. 25a-26a, v. 26a plays a key role as a result of its positive
wording, its length, the servants and messengers friendship with Yhwh,
and Yhwhs decisive action. The humiliation of the oracle priests and his
colleagues is not an action separate from the success of Yhwhs word
and his plan. The text means that the humiliation of this group is brought
about by the realisation of Yhwhs word, spoken by his servant and his
counsel, spoken by his messengers. The answer to the question concern-
130 P. LUGTIGHEID

ing what this prophetic word is all about will also answer to the flop of
the oracle priests and his colleagues.

3.1.4. Verse 26a: The Identity of His (Yhwhs) Servant and His
(Yhwhs) Messengers (Part I)
But who is meant by his servant and his messengers? In line with the
attributive character of vv. 25-26a, it turns out that I should also under-
stand v. 26a, the climax of vv. 25-26a, as distributive. This means that
v. 26a, Yhwh, who elevates the word of his servant and will fulfill the
counsel of his messengers, is to be understood as pointing to a new ac-
tualisation of Yhwhs action.
The interpretation of the imperfects is crucial here: with their prover-
bial character, these forms stress, as in vv. 25a and b, the definite out-
come of the participle hifil in the first half, characterizing Yhwh. But
these imperfects also imply that Yhwh will complete the action, intended
with the imperfect in the near future. This is especially important for the
key line, v. 26a.
If a new action from Yhwh is meant here, and this word (and deci-
sion) does not refer to an earlier word from Israels history, the question
then becomes: which word (decision) of which servant (and which mes-
sengers) is the new content of the action which is attributed to Yhwh in
vv. 25-26a? Although I approach the answer with my considerations
here, an explanation of the structure of the oracle as a whole ( 3.2.) will
offer a better opportunity to explore this more thoroughly.

3.1.5. A Diachronic Observation

Diachronically, I have concluded from the third person imperfect forms
in vv. 25-26a: Yhwhs statement I am Yhwh-who-brings-about-every-
thing etc., v. 24b, is actualised in the sentence v. 24a plus vv. 25-28.
Yhwh is called upon for the first time in v. 24a (), and later, in
vv. 26b-28 three times more with , he is the one who therefore
speaks. Thus Yhwh completes his statement doing all in v. 24b (see
3.3, the predicate part of the sentence).
The careful structure here is the work of the one who speaks the mes-
senger formula. I call him the stage manager because, after his comment
in v. 23, these verses also show, that, after quoting Yhwh with a rather
general statement in v. 24b, he creates a line of argument from v. 25
onwards. Because these verses are essential for our hypothesis, that Isa.
44:21-46:13 is one line of argument for Jacob/Israel about his return to
Yhwh/Zion, we have to scrutinize these verses.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 131

3.2. The Sentence Contained in Isaiah 44:24-28

As we have seen, I am Yhwh, who brings about eve-
rything, governs the pericope from vv. 24-26a, the first part of the oracle
but we need an analysis of the second part, vv. 26b-28. The verb
forms with which vv. 26b, 27 and 28 begin (, he, who says) could
be understood as a continuation of the preceding forms (the part. hi. plus
their apodoses), thus forming a sequence. In this sequence, the part. hi.
describes Yhwhs enduring actions, and the part. qal would then describe
his present actions, to be translated with the present tense. Or do we
have, from vv. 24-26a, the subject part, and from v. 26b onwards, the
predicative part of one sentence, with Yhwh as the subject?
A query with the program Quest22 made it clear that often in Deutero-
Isaiah, we encounter structures in which the nominal sentence I am
Yhwh is followed by a part. hifil (without the article) and a part. Qal
(with the article). See for example:
)(
For I, Yhwh, your God, who holds your right hand, say to you:
Do not fear (Isa. 41:13)
In this nominal sentence, a subject, which has the predicate,
: I (am the one who) say(s) to you: do not fear is supplemented
by several appositions: (I),Yhwh, your God, who holds your right hand.
Quest also found this sequence in Isa. 51:10; Hab. 1:6 and Zech. 11:16.
In Isa. 41:13 the predicate (who say to you: do not fear, article + part.
Qal etc.) refers to a subject + part. hi.: I ... who holds your right hand(or
an apposition, in Hab. 1:6). The question is whether or not we can recog-
nise a comparable or maybe even identical structure in vv. 24-28:
Thus speaks Yhwh (v. 24a):
I am Yhwh-who-brings-about-everything (+ two attributive
clauses) (v. 24b)
who causes(+ part. hi. -object group-conj.-object group-impf
form in the third person, three times [vv. 25-26a]),
He (is the one who) speaks with their apodoses, three
times (vv. 26b-28b).
Because the construction is obviously common in the Hebrew Bible, and
Quest recognises the same construction in all cases, I may conclude that
vv. 24-28 is one sentence. In vv. 24-28 the article in ( in the pre-

22
Quest, op. cit.
132 P. LUGTIGHEID

dicate part, vv. 26b, 27, 28a) refers to Yhwh in v. 24a (in the subject
part vv. 24-26a), as in Isa. 41:13. This article indicates, that vv. 24-28 is
a sentence.23 Its meaning here is: That which is attributed to Yhwh in
vv. 24-26a is also applicable in vv. 26b-28. The following translation for
does justice to this structure: It is He who speaks. Arguably, we
should also add therefore or hence. The reader will then put an equals
sign between vv. 24-26a and 26-28; in other words, part A (vv. 24-26a) =
part B (vv. 26b-28). He who is responsible for vv. 24-26a will do the
same in vv. 26b-28. The latter part, the predicate part, vv. 26b-28 is the
climax. Just as his action reliably follows his word in vv. 25-26a (the
attributive apodoses), so will Yhwhs action reliably follow his speaking
(scheppend spreken,24 )in vv. 26b-28.
vv. 25-26a word (part. hi.) action (the apodoses with
their third person imper-
fect verb forms)
vv. 26b-28 word (he is the one who action (direct discourse in
therefore speaks speak- v. 27 and indirect dis-
ing and creating at the course in vv. 26b and 28a
same very moment, see with their third person
Gen. 1:2) imperfect verb forms)

3.3. Isaiah 44:26-28

In this stage of our investigation of the question of how the claim in
v. 24b shapes vv. 24-28, we must now focus on vv. 26b-28 the predi-
cate of the sentence with the construction + , and the twofold ,
vv. 24b and 28a (A), as well as discussing the following items: Isa.
44:24-28 as an adapter (B) and the identity of his servant (part II) (C),
and the order to the depth (D).

3.3.1. The Predicate Part of the Sentence

As we have already seen, the three lines vv. 25-26a in the subject part of
the oracle are meant, with their proverb-like lines, as an elaboration of
the thematic line I am Yhwh-who-brings-about-
everything (v. 24b), spoken by Yhwh to Jacob / Israel. This is a descrip-
tion of the breakdown of Babylons supremacy because of Yhwhs ele-
vation of the prophetic word and the completion of his plan, v. 26a.
23
This element is neglected by most translations, KJV, NRSV, NEB, TOB, but
also by Dutch translations.
24
H.J. Hermisson, art. cit., 675: es ist also Jahwes Schpferwort, auf das der An-
fang der drei parallelen Verszeilen (, P.L.) hinweist.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 133

In the second half (the predicate part) the construction + ( the

three lines vv. 26b, 27, 28a) can mean to speak to or to order if a
person is addressed, but it can also mean to speak about. The latter
meaning applies to v. 26b: , this one (Yhwh) is
therefore saying about Jerusalem: she shall/must be inhabited. ,
she shall/must be inhabited is a verb form of the third person fem. impf.
ho.25 Jerusalem shall be again, according to Yhwhs word, a city which is
a communion of people (, to live, also Isa. 40:22; 45:18a, and
49:19, 20); when we skip v. 26b26, the imperfect v. 26b: I will elevate
her ruins can be seen as its completion, a city with walls! The suffix
her indicates that an account is given to the addressee Jacob/Israel
(you, v. 24a). These words about Jerusalems inhabitation and the res-
toration of her walls are Yhwhs predicted actions. As we saw, the im-
perfects mean that He will soon undertake them (, to bring about,
v. 24b).
The meaning of the expression in v. 28 is: it is he
who speaks concerning Cyrus: my shepherd. The translation of the pre-
position concerning is due to the third person (her walls and he com-
pletes Yhwhs whole wish): both verses 26b and 28 are also formulated
as a report to the same addressee. The continuation of this speech with
shows that a motivation is meant27 with the following order: for (and) he
(Cyrus) completes my whole wish by saying ( )of Jerusalem: It
shall be built (Isa. 45:13b) and the temple must be founded. The two last
verb forms, speaking about the restoration of Jerusalem and the temple,
use both the imperfect.
In v. 27, however, the line in the middle, is followed by an
imperative, you, dry up! to the depth, and the imperfect: I shall
wither your streams (v. 27). Thus, both constitute direct discourse, or-
dering the depth and its streams to dry up, i.e. to stop their actions.
The predicate part, vv. 26b-28, has thus, as the climax of the sentence,
with the imperfects (vv. 26b, 27b, 28a, 28b), the following impending
actions: (of Jerusalem): It shall be inhabited; and I shall elevate her
ruins (v. 26b); (of Jerusalem): It shall be rebuilt and the temple must be
founded (v. 28b). From the domain (I/it ,her, the temple) appears
that they are meant, through indirect discourse, as a report to the addres-
25
The second person feminine of the imperfect may sometimes be written without
the yod in the end. This is not a probable possibility here, regarding , her
ruins (third person).
26
Verse 26b is an addition. V. 26b, speaking about her ruins, can only mean
the ruins of Jerusalem, v. 26b.
27
Cf. A.E. Cowley, Gesenius Hebrew Grammar: Edited and enlarged by E.
Kautzsch, Oxford 201990 (21910), 114p.
134 P. LUGTIGHEID

see Jacob/Israel, who is entrusted with Yhwhs plan on his behalf (,

plan, v. 26a, which Yhwh is about to realise, , v. 24b, Isa. 46:10a,
10b, 11b; , pleasure, wish, v. 28; 46:10b). My quotation marks take
this into account. In vv. 26 and 28 all words after /
is one quotation! Both players, Jerusalem and Cyrus have a
peculiar role.
The imperfect in v. 27 (I shall wither your streams) is different, be-
cause here the depth and its streams are directly spoken to in an order, as
if it is Yhwhs old enemy (see part D of this paragraph).
These three speeches demonstrate by their use of the word that
their function is to complete what Yhwh says (): I am Yhwh-who-
brings-about-everything. When, in the phrase , the word is
repeated from the nominal clause in v. 24b, it indicates that Cyrus order
to found the temple (v. 28b) serves to complete28 Yhwhs plan.29

3.3.2. Isaiah 45:24-28 as an Adapter

The interpretation of Isa. 44:24-28 has caused the exegetes many prob-
lems. K. Elliger concludes: Es fehlt die einleuchtende Gesamtschau.30
Problems are the unity and the genre. We mention two interpreters.
R.G. Kratz has syntactical problems with the participles with and those
without article, whom he relates to different types of sentences.31 On this
ground he concludes to different hands (but see 3.2). According to K.
Elliger exegesis was always ambivalent about the form of Isa. 44:24-28.
About this aspect R.G. Kratz spoke from the contrast in Isa. 44:24-28
between the prophetical situation (the messenger formula) versus the
hymnical aspects (the participles characterising Yhwh). Elligers solution
for these contrasting elements was: The prophet proclaimed on a later
moment to the communion the words Yhwh spoke in his heavenly coun-
cil.32 C. Westermann solves the problem with genre with the conclusion

28
: vollendet werden (vv. 26a, 28a; L. Koehler, W. Baumgartner et al.,
Hebrisches und Aramisches Lexikon zum Alten Testament, 6 vols, Leiden 1967-
1996, 1420). Here is a wordplay with : to turn into a mockery(v. 25b). The
way the Babylonian priests fail to complete their plans is contrasted with the way
Yhwh completes his plan.
29
Mark: the subject in v. 28a (He) is different than the one in vv. 26b and 27b
(I).
30
Cf. K. Elliger, op. cit., 459.
31
Cf. R.G. Kratz, op. cit., 73-74.
32
Cf. K. Elliger, op. cit., 465.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 135

that the verses are not an independent unity and connecting them with
the Knigsorakel (Isa. 45:1-8).33
Our interpretation will solve these problems. We saw that identical
constructions are present in the BH and that these verses form one sen-
tence. With a domain analysis I have concluded that the stage manager
uses Yhwhs direct speech to create the outlines of a plan in these verses.
But our proposal is going further: with vv. 24-28 the stage manager
created an adapter in order to connect the units Isa. 44:21-46:13. With
adapter I mean a device in the domestic sphere used to connect elec-
trical appliances to the grid of electricity. This is comparable to the
function of Isa. 44:24-28 in the context of the surrounding units. He
created a unity in Isa. 44:21-46:13 by bringing in 44:24-28 identical
topics from the framing pericopes: 44:21-23 (Servant, v. 26), 45:1-13
(Cyrus, v. 28) and 45:14-46:13 (Zion, corresponding to v. 26b about
Jerusalem). The imperfects in Isa. 44:24-28 are meant as the announce-
ment of Yhwhs actions, which will be executed in 44:21-23 and 45-46,
thus proving that He is only God.

3.3.3. Verse 26a: The Identity of His Servant (Part II)

I now consider our earlier question about the word of the servant:
which word (decision) of which servant is the new content of the action
which is attributed to Yhwh in vv. 25-26a? The text points for the word
of his servant at a new actualisation (as I concluded in 3.1.). This ac-
tualisation has been unclear until now. Could the word of his servant,
v. 26a be about Jerusalem, that she must be inhabited, v. 26b? But I
then have to consider that the subject of is Yhwh, speaking about
Jerusalem, not his servant. The translation his servant, saying would
require . On the syntactic level, the first and the second lines of
v. 26 do not refer to one another; they do so only at the level of accents
and alliteration: besides the atnach, they are connected by way of the
alliterations between and ( to elevate) and between
and ( to complete).
What then is the identity of his servant and the word he speaks?
Although we can make no arguments on the level of syntax, I am on a
rhetorical level, and supported by the atnach and the alliterations
forced by the text itself to ask: Is it possible that the addressee Ja-
cob/Israel (v. 24a), who was already addressed in v. 21 with I design
you herewith for me as a servant, in v. 26a is invited to accept the role

33
C. Westermann, Sprache und Struktur der Prophetie Deuterojesajas
(CThM.BW 11), Stuttgart 1981, 61-62.
136 P. LUGTIGHEID

of his servant? The word of his servant could be the word that Yhwh
speaks (to Jacob/Israel!) (who says of Jerusalem:) she must be inha-
bited because in v. 26a his servant is connected with the word of
Yhwh ( , the (Yhwhs) word of i.e. to be spoken by his
servant), that Yhwh elevates. Thus the addressee Jacob/Israel could be
called upon here to accept the role of Yhwhs servant by inviting his
fellow citizens to return to Yhwh and to Jerusalem (v. 22). 2 Kgs 25:8-
17, which recounts Jerusalems destruction and depopulation by the Ba-
bylonian aggressor, would be effectively contradicted and the failure of
the oracle priests would be made fact if Jacob/Israel, Yhwhs servant
returns with his fellow citizens! This is in his hands. Will he accept his
role as Yhwhs servant?
This could be the reason why Jerusalem is mentioned in Yhwhs plan
of vv. 24-28 two times: the first time to underline her function as a place
to live (v. 26b), and the second time to portray her as a place of stone
which has the temple in it (v. 28b). Thus, in the subject part of the sen-
tence of vv. 24-28 (vv. 24-26a), the word of the servant that Jerusalem
must be inhabited, plays a vital role in the trial speech. Jacob/Israels
task is to forecast the elevation of Yhwhs word (, v. 26a). The active
role by Jerusalem and Cyrus in this plan, which appears from vv. 26b
and 28 is expressed also with the expression , his messengers in
v. 26a. Their function as messengers is to convey Yhwhs plan (),
the outcome of which is his task, parallel to the word, which Yhwhs
servant, also in v. 26, will speak.34 The depth and its streams have a
different role (D).
In this introduction I also encounter two main elements in Deutero-
Isaiah that are together in v. 26, his servant (v. 21, referring with ,
to Isa. 49:3, 5: Jacob/Israel is to be identified with the Servant) and
Jerusalem. As this article will contend, a main theme in Isa. 45 and 46

34
Most exegetes interpret his messengers as his prophets, cf. W.A.M. Beuken,
Jesaja deel IIa (De Prediking van het Oude Testament), Nijkerk 1979, 230; F. De-
litzsch, Commentar ber das Buch Jesaia (BC III/1), Leipzig 41889 (11866), 458; J.
Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40-55 (AB 19a), New York 2002, 247; J.L. Koole, Jesaja II deel
I (Commentaar op het Oude Testament), Kampen 1985, 312. For our choice we have
the following arguments: a. In the structure of vv. 24-28 thesigns of the oracle
priests contrast the plan of his messengers (both plural). Both groups voice the
message of the higher authority (the Babylonian gods or Yhwh), of whom one is
failing, and the other one succeeds. b. The word is strongly related to the plan
which Yhwh realises in Cyrus. This corresponds to the content of v. 26b, the king-
ship of Yhwh in Jerusalem. c. It is only natural, when the contrast between the failing
oracle priests and the successful messengers is materialized in these verses. We do so
by identifying Jerusalem and Cyrus as Yhwhs messengers. The realisation of these
orders follows in Isa. 45:1-13 (esp. v. 13) and 45:14-46:13 (esp. 45:14 and 46:13).
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 137

is to bring his servant/Servant (the main character in Isa. 40-48) into

(relationship with) Jerusalem (the main character in Isa. 49-54), later
called Zion; see Isa. 44:22b.

3.3.4. The Order to The Depth and Its Streams

The last question in this paragraph is the meaning of v. 27. With ,
it is He who speaks about/orders the content of v. 27 is identical with
vv. 26b and 28a in the first two words. In the direct discourse to the
Depth ( )the imperative to dry up, i.e. not to act as with its
chaotic waters, contrasts in two ways with the surrounding two orders: 1.
Jerusalem and Cyrus are asked for positive actions. 2. But unlike vv. 26b
and 28 (which are formulated as a report to Jacob/Israel) the second half
of v. 27 is also presented as direct discourse. As such, v. 27, in the mid-
dle of vv. 26b and 28, functions with its order to the depth and to its
streams as the central line in the structure of vv. 26b-28 with the three-
fold , as if Yhwh in this direct speech is meeting his enemy of
old. The construction ordering the Depth might be unders-
tood as a rebuke (, in Dutch: schelden); see Ps. 106:9: He rebuked
( ) the Sea of Reeds, and it became dry; or Isa. 50:2b: With my
rebuke I dried up the sea; or 54:9.35 Yhwhs rebuking the Depth is thus
effective (M.A. Klopfenstein: und so das Leben schtzt), for Yhwh
orders the depth to dry up. Although is a hapax legomenon, the
meaning of is very near to that of and also , the deep
waters which threaten life, and is connected to the Chaoskampfvorstel-
lung.36
The idea of the drying up also brings to mind Exod. 14:29 and
15:5: The Israelites walked on dry ground through the sea, by the hand
of Yhwh, The floods ( )covered them, they went down in the
depths ( )like a stone. In the interpretation of v. 27, therefore, we
have to choose between the analogy to the old story in Exodus, in order
that Yhwhs people might pass through these waters of death (see Isa.
43:16), and connecting the rebuke of , the Depth and the
Chaoskampf. Our choice for the last option, the Chaoskampf, is
rooted in two arguments: 1. as I concluded above, Isa. 45 and 46 will
unfold the orders of Yhwh to his partners as presented in the text at hand
(44:24-28), and thus v. 27, with the words ,to speak to, to order,

35
For the meaning of , see M.A. Klopfenstein, Wenn der Schpfer die Cha-
osmchte anherrscht und so das Leben schtzt, ThZ 53 (1997), 33-47.
36
C. Westermann, tehm Flut, THAT 2 (1979) col. 1029, see Exod. 15:5;
Jon. 2:4; Pss. 68:23; 69:3, 16. See , Isa. 45:18-19.
138 P. LUGTIGHEID

can best be read as a rebuke to the Depth. 2. In Ps. 93 we find both

themes the floods of chaos and the temple linked to each other, as
we do in Isa. 44:27 and 28b. In the Psalm the floods are silenced by the
more majestic voice of the Lord, implying the decrees from his house,
which are very sure (NRSV), vv. 4-5. 37 Therefore it is quite a good
possibility to conclude that the order to the depth and its streams is con-
nected with the mention of the temple. A functioning (communion for
the) temple is indeed the centre in Isa. 44-46, as we will see. As in Ps.
93, Yhwhs kingship38 and Yhwhs house in Jerusalem together guaran-
tee the worlds stability (Isa. 45:18).

3.4. Conclusions
Concerning the notion of The City I came to the conclusion that Jerusa-
lem (Isa. 44:26b) is used to indicate a city, where people can live (;)
in 44:28b the city is indicated as a place of stone, that must be rebuilt.
Further, we discovered in Isa. 44:24-28 the outlines of a plan in the
form of a report to Jacob/Israel. This report, an adapter for Isa. 44:21-
46:13 is entrusted to him to strengthen him to accept the invitation to call
on his fellow exiles for the return to Zion (44:22, 26; 46:13). It is deli-
vered in the form of a claim with which Yhwh proves that He is really
God, who reigns the future.

4. Isaiah 45:1-8: the Two Addressees

The verses 1-7 contain a speech from Yhwh to Cyrus. This is indicated
by the first words in vv. 1 and 2. But vv. 1-7 are at the same time ad-
dressed to Israel. The domain (Yhwh to Cyrus, v. 1) is mixed with an-
other domain in which Yhwh speaks about Cyrus to someone else (I
[Yhwh] about him [Cyrus]). This latter domain is the same as the one in
Isa. 44:26, 28: I (Yhwh) elevate her ruins, v. 26b; He (Cyrus) will
complete my (Yhwhs) whole wish, v. 28. Because we also find in Isa.
45:8 the same domain ( ) I (Yhwh) have created him [Cyrus]),
I must conclude that also in 45:1-8 the speech to Cyrus is addressed to
Jacob/Israel as a report, like in 44:24-28. Considering this adaptation to

37
See also Ps. 76.
38
The kingship of Yhwh is witnessed here by (a) words about the inhabitation and
rebuilding of Jerusalem, vv. 26b and 28b, (b) words about Yhwhs commanding the
Depth and its streams, v. 27, and (c) words about the nomination of Cyrus as my
shepherd, v. 28 (P. Lugtigheid, art. cit., 217).
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 139

Isa. 44:24-28, I attribute this to the hand of the stage manager. He in-
forms Jacob/Israel about the true story behind Cyrus success.
For this purpose Isa. 45:1-7 has some typical traits of a trial speech,
in which Yhwh defends his claim of being the only God. These charac-
teristics are: a. The claim, Yhwhs self-predication, v. 5. This is placed
within the context of b. Yhwh s plan in history (the hierarchy of goals in
vv. 2-7 see the elaboration on the following page ending with:
) . In this plan, Cyrus is Yhwhs great argument in his
trial speech to state that He guides history on behalf of Israel, his ad-
dressee, v. 4a. The characteristics of the trial speech also include the
double addressee, Cyrus and Israel.
In his speech, Yhwh explains with what aim ( )he guided Cyrus.
In essence, the speech reveals a hierarchy of goals, at every turn intro-
duced with ( vv. 3b, 4a, and 6) in three steps, culminating in v. 7:
, I am Yhwh-who-bring-these-things-about (Isa.
44:24b: ) .
The first goal is (1): Yhwh guides Cyrus campaign ()
and will give him and , treasures of darkness
and hidden riches, in order that ( )Cyrus will know that it is Yhwh,
the God of Israel, who calls him by his name (self presentation), v. 3. The
expressions treasures of darkness and hidden riches are unique in the
Hebrew Bible: nowhere else are the words treasures and riches found,
together or separately, with either of the words darkness and hidden.39
Precisely the words darkness and hidden indicate that these phrases
also refer to something more than just the treasures and riches a con-
queror might look for in Babel. Moreover, this would not answer the
question of why Cyrus exerted his power for Israel. This is exactly what
the text wants to clarify here for the reader. The text goes on to explain
Yhwhs aim in the following way: in order that you know that I, Yhwh,
the God of Israel call you with your name. Thus, the qualifying words
of darkness and hidden mark these treasures and riches as something
different.40

39
That is why my interpretation is different from that of W.A.M. Beuken, op. cit.,
235; According to him, they are the treasures of Babel.
40
Riches, , v. 3, as such, has a hidden connotation. In two places riches
are connected with the verb , to dig, Job 3:21; Prov. 2:4. And often has a
metaphorical meaning. Ps. 33:7: Wind going out of Yhwhs treasure (room); Deut.
28:12: Yhwh opens his good treasure room, , for the rain. In Mi. 6:10:
. We find the words and conjugations of in Isa. 45:7 (
), 45:15 ( ) and v. 19 () . Verse 19
(Yhwh did not speak in secret, in a place of a land of darkness) makes clear that we
140 P. LUGTIGHEID

Because Cyrus was given these treasures of darkness and hidden

riches on top of his victorious campaign against Babel, he had, by
knowing Yhwh, a mind to fight for the little nation Israel (v. 4). Thus, for
Yhwh it is not very difficult to include Cyrus in his goal of saving Israel,
which is the second goal (2): v. 4: It is for the sake of ( )Jacob my
servant and my beloved Israel that I called ( )you with your name.
Thus this second goal, the calling of Cyrus on behalf of Israel, is the far-
reaching goal, the spectacular liberation of Israel by Cyrus (vv. 13, 17).
To underline who was at the centre of this history, in developing the
second goal the text in vv. 4b-5b emphasizes that Cyrus was completely
unaware of it ( , vv. 4b, 5b), but he played a role in the plan of
Yhwh, who was going before him (v. 2). The campaign he made on
behalf of Israel was guided by One, Yhwh, who is the only God. This
statement of exclusivity is fundamental, see the polemic use of ,
God against the claims of other gods in v. 5 () . It is also
one of the regular elements of the trial speech41, in which Yhwh offers
arguments especially for the ears of Israel (the domain!).
The third (3) goal is: this miraculous commitment of the great king
Cyrus to little Israel will be grounds for the acknowledgement of Yhwh
by all nations: so that ( )they know, from sunrise to sunset, that
there is no one except me, v. 6. Here, the readers are prepared for the
coming of the three African nations in v. 14 ( 6): Though in chains, they
bring their wealth to you (pron. fem.). See also v. 20 (who fled from
the nations) and 22-25 (all the ends of the earth).
The whole hierarchy with the three goals is meant to offer the ad-
dressee, Jacob/Israel arguments for Yhwh s guidance in history:
, I do all these things, v. 7b. This verse uses one more word
than Isa. 44:24b: these things, summarized in the appositions of

have to understand the constructions of v. 3a for themselves. Otherwise we would

have to reconcile contradictory sayings.
41
C. Westermann, op. cit., 62-67, states this of Isa. 45:20-25, while he named Isa.
45:1-7 a Knigsorakel, Pss. 2:7; 110:1. According to him the influence of the
Selbstpreis der Gtter on the Ich bin formulas is evident. Isa. 44:24-45:7 is very
coherent to the form trial speech. The name Knigsorakel is compatible with his
belief in the dependency of Isa. 45:1-7 on the text of the Cyrus cilinder: hnlich ist
auf dem Kyros-Zylinder das Knigsorakel reflektiert, daher erklren sich die
Anklnge an Jes.45:1ff.. Here we also find the motifs of this list: Yhwhs grasping
his right hand, and the promise of victory. However, if an author wants to stress that
a king is a Messiah, Psalms like these, and motifs like the ones above are the ones
used to express it. That is why we do not plead for a direct, literal relationship.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 141

v. 7a: the word pairs light and darkness, peace and evil. 42 The addi-
tional demonstrative pronoun can only point to the preceding verses (Isa.
44:24-45:7).43 Via these appositions, world history is seen as a way in
which Yhwh, with his Cyrus initiative, is moving ahead for the sake of
light and peace. The follow-up of v. 7 by v. 8, an invitation to the cosmos
to help Yhwh with his initiative ( , I have created him,
i.e. Cyrus!) for the sake of the right order ( )and hail (), and of
vv. 9-10 by vv. 11-13 (see 5) supports this interpretation. These priori-
ties are stressed by the density of these concepts in Isa. 45 and 46.44 Part
of it is therefore also the alternative in Isa. 45:24b: Join Him or be
ashamed!

5. Isaiah 45:9-13

9 Woe to the one who argues with his Modeller,

a pot among pots of earth! |


b Does the clay say to his modeller: |

what are you doing now? |
and: your way of working is powerless! |

10 Woe to him who says to a father: |

What are you begetting? |


b and (woe to him who says) to a woman: |

, v. 7a. H.J. Stoebe, r

42

schlecht sein, THAT 2 (1979) col. 799-800 says in relation to Isa. 45:7: Unheil
bedeutet die Zurcknahme einer gndig gegebenen heilsamen Ordnung, s.v. .
43
It is the duality of the oracle priests, soothsayers and the wise ones of Babel,
whose wisdom flops in confrontation with the word of his servant, Isa. 44:25-26a;
and the trampling down of the nations in confrontation with Cyrus success.
44
( Isa. 45:8, 19), ( vv. 23, 24, 25), ( v. 21), ( v. 25) and 46
( in vv. 12, 13). Yhwhs acts of will, so He ensures, be the reason for all
knees to bow and for all tongues on earth to confess Him, v. 24. plus deriv. is for
the first time in Isa. 45:8, 15 and 17 (2), vv. 20, 21 and 22, and in 46: 7, 13a and b.
142 P. LUGTIGHEID

With what are you in labour? |

11a Thus says Yhwh,
the holy One of Israel and also his Modeller: |

B Ask Me the questions about the things to come,|
trust to Me my sons and the way of working of my
hands. |


12 It is Me, who has made the earth, |
and mankind on it I created. |

B I, with my hands, I stretched out the heavens, |
and all their host, I ordered their place. |


13a I am the one who roused him for the right or-
der, |
and all his ways I make straight, |


B for he is the one, who shall build my city |
and sets my exiles free,

not for a price and not for a bribe, |

says Yhwh of hosts. |
My city with its parallel my exiles appears here in v. 13b in connec-
tion with Yhwh and Cyrus. The text works towards this goal via an
argument consisting of two steps, vv. 9-10 and vv. 11-13 (A). In v. 9 a
protest against the Modeller Yhwh is criticised. This protest refers to
Yhwhs doing all (Isa. 44:24) and all these things (45:7). It gives Yhwh
the chance to expose his plans. The central issue in this unit is found in
v. 13 (B).

5.1. The Verses 9-10 and 11-12

In v. 9 the one who argues with his Modeller is called a pot among
pots of earth. The argument in vv. 9-10 cannot but refer to the previous
section, where the dark side of Yhwhs creative actions are named ex-
plicitly, vv. 6b-7. In this third person communication is acknowledged
that criticism exists on the part of Yhwhs opponents and thus the stage
manager demonstrates with naming it a certain understanding. But in his
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 143

critique on these critics he also prepares Yhwhs speech, vv. 11b-13, as

appears also from corresponding words in vv. 9-10 and vv. 11-13, as ,
, , , . Thus, vv. 9-13 is a line of argumentation consisting of
two steps, vv. 9-10 and vv. 11-13. This is confirmed by several corre-
sponding semantical elements in vv. 9-10/11-13 (, /, ,
)
1. Using the word woe, the text criticizes one who argues ( )with
( )his Modeller (), Yhwh. It calls him a pot 45 amongst ( )pots
of earth (v. 9a), in this way using the metaphor of the pot for the human
being.46 H. Leene said the following about the preposition ,47 used
twice in v. 9a: In his critique, the critic argues with his Maker, but his
place is between the pots. The intention of vv. 9-10 is to make clear that
the role of the Creator is different from that of his creation (the cosmo-
logical argument). This is also illustrated by the rhetorical question in
v. 9b, Does the clay say to his Modeller: What are you doing? (the
verb ), and also with Your way of working ( )is powerless. The
answer must be negative. In v. 10 the metaphor is stronger still: the ar-
guer is compared with a person saying to a father: What are you beget-
ting! and to a woman: With what are you in labour!48 someone who
sneers at them for their plans of procreation (v. 10). Both metaphors, the
potter and father/woman, are images for Yhwhs freedom. Vv. 9-10,
written in the third person, argue how absurd the protest Isa.
These are general remarks. No data for an addressee are available in
the text in vv. 9-13.49 But it is true that in v. 11a the attributive construc-

45
. With H. Leene, Universalism or Nationalism? Isaiah XLV 9-13 and its
context, Bijdr. 35 (1974), 310-1, I prefer the finished product, pot, above pot-
sherd, although U. Berges, Jesaja 40-48 (Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum
Alten Testament), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 2008, 411 argues that means potsherd
(Isa. 30:14; Ps. 22:16; Job 2:8), but pot (Lev. 6:21; 11:33; 14:5, 50; 15:12;
Num. 5:17; Jer. 32:14).
46
For the metaphor see Gen. 2:7.
47
L. Koehler, W. Baumgartner et al., op. cit., 97: 1. together with, 2. with (the
aid) of, 3. with, at the side of.
48
+ impf.: three times in vv. 9b-10.
49
In the opinion of C. Westermann, Das Buch Jesaja: Kapitel 40-66 (ATD),
Gttingen 1966, 134-6 both texts, vv. 9-10 and 11-13, become only in their relation
to each other the sense of a contestation concerning the offense the hearer of the
prophet take at his Cyrus-word: Die beiden Teile V. 9-10 und 11-13 bekommen nur
in der Wechselbeziehung aufeinander den Sinn einer Bestreitung, in der es um den
Anstoss der Hrer des Profeten an seinem Kyros-Wort geht. But especially his
association father (v. 10) with my sons (v. 11b: das Kind das gegen den Vater
aufbegehrt) is not valuable. The metaphor is used in line with the theme of creation
and breeding in these verses. The Old Testament is very careful with calling Yhwh
father (E. Jenni, b Vater, THAT 1 (1978) col. 14). In the opinion of H. Leene,
144 P. LUGTIGHEID

tion [( the holy one of Israel] and also his modeller) repeats
(v. 9a). This reveals that among other critics also Israel is meant in vv. 9-
10. Nevertheless in vv. 9-10 any arguer is meant (v. 9a: Woe to the one
anyone who argues with his Modeller).
2. In the following unit (vv. 11-13), the stage manager calls upon Yhwh
(v. 11a). After his request he exposes his actual plans in his answer to the
critics: I am the one who made the earth (the verb [ see v. 9b: does
the clay say to his modeller: What are you doing ( )]?)and hu-
mankind ( )on it I have created, v. 12. The word humankind ()
refers to v. 9a: anyone who argues with his Modeller is called a pot
among pots of earth () , v. 9a.
Several times the words hands and way of working ( and )in
vv. 11-13 relate to the same words in vv. 9-11. First, a response to the
clays remark (Your way of working is powerless, ,
v. 9b) is given as follows: Trust to me (iussivus; plural of the second
person) my sons and the way of working of my hands( , v. 11b),
and: I, with my hands ( )I stretched out the heavens, v. 12b. With
his defence, Yhwh answers the arguments in vv. 9-10.
Yhwhs reaction to the critics, for which we are prepared from v. 9
onwards (see 1), is also highlighted by the references to I fourteen
times in vv. 11-13 including three fronted pronouns preparing the
(v. 13b): You (plural) must ask Me the questions about the things to
come, trust (plural) Me with my sons and the way of working of my
hands, I ( )have made the earth, v. 12a men on it I have created,
v. 12a, I (), my hands have stretched out the heavens, v. 12b. and
v. 13a, I ( )am the one who have set him in motion for the right
order. This section ends with Cyrus rousing ( )and three imperfects
(with I, my [city/exiles], plus , Cyrus, v. 13), with which Yhwh
indicates what his instrument Cyrus is going to do. In this way, the

art. cit., 320-322 the construction and his Modeller (v. 11a), and my
sons/city/exiles (vv. 11b, 13b) suggest that Yhwh is speaking to other parties, the
nations. According to Leene the nations, who speak also in v. 15 lay down their
mixed feelings about Yhwhs liberation (of Israel) and his hiddenness (for the na-
tions). In his opinion (followed by W.A.M. Beuken, op. cit., 250; Idem, The Confes-
sion of Gods Exclusivity by All Mankind, Bijdr. 35 (1974), 346) Yhwh gives with
v. 18 answers with his creation to the reproach of orderliness, and with v. 19 to the
reproach of hiddenness (see H. Leene, De vroegere en de nieuwe dingen bij Deutero-
jesaja, Amsterdam 1987, 196-198). We cannot agree with this interpretation of Isa.
45. No data are available in vv. 9-13 in our opinion for one of those addressees, Israel
or the nations. Vv. 9-13 is with Woe to the one (anyone) who argues with his Mod-
eller a general proclamation with general concepts like men, modeller, a father
and a woman, earth and heavens.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 145

request with Yhwhs answer from v. 11b, is elaborated upon by indica-

tions of what Yhwh with his own hands has created. Following this ex-
planation, the text proceeds to address the central issue in v. 13 to show
that Yhwh is a trustworthy partner!

5.2. Verse 13
Verse 13 gives the central issue in the pericope. It highlights two issues.
Cyrus commitment as Yhwhs instrument for Israel (see 1), but not Is-
rael alone. In the text Cyrus follows the notion of Yhwhs creation. First
Yhwh creates the human beings on the earth, and rouses then Cyrus, who
shall build Yhwhs city and lets his exiles go (see 2). The way Cyrus as
Yhwhs instrument acts is depicted with , for the right order,
, not for a price and not for a bribe (see 3). These two
constructions with frame Cyrus acts in v. 13, as the reader can see in
our translation. They serve to open the new era for the whole earth: no
one and no nation will be sacrificed for the happiness of another nation.
The form in which v. 13 is written is like an argument in court (see 4).
1. The theme of the song found in vv. 11-1350 is: I work (a) for my child-
ren, Israel, (b) through my way of working (v. 11b), i.e. Cyrus. Both
issues, Cyrus role in Yhwhs liberation (b) of his people (a), are also
found in v. 13. Thus, vv. 11-13 forms a chiasm: a-b-b-a. Verse 13b reads:
, for he is the one who shall build my city and
set my exiles free. This announcement of Cyruss acts (all imperfects) is
based on the qatal verb form : I did rouse him for the
right order (v. 13a).51 Also in Isa. 42:6 we find a construction with the
preposition which indicates that a new era shall begin with the appear-
ance of the servant: , I called him for the right order
a striking parallel. H.H. Schmid wrote about the use of this word in
Deutero-Isaiah arguing that it plays a central role in Isa. 45 and 4652:
ist die Ordnung Gottes, wie sie die Schpfungsordnung entspre-

50
W.A.M. Beuken, op. cit., 48 uses the name beschrijvend loflied for Isa. 40:22-
24, according to C. Westermann, Das Loben Gottes in den Psalmen, Gttingen 1963,
87-97. C. Westermann also uses this name for Isa. 44:24-28. In these Psalms, one
essential pronouncement is expounded, as in Ps. 113 das Wunder des Erhhens.
This seems to be exactly what is happening in vv. 11-13.
51
For the interpretation of to rouse for, see W. Gesenius, Handwrterbuch
ber das Alte Testament, bearbeitet von F. Buhl, Leipzig, 171921, 7: in/nach der
Weise, der Norm.
52
Isa. 45:8, 19, in vv. 23, 24, 25, ( v. 21), ( v. 25) and 46 (
in vv. 12, 13). Yhwh s acts of will, so He ensures, be the reason for all knees
to bow and for all tongues on earth to confess Him, v. 24.
146 P. LUGTIGHEID

chend in der nahen bevorstehenden Heilszeit durchbrechen wird.53 I

translate with the right order. Thus, Cyrus will act as Yhwhs in-
strument. We have to be careful with relating to Cyrus. Although
Cyrus is idealized (see vv. 1, 8), and are related to Yhwh and
to Zion (Isa. 46:13). Returning to Zion is part of Return to Me (Isa.
44:22b).
2. However, Cyruss commitment to Israel is not only for the sake of
Israel: in the text, the awakening of Cyrus proceeds from Yhwhs crea-
tion (see I created , him, i.e. Cyrus, v. 8c). Yhwh, who creates the
human beings on the earth (v. 12), and Cyrus, who builds the city and let
the exiles go, seem to have the same intention: it is to make life possible
(v. 13, see v. 18). Also, v. 12 reads: I have made the earth and I created
men on it, I, my hands stretched out the heavens and to all their host I
ordered their place. With , I, the extended form for this pronoun in
Isa. 44:24 is recalled, which serves to emphasize Yhwhs action (v. 12a,
the creation of the earth; 13a, the rousing of Cyrus). The unusual follow-
up earth and heaven attracts attention. Usual is heaven and earth, Gen.
1:1; Exod. 20:4 etc. In v. 18 heaven uses four words, and earth ten:
also here the last word is stressed. The notion to order all their place
found in v. 12b just before Yhwhs rousing of Cyrus apparently
points to Yhwhs ability to rule history the way He wants. Clearly the
human beings Yhwh creates on the earth and Cyrus acts have much to
do with each other, and prepare the reader for the idea that the Cyrus
initiative has a broader recipient than Israel alone. It is an initiative on
behalf of the whole earth.54 The wording of v. 12 prepares the reader for
v. 14.
3. Yhwhs Cyrus initiative is depicted with the following phrases: ,
for the right order, and , not for a price and not for
a bribe. 55 These prepositional constructions surround Cyruss acts on
behalf of the city and its exiles in v. 13 and introduce the opening of the
new era (Heilszeit) for the whole earth. In this reinterpretation of Isa.
43:3-4 (see further) no one and no nation will be the price to be paid for

53
Cf. H.H. Schmid, Gerechtigkeit als Weltordnung (BHTh 40), Tbingen 1968,
133; A. Jespen, und im Alten Testament, in: H. Reventlow (ed.), Gottes
Wort und Gottes Land (FS H.W. Hertzberg), Gttingen 1965, 79. Earlier the transla-
tion liberation was common. In my translation I followed Jepsen: the right order.
54
See v. 9; this is also the role to which the possessive pronoun my shepherd,
city, exiles is pointing at: according to Yhwhs will. The same applies to , to
inhabit, which is used only two times in Isa. 44-46, 44: 26b and 45:18. In Jerusalem
( , 44:26) a wordplay is realised with complete.
55
In Isa. 11:4; 59:4; Ps. 9:9 we find twice, spread over two halves of a verse.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 147

Israels or any others release: From now on no more ransoms, no more

payment for peace!56 This style has a much broader intention than the
welfare of Israel alone.
4. The verses 11-13 are written in the style of an argument in court by
Yhwh about the coming things (v. 11b) which He will create (, in
Isa. 44:24; 45:7, 9, 12, 18). The yiqtol-forms in v. 13b it is he, who
shall build my city and set my exiles free require the participation of
the hearers (Look what I am going to do). Here the deepest intention of
the text comes to light. With elements such as Yhwhs request, the refer-
ences to creation, the rousing of Cyrus and his acts, and the emphasis on
I (my city; my exiles, the two yiqtol-forms), the text proclaims that
Yhwh can place his chess pieces in history any way He chooses. He can
make Cyrus one of his players (see our explanation of Isa. 44:24-28,
45:1, 4-6). He is the right address to ask the coming things(v. 11b).
Thus, Yhwh stakes a claim from the very beginning: I am Yhwh-who-
brings-about-everything/all-these-things, stretching out the heavens on
my own, hammering out the earth alone; who is with me? (Isa. 44:24,
see also 45:7). And by means of this argument, Yhwh also offers a re-
sponse to creations objection: What are you doing? Your way of work-
ing is powerless. The new era is represented exemplary by the restora-
tion and liberation to which Cyrus was roused up by Yhwh, which is
expected to have great effects, as the following shows.

6. The Verses 13b and 14-17

14 Thus speaks Yhwh: |

The wealth of Egypt,

and the merchandise of Ethiopia,

56
1 Kgs 15:19: King Asa sent them to King Benhadad of Aram, saying: Let there
be an alliance between me and you, like that between my father and your father: I am
sending you a present ( )of silver and gold; go, break your alliance with Baasha
of Israel, so that he may withdraw from me; 2 Kgs 16:8: Ahaz sent messengers to
King Tiglath-pileser to ask for help in fighting the King of Aram and the King of
Israel, who attacked him-he sent a present ( )to the king of Assyria, and the King
of Assyria listened to him. In Mic. 3:11 and are parallel: The heads the-
reof judge for reward (), and the priests thereof teach for hire (), and the
prophets thereof divine for money (): yet they will lean upon the Lord, and say:
Is not the Lord among us? (KJV), cf. J.A. Groves, H.J. Bosman et al., op. cit.
148 P. LUGTIGHEID

and the Sabeans, men of stature

to you they pass over, |
and it is yours they are, |

it is you they follow, |
in chains they pass over, |

B and it is to you that they bow, |
it is to you that they beg: |

Really, in you is God, |

and there is no one else, |
no God. |

15 Verily, you are a God, who keeps himself
hidden, |
the God of Israel is a helper. |

16 they are deceived, |
they feel ashamed as well, all of them, |

B together they go away in shame,
those who make statues. |

17 Israel has been helped by Yhwh,
a liberation everlasting, |

B you are not deceived |
nor did you come to shame,

to ages everlasting. |
The movement of the African nations in vv. 14-17 towards Zion and the
comment on it in vv. 15-17 is meant to depict the reaction to v. 13b, the
actions on behalf of the city and its exiles.
This depiction begins with an addition: vv. 13c-14 is a reinterpretation
of Isa. 43:3-4, divided over two units (vv. 9-13, 14-17). The messenger
formula in v. 13c (says the Lord of hosts) makes clear, through third
person voice, that this verse from 13c onwards (without a price and
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 149

without a bribe says the Lord of hosts), where the reinterpretation be-
gins, is added by the stage manager.57 The messenger formula marks the
preceding clause: it stresses the preceding -constructions, which frame
Cyrus actions, v. 13b as we saw. The content of Isa. 43:3-4 is: Yhwh is
willing to sell Egypt, Ethiopia and Seba for the benefit of Israel because
it is so precious to Him. Isa. 45:13c-14 is its reinterpretation because
here the intention is that the(se) nations will not, from now on, be used as
a ransom for the freedom of others. The restoration of the city and the
release of its exiles will take place without any price, not even from the
representatives of the nations named in Isa. 43:3-4 and 45:14! This is
what , righteousness, means. Such is the dramatic relation between
the two texts. No emendation of the text is needed58.
This addition of the stage manager uses a second messenger formula,
, v. 14a. Also this is not a regular messenger formula: it is a
declaration that gives weight to the following chain of six imperfects.
Therefore it is not an absolute indicator that a separate section is follow-
ing now. It prepares the following vision, the amazing movement of the
three nations. After the reinterpretation this movement is a second cha-
racteristic of the depiction of the reaction on Yhwhs Cyrus initiative in
vv. 13c-14. They come with their wealth to Zion now that Yhwh has
done justice (, v. 13a). This is confirmed by the confession they
voice: Really, in you, ( pron. fem.) is God (v. 14 end). With this
confession Yhwhs actions in v. 13 are looked back on as completed
acts. This appears also from the qatal-forms in the shame of the statue
makers , and ( v. 16) and , Israel re-
ceived help from Yhwh (v. 17). With their confession the nations argue
here why Yhwh is really God, and v. 17 calls it help, liberation. Their
confession of Yhwh as the only God is in the style of the trial speech, as
in vv. 15-17.
Central in v. 14 is the movement of the representatives of the three
African nations to you, the personal feminine pronoun . It is portrayed
like this: They pass over to you and it is yours that they are, it is you
they follow, in chains they pass over, and it is to you to whom they bow,
it is to you to whom they beg: Only in you is God, and not any one else,
no God. By addressing her six times here, always in a fronted position,
as our translation shows, the speaker Yhwh reveals and presents her as
his main actor. Additionally, the text asserts that such great nations shall

57
When the messenger formula closes a unit, it highlights the clause that is pre-
ceding, see Isa. 39:6; 48:22; 54:1, 6, 8, 10; 57:19; 59:21; 65:7a, 25; 66:20a, 21, 23.
58
Cf. W.A.M. Beuken, op. cit., 244-245; H.J. Hermisson, Deuterojesaja (BKAT
11/2), Neukirchen-Vluyn 1987-2003, 26; H. Leene, art. cit., especially 324-325.
150 P. LUGTIGHEID

pass over to the humiliated you. This is a figure of speech59: repre-

sentatives of rich and mighty nations, owners of slaves par excellence,
must submit to you. This explains the chains they are wearing
( , in chains they pass over). Roles have been reversed! LXX
even uses the word ,slaves, where MT has .
The identification of (the feminine suffix you) in v. 14 seems,
theoretically spoken, easy. For we may choose either , my exiles or
, or my city (both are feminine). In the end, I choose the feminine
, Zion (46:13) for the following reasons:
1. An announcement is made in v. 14 about the nations and their move-
ment: a reference to Yhwhs presence in the
female actor . With one of the verbs the preposition , v. 14b, is also
used in Solomons prayer in the sense of praying, in this place,
( 1 Kgs 8:29, also 30 and 3560). Because in v. 14 the same
combination of words is used, it is an allusion to the verses in Salomons
prayer and to the temple. The preposition in Isa. 45:14 (, yes, with
you is God) is also used in v. 19 and 46:13 to stress that Yhwh has spo-
ken and to show where he can be found. Isa. 45:19 reads: I have not
spoken in secret, , not in a place, , of a land in darkness; I did
not say to Jacobs seed: Search Me as chaos ( is the object). From
this text I take the conclusion that Yhwh has spoken elsewhere, and that
it refers to Isa. 46:13, , in Zion (with the same preposition), in the
place where Yhwh gives , liberation.

59
Cf. P.A.H. de Boer, Second-Isaiahs Message (OTS 11), Leiden, 1956, 49.
60
The construction here, with two verbs, is unique but not abnormal (contra H.J.
Hermisson, op. cit., 43). The construction also appears elsewhere in the He-
brew Bible, usually with or , in Gen. 20:7; Num. 11:2; 21:7; Deut. 9:26
etc. Only in the text of Solomons prayer does the construction + + noun
of place occur, E. Talstra, Solomons Prayer (Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and
Theology 3), Kampen 1993, 134, 154. The question in 1 Kgs 8 is whether the prepo-
sition should be translated with in/at or with toward. Should one distinguish
between praying in that house(v. 33, cf. v. 31) and praying toward (that place),
/ ( vv. 29, 30, 35 and 42)? E. Talstras preference is for at
but he leaves open the possibility of toward this place. I believe that for Isa. 45:14,
the better option is toward you for the following reasons: 1. apparently
points to a place where God is found, like in 1 Kgs 8. The phrase , in you
is God (indicating a place; a feminine pronoun as in )in the following line
gives arguments for the nations to beg and bow. 2. The nations are in movement,
according to the verbs used (, ), because they believe that in you is God.
This movement is also sketched by verbs like , vv. 20, 24, , Isa. 46:12 and
, 46:13. 3. The place ( )where Yhwh can be found is connected with
in 1 Kgs.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 151

2. Trailing the representatives of these three nations, which are coming

over to you() , are the escaped of the nations, v. 20, who have
been invited to come (to join, vv. 20, 24), along with all the ends of
the earth (v. 22), and the house of Jacob and all the rest of the house of
Israel (Isa. 46:3), who are far from the right order ( in 46:12).
Both the words to come and far underline themes of distance and
movement, which we found also in v. 14 ( ) and thus govern
the text from Isa. 45:14-46:13.
Both 1. the question debated in these texts about where God and his
/ and ( Isa. 45:8, 15, 17; 46:13) can be found, and 2. this
movement are answered by this feminine you (, also in )in
v. 14, which must be identified with Zion (46:13). According to Isa.
46:13, Yhwh will bring near in Zion his and will give .
This place in Zion( )can only be the temple. refers to the
temple and Yhwhs presence.61
Thus, Zion is in Isa. 45:14-46:13 the new centre, Cyrus having been
the central player in 45:1-13. Was Zion not already indicated by the re-
trograde sequence in Isa. 45:13 (to build his city-to release his exiles),
embellished by the - constructions? 62
The construction , and it is to you they bow,
it is to you they beg is unusual; it occurs only once in the Hebrew Bible.
The unusual character of this construction gives Hermisson reason to
doubt whether it belongs in the text. He senses ambivalence in the text:
with , with chains the text speaks of the representatives of the
three nations as prisoners of Cyrus, but with , to pass over to the
text speaks of them as pilgrims to Zion. The latter element is, in his eyes,
incompatible with the reference to the chains for prisoners; about prison-
ers one does not say: , it is yours they are, it is you

61
1 Kgs 8:6, 7, 21, 29, 30, 35, the place, of the arch, and of the temple, Isa.
44:28.
62
Leene and Beuken identify the feminine pronoun as . H.J. Hermisson, op.
cit., 36 believes that both scholars avoid the following problem: Die zum Wieder-
aufbau Jerusalems abgeordneten Gefangenen wrden ihr Bekenntnis zur Prsenz des
einzigen Gottes auf dem Zion angesichts einer Trmmersttte ablegen, was Leene
und Beuken vermeiden wollen, indem sie das Ganze an Israel / Gola adressiert sein
lassen. I do not agree with Hermisson, although Beuken and Leene did prefer the
option . In my view, v. 14 is about the future of Zion, and the reaction of the
nations. Furthermore, Beuken deliberately speaks about v. 14 as a promise, whereas
Leene, art. cit., 327 writes: During their return the exiles will carry the treasures with
them and be followed by the captives which Cyrus will have transferred to them with
a view to the rebuilding of Sion.
152 P. LUGTIGHEID

they follow. H.J. Hermisson concludes that is an addition of

the Ergnzer.63
But is there really a contrast between , to pass over to and the
chains these representatives of the three African nations bear? These two
elements are already familiar to us from Isa. 49:23; 60:5-7; 61:5-7 and
Ps. 72:9-11. The contrast exhibited by the nations who both serve and
are joyous results from the new queen (Isa. 51:22) and the new rule in
Zion, and is inherent in these sorts of texts.
In vv. 14-17, the translation of as to pass over unto you can
also communicate a religious component see Exod. 30:13 (= Exod.
30:14, 38:26; the notion to meet or to come over to another group
also appears in 1 Sam. 14:4 and 2 Sam. 24:20). In this way, v. 14 refers
to the conversion from the cult of idols to that of Yhwh: to you it is that
they pass over etc., to you it is that they beg: in you is God With
these words, the failure of the gods of those who make statues is clear;
the background of which is the release of the exiles (as v. 17 shows) and
the new rule of .
In v. 15 another player, God, is spoken to with . The change of
address is a sign of different speaker than the three nations of v. 14.
From the other available players the most probable speaker is the one
who spoke the messenger formula (v. 14). The four lines of vv. 15-17
belong together: line one and four are direct speech to God and to you

63
Cf. H.J. Hermisson, op. cit., 16-7, 35-6, 50. Also, Hermisson cannot accept the
constructions in 14a (the labour of Egypt and merchandise of Ethiopia, KJV) for
grammatical reasons. These expressions correspond with a financial interest in
v. 13b, eine sptere Tendenz in der Gestaltung des Vlkerwallfahrtsmotivs, wie sie
bei Tritojes (Jes 60) und Hag (2,6ff. ) auftritt: Nicht mehr die Vlker, sondern ihre
Schtze stehen im Vordergrund. In my opinion, the constructions of 14a are not
grammatically strange; they imply that persons are included, see Isa. 60:5. Also, the
last line of v. 13 and the last construction of v. 14a ( ) were added by an
Ergnzer. However, Hermissons perception of vv. 13b-14 is embedded in his
view on the additions in vv. 9-13 en 14-17 from the Ergnzer: the nations appear in
his vision only as slaves in chains, as enemies of God and makers of idols, whose
merchandise will enlarge the sheen of Jerusalem for hers are the gifts which Cyrus
did not want, v. 13b while they themselves are ashamed in contrast to Isral
(v. 17). In his view, it is this Vlkerhypothese which causes vv. 11-13 addressing
the nations with the help of vv. 9-10, although the verses 11-13, concerning Cyrus
task to build the city and to set the exiles free, originally were directed to Israel.
Vv. 9-10 and v. 13b can be understand via this Gefangenenhypothese. Minus these
additions, Hermisson leaves the reader with the section in which Yhwh informs Israel
about Cyruss task; then the three nations from the South move in the direction of
Jerusalem (without their treasures) similar to Isa. 60, whereupon the prophet demon-
strates his surprise by uttering the twofold exclamation in v. 15. The additions, as
Hermisson concludes, are the following: (9-10) 11-12-13a (13b) 14 (minus ,
and )15 (minus ) .
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 153

(pl.), but the comment of line two (about the shame over those who make
idols) is used also in line four (you will not be ashamed). Because
Israel in line three is said to be helped by Yhwh, Israel must be identic-
al with you (pl.). The lines are, like v. 14, a comment on the actions in
v. 13. The best explanation for mix of comment and direct speech is that
the stage manager based on the actions of v. 13 speaks a judgment on the
related parties in the style of a pronouncement: you, God, v. 15, Israel,
you (pl.), vv. 17a and b, and in v. 16 those who make statues (with the
gods of the makers of idols included although they are not named, as is
usual in Deutero-Isaiah).
The ultimate aim of vv. 9-17 is a first debate to criticize Israel in a
cautious way. This happens in a line of argumentation consisting of the
two pericopes: vv. 9-13 and 14-17. These two pericopes belong together
to the same debate with Israel by syntactical parallels and content, for
which we have several arguments: verse 9 and v. 15 both have a nominal
sentence, their content is in favour of Yhwhs plan. The opponents are in
vv. 9-10 spoken to as one group (with Israel among them). In v. 14 the
three nations are preceding Israel in their movement to Zion. Their com-
ing after Zion, and the confession they voice, and the interpretation of
the stage manager are all arguments to the addressees (you, Israel) to
return. In the first evaluation, vv. 15-17 all parties are spoken to separate-
ly, in the form of a pronunciation for all related. With the argument
Israel is helped and you are not deceived a light pressure is executed
to the readers (Israel) to return.
But the second evaluation, vv. 24b-25, because of corresponding vo-
cabulary a correction on the first one, is more critical to the same addres-
see. Here in also are spoken to, and at the
same time a contrast is made to ( v. 19a). The effect is, that
Jacob/Israel is also invited to come to Yhwh (v. 24b) and not the natu-
ral ally of Yhwh, as in v. 17. The unity, which is vv. 18-25, is linked to
v. 17 by . In my view the authors created with vv. 18-25 a second de-
bate, when the first debate did not cause result. This is clear from the
fact, that the process has reached its goal with the pronunciation in
vv. 15-17. Isa. 46 is the third debate. The address is much harsher (not
v. 3, but vv. 8 and 12). The verses 1-2 are a contrast with v. 3, with the
gods, who must be carried (, but Yhwh carries his people). Concepts
like , but also the missing speaker, and the second/third person in
suffixes relates these verses with Isa. 45. But all these relations cannot
hide that Isa. 46 is an independent unity. The three discussions show in
their succession the Genesis of Isa. 45-46, and thus: how Zion in Isa.
44:21-46:13 is a unity generating perspective.
154 P. LUGTIGHEID

7. Summary

1. The three-word-structures. The different names for The City are used
in syntactical structures with two characteristics: a. The self-predication
and b. Yhwhs ability to predict and direct history with his instrument
Cyrus on behalf of his people and his city. Syntactically, the three-
word-structures (Yhwh Cyrus Jerusalem/Zion) in Isa. 44:24-28,
Isa. 45:9-13 and Isa. 46:9-11 (with Zion in v. 13) are built up by a
combination of elements: a theme (in the form of a nominal sentence in
Isa. 44:24b and 46:9b, or a request in Isa. 45:11b); participles (characte-
rizing Yhwh) and imperfects (impending actions) in 44:25-28 and 46:10-
11; or x-qatal-forms followed by and grounding the three imperfects
(45:12-13 with my city par. my exiles in v. 13b). They all depict
Yhwh as the actor who is breaking new ground in history.
2. Isa. 44:24-28 is an adapter. Isa. 44:21-46:13 is made into a unity by
the insertion of 44:24-28 as an adapter in order to create this unity by
integrating its framing pericopes, 44:21-23, 45:1-13 and 45:14-46:13.
The assumption here is that I am entitled to see a major role for the stage
manager, who wrote Isa. 44:24-28, and who, working with diverse ma-
terial, in discussion with his audience, organized the text of 44:21-46:13
in the style of the trial speech. The following are three grounds for this
hypothesis:
a. All interpreters have problems with the pericope. There are problems
in syntax and with the form. K. Elliger, for example, writes: Es fehlt die
einleuchtende Gesamtschau. 64 In my total solution the stage manager
used a general word of Yhwh for a plan with cooperating players, which
he shares with Jacob/Israel. In this plan he adapts the principal players
and their (hoped for) actions found in the framing pericopes; we meet the
same players in Isa. 44:24-28 as in the rest of 44-46: Jacob/Israel,
Yhwhs servant in 44:21-23 (44:26); Jerusalem/Zion in 45:14-46:13
(44:26b); Cyrus in 45:1-13 (44:28).
b. The imperfects in Isa. 44:24-28 have the meaning of their impending
realisation. Also all imperfects in Isa. 44:24-28 are related to imperfects
in 44:21-46:13. The glorification of Israel in Isa. 44:23 is related to
46:13b. The inhabitation, found in Isa. 44:26b, is related to 45:13, espe-
cially to the release of the exiles but also to 46:13 (the equipment of
Israel with Yhwhs glory). The elevation of Jerusalems walls, found in
Isa. 44:26b, is related to 45:13, especially to the word about the restora-

64
K. Elliger, op. cit., 459.
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 155

tion of the city. The same applies to Cyruss word about the restoration
of the city, Isa. 44:28. The words about the foundation of the temple here
are related to the words that He gives liberation in Zion and equips Israel
with his glory, Isa. 46:13.
c. Isa. 44:21-46:13 is also a unity in the domains. The domain of Isa.
44:24 is adapted to the one in v. 23 as 45:1 is adapted in the same way to
44:28. The reinterpretation of Isa. 43:3-4 in 45:13c-14 is made to connect
the Cyrus part (45:1-13) to the Zion part (45:14-46:13). Also, Isa. 46:1-2
is adapted to chapter 45 to form a unity with this chapter. This unity in
Isa. 44:21-46:13 is confirmed by the fact that 46:12-13 completes, as I
have demonstrated, the theme of the temple foundation (, in Zion),
the combination of Jacob/Israel and Jerusalem/Zion (also in 44:26) as the
aim of the return, and the theme of Jacob/Israel as Yhwhs servant
Israel ().
Conclusion: The role of Isa. 44:24-28 in 44:21-46:13 is indeed that of
an adapter. The stage manager made this insertion to integrate the differ-
ent pericopes building them into a unity.
3. Isa. 44-46 represent one line of argumentation. This is the result of a
discourse analysis of the sequential pericopes. In its actual form the text
of Isa. 44:21-46:13 is meant as a unity. Contrary to the practice of form
criticism, where the literary composition often holds a second position
since this school was mainly interested in the origin of the text, we found
in our linguistic analysis many cross references in the text. The literary
unity is also based on several characteristics in the text: the third person
voice by the stage manager (1), usage of words from Yhwh (2), construc-
tion of one line of argument reaching from Isa. 44:21 to 46:13 (3), in the
style of the trial speech of 45:25 (4), and several discussions (5).65 The
trial speech is a communication device to suggest a discussion platform
between actors on the stage (dramatological school). His claim being
the only God is connected with the argument liberation (Isa. 45:17)
However, in our view, the trial speech represents a debate between the
authors and their reading public with the help of a trial scenery that poses
one line of argument with a number of argumentative steps. After the
formation of Jacob/Israel as Yhwhs servant (Isa. 44:21-23), 44:24-28,
with its invitation to Jacob/Israel and its presentation of Yhwhs plan,
presents the basic claim of the trial speech. Yhwhs plan (44:24-28) is
followed by his view on Cyrus success. This is Yhwhs argument in this
trial (Isa. 45:1-8); Yhwhs guidance excites criticism (see also v. 7),

65
The reader may find the elaboration of this part in my thesis, op. cit.
156 P. LUGTIGHEID

which is contradicted by the stage manager, who thus prepares the pres-
entation of Yhwhs plans (45:9-13). This is the beginning of a first de-
bate, (Isa. 45:9-17), followed by the second debate (45:18-25); chapter
46 is a third debate with the house of Jacob and all the rest of the house
of Israel. The different debates grow in acerbity the longer a positive
result in the discussion with his reading public is missing, and in this
order of succession these debates give information about the genesis of
Isa. 44-46.
The reasons for the creation of this unity are, on the one hand, to add
after the first another debate (and a third one), and, on the other hand, to
complete several topics of Isa. 44:21-46:13. The vocation of Cyrus, his
success and his commitment with Israel (vv. 9-11), is argued in this de-
bate about the return of both houses (vv. 12-13).
But Isa. 46 completes also several topics in 44:21-46:13. The imper-
fects in v. 4b, I will save, in v. 10b, I will realize, v. 11b, I will make
it come and I will realize anticipate Yhwhs action that is present in
v. 13 in the performative I herewith bring near my righteousness it
will not be far away and my liberation it will not stay behind I
give in Zion liberation, I equip Israel with my glory.
The frequent use of in this unit (Isa. 46:4b, 6b, 10a, 10b, 11b) is
peculiar. In v. 10b Yhwh quotes his own words with , my
plan will be brought about (44:26a ) and , I
will realise my whole wish (44:28a , he will complete my
whole wish, of which refers, as we saw, to the founding of the tem-
ple). The performative in Isa. 46:13 means Yhwhs act, as it is stated, to
give liberation in Zion and equip Israel with his glory (),
v. 13b. The latter root, is, as we saw, also used in relation to Ja-
cob/Israels formation as Yhwhs servant, Isa. 44:23. In Isa. 46:13a my
justice is a parallel to my liberation. It is natural to relate in v. 13b,
where glory is a parallel from liberation, my glory and my justice.
is the destination of Yhwhs people, it is his ornament, his
glory (Deut. 26:19; Jer. 13:11). It is also used in connection with the
jubilee from the righteous (Prov. 28:12), and who live in Zion are a
crown of beauty ( , Isa. 62:3). The only act in which both
halves of Isa. 46:13b find their realisation is the founding of the temple.
Is it not the temple which is in Zion? Is it not the founding of the tem-
ple that explains the equipment of Jacob/Israel, Yhwhs servant, with his
glory (= righteousness, v. 13a) and completes Yhwhs whole wish, Isa.
44:28, ?
Conclusion: The many cross references found in these chapters give
enough evidence to state that the final text of Isa. 44-46, has indeed been
 THE CITY IN ISAIAH 44:21-46:13 157

intended as one line of argument. We could trace the completion of all

themes in these chapters. Their main purpose is to contribute to a debate
with their reading public, a debate that during a longer period of time
increasingly became sharper.
4. Isa. 44-46 present a debate. Isa. 44-46 present a debate by authors in
Judah with their reading public in Babylonia about arguments concerning
Cyrus decisions in favour of Yhwhs people, known as the Cyrus edict,
dated at least one generation after Cyrus. Central in the message of the
authors in Isa. 44-46 is Jacob/Israels return to Zion. They considered the
commitment of Cyrus, expressed in his actions for Israel (Isa. 44:28;
45:4, 13), to be a central element in their line of argumentation, and con-
sidered these to be generally known facts, also by their addressees. We
accept this as argument for its historicity. Also scholars take the possibil-
ity of orders like the Cyrus edict for real. 66 Because of the idealization of
Cyrus (, Isa. 45:1; , v. 8; , v. 13)
the chapters 44-46 were written at least one generation later and they
look back on this history in such a way that all events are depicted, with-
in the scenery of the trial speech, as coming, impending events.
5. The City as a unity generating perspective in Deutero-Isaiah? We
return at last to the main question of this volume: Is the theme of The
City a unity generating perspective in Deutero-Isaiah? In the adapter,
the players his (Yhwhs) servant, with which Jacob/Israel is ad-
dressed, and Jerusalem as a place to live in are brought together in
v. 26. The debate in Isa. 45 and 46 is interested in bringing Jacob/Israel
(the house of Jacob and all the rest of the house of Israel) to Zion, as
the place of the temple, 46:12-13. The different units are brought togeth-
er with the help of this adapter so that they should have only one goal:
the return of Jacob/Israel as Yhwhs servant to Zion and its temple, the
place where Yhwh can be found by the nations but also by the house of
Jacob (Isa. 45:19). Moreover, diachronically spoken, in the Zion part
(Isa. 45:14-46:13) three debates mirror the genesis of 44:21-46:13: I.
45:9-17, II. 45:18-25 and III. chapter 46. With the help of the perspective
of Zion three debates are created; I came to the conclusion that also
Zion, which marks the city with its temple and temple community (Isa.
46:13), is a unity generating perspective in 44:21-46:13 concerning the
following items: the glorification of Yhwhs servant, the foundation of

66
Cf. A. Kuhrt, The Cyrus Cilinder and Achaemenid Policy, JSOT 25 (1983),
93-4; G. Ahn, Religise Herrscherlegitimation im achmenidischen Iran, Leiden
1992, 134.
158 P. LUGTIGHEID

the temple, the inhabitation of Jerusalem. Thus, Zion is used here as a

unity generating perspective.67

Diagram
This model is an accurate reflection of the diachronic remarks in this
article.

Isa. 44:21-22, 23

Isa. 44:24
Isa. 44:24-28

Isa. 45:1(adapted)-8(adapted) ;
Isa. 45:9-13

Isa. 45:14-25 + 46:1-2

Isa. 46:3-11/12

Isa. 46:12/13

67
I thank my dear colleagues Ms. Jackie Wyse and Ms. Brenda Heyink for advice
concerning the English translation.
 THE COMFORT OF ZION
PERSONIFICATION IN ISAIAH 40-66

A. van der Woude

1. Introduction

One of the unifying aspects of the second half of the book of Isaiah (Isa.
40-66) is the fact that Yhwh and Zion appear to be central actants in its
dramatic progression. 1 As actants go, however, Zion is a case apart.
Sometimes, Zion is simply a geographical location. In other instances,
she is portrayed as a person, including emotions and other human quali-
ties. This figure of speech is called personification.2 Whenever Zion is
personified, she is invariably sketched as a woman. The roles she per-
forms, however, are diverse. She figures as a partner (Isa. 62:4), a mother
(60:4), and a herald of good tidings (40:9).3 In correspondence to Zion,
Yhwh plays divergent roles. He acts as her faithful husband (Isa. 54:5),
her redeemer (59:20), or the one who comforts her (51:3). In this portion
of the book, personification of Zion as a woman occurs much more fre-
quently than it does in the first half.4

1
For a characterization of Isa. 40-55 as a dramatic text, see A. van der Woude,
Hearing Voices While Reading: Isaiah 40-55 as a Drama, in: P. Chatelion Cou-
net, U. Berges (eds), One Text, a Thousand Methods (FS S. van Tilborg), Lei-
den/Boston, etc. 2005, 149-73. See also: U. Berges, Jesaja 40-48 (Herders Theologi-
scher Kommentar zum Alten Testament), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 2008, 64-73. Different,
K. Baltzer, Deutero-Jesaja (KAT 10/2), Gtersloh 1999; K. Baltzer, P. Machinist,
Deutero-Isaiah: A Commentary on Isaiah 40-55, trans. M. Kohl, Minneapolis 2001.
With his 1999 commentary, K. Baltzer takes credit for bringing back to life the dis-
cussion on the dramatic nature of Isa. 40-55. Baltzer regards Isa. 40-55 as the script
of a play that was meant to be performed. See also: P. Hffken, Jesaja: Der Stand
der theologischen Diskussion, Darmstadt 2004, 103-5.
2
Cf. H. van Gorp, D. Delabastita et al., Lexicon Van Literaire Termen, Mechelen
82007 (11980), 353-4. On the personification of Zion/Jerusalem, see: U. Berges,
Klagelieder (Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament), Frei-
burg/Basel, etc. 2002, 52-64. See also: A. van der Woude, Sion als literair begrip,
in: NBV Studiebijbel: De Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling met Uitleg, Achtergronden en Illu-
straties, Heerenveen 2008, 1069.
3
Zion occurs eleven times in Isa. 40-55: 40:9; 41:27; 46:13; 49:14; 51:3, 11, 16;
52:1, 2 (), 7, 8. She occurs seven times in Isa. 56-66: 59:20; 60:14; 61:3;
62:1, 11 ( ;)64:9; 66:8. In Isa. 40:9; 41:27; 52:1, 2; 62:1; 64:9 Jerusalem
parallels Zion.
4
Cf. U. Berges, Personifications and Prophetic Voices of Zion in Isaiah and
Beyond, in: J.C. de Moor (ed.), The Elusive Prophet: The Prophet as a Historical
160 A. VAN DER WOUDE

In this contribution, I will concern myself with the question as to what

extent the dramatic progression in Isa. 40-66 shapes the various ways in
which Zion is personified in these chapters. I will concentrate on two
passages: Isa. 49:14-26 and 66:7-14. Both passages draw a vivid portrait
of Zion as a woman, focusing on her relationship with Yhwh. In order to
put the comparison between these two texts into proper perspective, it
will also be necessary to take Isa. 40:1-11 into account.

2. Isaiah 49:14-26

In Isa. 49:14-26, Zion and Yhwh are the leading figures. The text clearly
presents a personified portrait of Zion. She is a woman who complains
because her beloved has left her: The LORD has forsaken me, my Lord
has forgotten me (Isa. 49:14).5 Nevertheless, it is impossible to make too
sharp a distinction between Zion as a human being and as a location. In a
following verse, the two are intertwined: The children born in the time
of your bereavement will yet say in your hearing: The place is too
crowded for me; make room for me to settle (Isa. 49:20).
In this passage, Yhwh is cast as Zions partner, if only because she
addresses him as such. To what extent Yhwh actually assumes this role,
depends on the question as to who speaks the words: Can a woman
forget her nursing child, or show no compassion for the child of her
womb? Even these may forget, yet I will not forget you (Isa. 49:15).6
My contention is, that these words are spoken by Yhwh. In the following
lines, the next indication for a first person grammatical form is:
(Isa. 49:18). The accompanying stage direction7 clarifies that
these are the words of Yhwh. As a result, it is plausible that also in verse
15 Yhwh is the speaker.

Person, Literary Character and Anonymous Artist (OTS 45), Leiden 2001, 54-82;
C.M. Maier, Daughter Zion, Mother Zion: Gender, Space and the Sacred in Ancient
Israel, Minneapolis 2008, 161-88; C.R. Mandolfo, Daughter Zion Talks Back to the
Prophets: A Dialogic Theology of the Book of Lamentations (Semeia Studies 58),
Atlanta 2007, 103-19. See also: J.J. Schmitt, The City as Woman in Isaiah 1-39, in:
C.C. Broyles, C.A. Evans (eds), Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of
an Interpretive Tradition, Leiden 1997, 95-119.
5
Scripture quotations are taken from the New Revised Standard Version.
6
Cf. A. van der Woude, Geschiedenis van de terugkeer: De rol van Jesaja 40,1-
11 in het drama van Jesaja 40-55, Maastricht 2005, 135-49.
7
Cf. note 1. One of the characteristics of a dramatic text is the absence of a story-
teller. As far as an entity mediates between story and reader, it acts as a reporter,
giving a running commentary of a match. The utterances of the reporter are designat-
ed as stage directions.
 THE COMFORT OF ZION 161

Yhwh compares himself to a nursing mother who simply cannot for-

get her child. Her own body reminds her of her baby who wants to
suckle. In the same way, it is impossible for Yhwh to forget Zion. Yhwh
uses a strong image to counter Zions accusation that he has abandoned
her. This does not mean that Yhwh adopts the female role of Zion. Ra-
ther, the image of a nursing mother underscores the strong ties between
him and her. In this passage, he acts as a loyal husband.8
In what follows, another image of Yhwh emerges: he resists Zions
opponents and rescues her children from their hands (Isa. 49:22-26).
Yhwh devotes himself to the union of Zion and her children (Isa. 49:16-
21). He is a partner who loves his spouse, as well as a liberator who
makes a stand for her.
The lines of communication in Isa. 49:14-26 deserve closer inspection
at this point. Grammatical forms of the first and second person dominate:
an I and a you are speaking. As a result, the conversation is intimate.
This passage constitutes the first time that Zion actually speaks within
the context of Isa. 40-55. In this regard, it is striking that she does not
address a you. Her complaint (Isa. 49:14) and her question (49:24), are
directed to nobody in particular. All the more astonishing is Yhwhs
reaction. From the viewpoint of communication, he is not obliged to
answer her, since he is not directly spoken to. Yet he does. Thus, he em-
phasizes that he cares for his beloved Zion.

3. Isaiah 66:7-14

At first glance, it is not obvious that Zion and Yhwh are the main actants
in Isa. 66:7-14. The passage opens with grammatical forms of the third
person feminine singular (Isa. 66:7). Only in what follows, does it be-
come clear that these feminine forms refer to Zion (Isa. 66:8). In a simi-
lar way, the reader understands that Yhwh is speaking in retrospect only.
The utterance ( Isa. 66:9) functions as a stage direction. The
close relationship between Zion and Yhwh is expressed in your
God, ( Isa. 66:9).
In the next verse, the grammatical form of the second person shifts
from singular to plural. You (from Isa. 66:10 onwards) refers to all
people who are engaged in Jerusalems vicissitudes. Yhwh continues to

8
For a discussion of the mixing metaphors in this passage, see: S.J. Dille, Mix-
ing Metaphors: God as Mother and Father in Deutero-Isaiah (JSOT.S 398), Lon-
don/New York 2004, 138-51. See also: H. Lland, Silent or Salient Gender?: The
Interpretation of Gendered God-Language in the Hebrew Bible, Exemplified in
Isaiah 42, 46 and 49 (FAT 2. Reihe 32), Tbingen 2008, 161-92.
162 A. VAN DER WOUDE

address them in the following lines (Isa. 66:11-14). In the final verse, a
connection is found between this group and his servants, ( Isa.
66:14).
In comparison to Isa. 49:14-26, it is noteworthy that Zion does not
speak for herself in this passage, and that Yhwh nowhere addresses her
directly. Instead, he talks about her, in the third person: I will extend
prosperity to her like a river (Isa. 66:12).
The figurative language is extremely rich. It encompasses pregnancy,
giving birth, feeding, contractions, dilatation, suckling, breast, comfort.
The image of a woman is evoked, an image which refers to Zion. As is
the case in Isa. 49:14-26, 66:7-14 personifies Zions portrait. Zion acts as
a woman in labor (Isa. 66:7-9) and as a nursing mother (66:10-11). The
addressees in these verses point to her children, who may nurse and be
satisfied from her consoling breast (Isa. 66:11). Yhwh is the giver of
life. He acts as guarantor for her children.
In what follows (Isa. 66:12-14), the picture changes. Zion is no longer
a consoling mother. Rather, Jerusalem has become a location again, the
place where comfort is given (Isa. 66:13). In Isa. 66:7-14 it is difficult to
maintain a sharp distinction between Zions portrait as a woman and as a
place, just as was the case in 49:14-26. Besides this, it is remarkable that
Yhwh uses female metaphorical language9 to qualify his own consoling
action. He now is the one who comforts, as a mother comforts her child
(Isa. 66:13). It is fascinating that in these verses the description of a
mother figure is applied to Zion as well as to Yhwh. This imagery again
recalls Isa. 49:14-26, in which Yhwh chose to compare himself to a nurs-
ing woman, in order to persuade Zion that he will never forget her
(49:15).

4. Comfort

In comparison to Isa. 49:14-26, the object of comfort in 66:7-14 has

changed. In Isa. 49, Zion was the one who was in need of comfort, whe-
reas in chapter 66 a you-group is touched. In order to put this change into
perspective, I now have to take a look at the opening verses of Isa. 40-55,
more precisely: at the comfort by Yhwh mentioned there, and at the ob-
ject of his attention.
Right at the beginning of these chapters, Yhwh exhorts his listeners to
comfort his people: Comfort, O comfort my people, says your God.

9
Cf. on metaphor, H. van Gorp, D. Delabastita, op.cit., 289-90. Personification is
one of the conceivable figures of transference of a metaphor.
 THE COMFORT OF ZION 163

Speak tenderly to Jerusalem, and cry to her (Isa. 40:1-2). 10 It is sug-

gested that Zion/Jerusalem and the people can hardly be distinguished
here, as far as their relationship with Yhwh is concerned. Both are the
object of his comfort. From what follows, it becomes clear what comfort
encompasses to Zion: the announcement of the arrival of her children (cf.
Isa. 49:16-26). Moreover, the return of Yhwh to her is also an event full
of comfort (cf. Isa. 52:7-10). In the union with her children and with
Yhwh, Zion is comforted.
Besides Isa. 40:1-11, 60:4-9 deserves closer attention. The passage
bears a strong resemblance to Isa. 49:14-26. Lift up your eyes and look
around; they all gather together, they come to you (Isa. 60:4) even forms
a citation from that chapter (cf. 49:18).11 The arrival of Zions sons and
daughters comforts her. It is the fulfillment of the panorama that was
presented at the beginning of this story (Isa. 40:10-11; cf. 62:11).
Zion, then, starts out as the one being comforted, but she develops in-
to being a comforter herself, who calms her children (Isa. 66:11). From a
grieving mother she has changed into a consoling one. Formulated in
grammatical terms, this implies that the comfort of Zion expresses an
objective genitive in Isa. 40-55, but turns out to express a subjective geni-
tive in the chapters 56-66.
As a mother who brings comfort, Zion finds Yhwh at her side. In
much the same way as she takes care of her children (Isa. 66:8), he
looks after his servants (66:14). There is double comfort.12
I conclude that, whereas at the beginning of Isa. 40-66 Zion and the
people both were longing for comfort, their roles are divergent at the
end.

10
The root occurs nine times in Isa. 40-55: 40:1 [2]; 49:13; 51:3 [2], 12,
19; 52:9; 54:11. The root occurs six times in Isa. 56-66: 57:18; 61:2; 66:11, 13 [3].
11
For a detailed description of the analogies between Isa. 60 and several texts
from the chapters 40-55, see: A.L.H.M. van Wieringen, Analogies in Isaiah (Appli-
catio 10), Volume A: Computerized Analysis of Parallel Texts between Isaiah 56-66
and Isaiah 40-66, Amsterdam 1993, 203-16. Cf. M.E. Biddle, Lady Zions Alter
Egos: Isaiah 47.1-15 and 57.6-13 as Structural Counterparts, in: R.F. Melugin, M.A.
Sweeney (eds), New Visions of Isaiah, Sheffield 1996, especially 134.
12
In Isa. 56-66, as in the chapters 40-55, comfort and acknowledgement of Yhwh
as its actor go together: and it shall be known that the hand of the Lord is with his
servants, and his indignation is against his enemies (66,14). Cf., e.g., Isa. 41:20;
49:23, 26; 52:10; 60:16; 61:9.
164 A. VAN DER WOUDE

5. Herald of Good Tidings

Joy has come to Zion: she can embrace her children. At this point, the
reader expects Zion to perform her task of announcing the good news to
others. At the opening of this story, this duty was assigned specifically to
her (Isa. 40:9). The spirit of the Lord GOD is upon me (); he has sent
me to bring good news to the oppressed (Isa. 61:1). The readers expec-
tation is met, in that somebody indeed acts as a herald of good tidings.
The root is used here, as is the case at the beginning of Isa. 40-55.13
However, is it really Zion who acts here?
The identity of the I-figure in Isa. 61 has been the object of much de-
bate. Some support the interpretation that Zion is indeed the one who
pronounces the good news in this chapter.14 Others think of the prophet,15
whereas the view is also defended that the servant is acting here.16 I hold
the last view to be the more likely one, as I shall now explain.
It is helpful to take into account how the servant has been presented in
Isa. 40-55. In these chapters, the servant embodies the word of Yhwh.
The so-called Servant Songs (Isa. 42:1-9; 49:1-6; 50:4-9; 52:13-53:12)
portray him as someone whose life is devoted to God. In one of the first
chapters, the servant is addressed by God: Here is my servant,
(Isa. 42:1). Further on in this dramatic composition, the servant speaks
for himself (Isa. 49:1-6; 50:4-9).
Apart from this, in passages that do not explicitly bear his name, traits
of the servant are recognizable as well. The beginning of Isa. 40-55,
where an anonymous actant is called to raise his voice, serves as an ex-
ample (40:6-8). This is also true for: And now the Lord GOD has sent
me and his spirit (Isa. 48:16). In this line, Jacob/Israel shows affinity
with the servant.17

13
The appearance of the herald of good tidings in Isa. 40-66: the feminine
form in 40:9 [2]; the masculine form in 41:27; 52:7. The root
further occurs in Isa. 52:7; 60:6; 61:1.
14
So, e.g., U. Berges, Klagelieder (Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten
Testament), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 2002, 61.
15
So, e.g., W.A.M. Beuken, Jesaja deel IIIa (De Prediking van het Oude Testa-
ment), Nijkerk 1989, 195-200. Cf. W.A.M. Beuken, Servant and Herald of Good
Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40-55, in: J. Vermeylen (ed.), The
Book of Isaiah. Le livre dIsae: Les oracles et leurs relectures unit et complexit de
louvrage (BEThL 81), Leuven 1989, 413: () we shall call the speaker [in Isa.
61:1-7] the prophet without intending to say that he is not the Servant.
16
So, e.g., J.L. Koole, Isaiah III (Historical Commentary on the Old Testament
3/3), Leuven 2001, 268-75.
17
Cf. A. van der Woude, Dienaar van Jhwh, in: NBV Studiebijbel: De Nieuwe
Bijbelvertaling met Uitleg, Achtergronden en Illustraties, Heerenveen 2008, 1103.
 THE COMFORT OF ZION 165

The words ( Isa. 61:1) call this text to mind. The

speaker relates his vocation to Yhwh in a way that is comparable to what
Jacob/Israel and/or the servant does. This is a first argument to associate
the one who speaks in Isa. 61 with the servant.
Secondly, there is an argument against identification of the speaker
with Zion. The good tidings are meant for those who mourn in Zion
(Isa. 61:3; cf. 41:27). If Zion were the herald of the joyful message, she
would have to be the sender as well as the receiver of the happy news
simultaneously.
A last argument in favor of recognizing a figure like the servant at the
beginning of Isa. 61 lies in a pattern that traverses the entire dramatic
story of the chapters 40-55: in these chapters, the servant and Zion alter-
nate their actions. If the same pattern can be assumed to apply further on
in the book, it appears reasonable to assume that a figure that evokes
associations with the servant acts in Isa. 61, since Zion acts in the chap-
ters 60 and 62.18
To sum up: in Isa. 56-66, attention has shifted from Zion acting as
bringer of the good news, towards the receivers of the joyful message.

6. Servant and Servants

I have already stated that the addressed you-group in Isa. 66:7-14 is the
object of comfort. These people are identified as servants (Isa. 66:14).
The appearance of the servants of Yhwh extends from the end of Isa. 40-
55: This is the heritage of the servants of the LORD and their vindication
from me, says the LORD (Isa. 54:17) to this passage, the end of the chap-
ters 56-66.19
The servants in these chapters cannot be separated from the unique
servant in Isa. 40-55.20 The most dramatic event in the story of the ser-
vant is the moment when a you-group perceives that the servant has
borne their iniquities (Isa. 53:1-6). For the first time, they speak as a
we: Who has believed what we have heard? And to whom has the arm

18
Compare passages concerning the servant in Isa. 49:1-13; 50:4-9; 52:13-53:12,
followed by passages concerning Zion in 49:14-26; 51:9-52:12; 54:1-17. See also: P.
Tull Willey, Remember the Former Things: The Recollection of Previous Texts in
Second Isaiah (SBL.DS 161), Atlanta 1997, 105-6, 175-81, 222-6.
19
occurs ten times in Isa. 56-66: 56:6; 63:17; 65:8, 9, 13 [3], 14, 15;
66:14.
20
Cf. H. Leene, Kan een fictionele gestalte onze plaats innemen?: Overwegingen
bij de uitleg van Jesaja 53, GThT 93 (1993), 240-5. See also: H. Leene, Een nieuwe
hemel en een nieuwe aarde: Slotakkoord van het boek Jesaja, Amsterdam 2002, 9-
14.
166 A. VAN DER WOUDE

of the LORD been revealed? (Isa. 53:1). The intended purpose of the
servants suffering was not to satisfy Yhwh. It was Gods plan, ( Isa.
53:10 [2]), to create the possibility for this group to become a member
of Gods people, via the servant. To reach this goal, a change of perspec-
tive is inescapable. The servant has shown the you-group what comes
from living in obedience to God. Their words in the first person in this
passage show that they have grasped the significance of the servant. In
fact, Isaiah 40-55 is a story of conversion.21
Now that the story of the one servant has ended, the dramatic compo-
sition puts multiple servants, ( Isa. 54:17; cf. 56:6), on the stage.22
They are called offspring, ( Isa. 53:10), of the one and only servant.
By consequence, they also count as descendants of Zion (Isa. 54:3; cf.
54:13).
After the peoples transformation, the dramatic story of Isa. 40-55
ends on a call at their address, to abandon their own ways and thoughts
and to follow Yhwh in a way that the servant has demonstrated (Isa.
55:6-13). Isa. 40-55 has an open ending, leaving its readers with the
question, whether this group will actually succeed in returning to Yhwh.
In the course of the story of Isa. 40-66, being a child is qualified: be-
longing to the people of God is no longer accomplished by nature, but by
realizing that the way of the servant should also be yours.23 Isa. 56-66
focuses on the formation of this community of servants. The close tie
between Isa. 40-55 and these chapters runs from the one servant, into the
many.

7. Dramatic Progress

In this contribution, the question that concerns me, is how the dramatic
progress in Isa. 40-66 is connected to the ways in which Zion is personi-
fied in these chapters.
In Isa. 40-55 the image is evoked of an abandoned woman and a lone-
ly wife. Her personified image has a negative connotation here. This
changes in the course of the following chapters. The return of Yhwh to
Zion, his beloved, confirms their bond (Isa. 52:7-10; cf. 40:10). The
arrival of her children makes clear, that the promise made to her has not

21
Cf. A. van der Woude, Geschiedenis van de terugkeer: de rol van Jesaja 40,1-
11 in het drama van Jesaja 40-55, Maastricht 2005, 223-8.
22
Cf. W.A.M. Beuken, The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah: the Servants of Yhwh,
JSOT 47 (1990), 67-87. See also: W.A.M. Beuken, Jesaja deel IIIa (De Prediking
van het Oude Testament), Nijkerk 1989, 15-7.
23
Cf. A. van der Woude, op.cit., 160-3.
 THE COMFORT OF ZION 167

been in vain (Isa. 60:4-9; cf. 49:16-26; 40:10-11). As the dramatic story
unfolds, the reader no longer hears Zion complain (as in Isa. 49:14). On
the contrary, now that she has been comforted (cf. Isa. 40:1-2), Zion
appears capable of comforting others. In relation to Yhwh she still is the
receiving party, but in relation to her children she has grown to be the
giving party (as in Isa. 66:11).
Also when sketching Zion as a messenger, Isa. 56-66 applies its own
accents to the portrait. Whereas in Isa. 40-55 Zions role as herald of
glad tidings is announced to be a glorious one (Isa. 40:9), this image has
shifted in the chapters 56-66. Not Zion brings the good news, but rather a
figure showing traits of the servant from the preceding chapters (Isa.
61:1). Zions role as has moved to the background. The alternat-
ing appearance of Zion and the servant figure draws attention to their
offspring, servants of the LORD.
In conclusion, the personified image of Zion in Isa. 40-66 draws the
readers attention toward the shift in focus within these chapters. The
reunion of husband and wife, Yhwh and Zion, is no longer the center of
attention in chapters 56-66. Now, their childrens future is at stake.24

24
I wish to thank Drs. Maurits J. Sinnighe Damst (Musselkanaal, the Nether-
lands) for his correction of the English translation of this article.
JERUSALEM, ZION AND THE UNIQUE SERVANT OF YHWH
IN THE NEW HEAVEN AND THE NEW EARTH
A STUDY ON RECOVERING IDENTITY VERSUS LAMENTING FADED
GLORY (ISAIAH 1-5 AND 65-66)

K.D. Jenner

1. Shared Problem and Particular Question

The specialist literature on the book and the prophecy of Isaiah presents
an abundance of approaches, insights, viewpoints or scopes.1 The present
volume is concerned with the problem of whether or not the city
creates unity within the book of Isaiah with respect to composition, con-
tent, and literary structure.2 The particular question of this contribution to
this volume is as to which light the psychodynamics of the personality
might shed on the general problem, or whether these dynamics, being an
essential element of the speech of literature i.e. the personification, might
even be the key to a better understanding of the book of Isaiah.

2. Inclusio: Isaiah 1-5 and 65-66

The chapters 1-5 and 65-66 are taken as an inclusio.3 They shortly ex-
plain the religious-political issue and the ideological message of the
whole book: the city (i.e. Jerusalem and Zion) will continue as a con-
crete reality and, as such, be the centre of the new heaven and the new
earth. The explanation runs as follows. The first five chapters are con-
cerned with the identity crisis as implicitly phrased in passages like Isa.
1:8-9.4 The dark future for the people of Yhwh (i.e. Jacob and Israel) and
his unique servants (i.e. Jerusalem and Zion) gave rise to this crisis.
1
The present writer makes his own way through the book of Isaiah; with all re-
spect for the learned experts, it should be said. The professional standpoint of the
exegesis of the book of Isaiah is largely present in the other contributions and the
specialist literature referred to.
2
See the Introduction for a further explanation of the problem of the present vo-
lume.
3
The present author is gratefully indebted to J. Holman. Earlier on in our meet-
ings, he suggested taking the first and the last chapter of the book of Isaiah as an
inclusion.
4
More evidence in: Isa. 1:18; 2:6; 3:1-7; 3:16-14:1; 5:12-13, 19-20; 66:5. This
evidence is clearly concerned with the problem Who am I?, or Who are we? and
170 K. D. JENNER

The explanation opens with a statement on the seriously disturbed re-

lationship between Yhwh and his people (Isa. 1:2-3). Even in the first
chapter Jerusalem is portrayed as a distasteful place that is in material,
moral and religious decline. It speaks volumes that Zion is compared
with Sodom and Gomorra (Isa. 1:10-15; i.e. simile5 of concrete cities).
Heaven and earth testify that the cult in the temple area does not meet the
demands of Yhwh. Similarly, as Sodom and Gomorra, Jerusalem is im-
plicitly portrayed as a wicked and villainous city, in which crime thrives
and lawlessness is rampant (Isa. 1:21-23). The metaphor of Jerusalem
and Zion as a hut in a vineyard or cucumber field and its being portrayed
as a city in fear, indicate the limited degree of protection at the most
ungodly hours (Isa. 1:8). The chapters in question explain the devastation
of Jerusalem as experienced as a disaster which still evokes violent emo-
tions. This event was inevitable, since Yhwh felt urged to turn away
from his people (Isa. 2:6). The adversaries of Yhwh had to bite the dust
and be humiliated (Isa. 1:28). They could not receive any forgiveness
(Isa. 2:9), while mankind could earn no further attention (2:22). Woe is
brought down on the heads of the evil-doers who are responsible for the
disaster (Isa. 3:9, 11; 5:8-30). In short, the whole future of all adversaries
of Yhwh is at issue. The text clearly presents the people of Yhwh as
mourning and being shameful and suffering stress and frustration (Isa.
1:7-18; 2:10-21; 3:2-7, 13-14).
It is likely that the very disaster was the immediate cause of the identi-
ty crisis of the people of Yhwh. The grounds for this, however, was their
perception that Yhwh himself had deprived Jerusalem and Zion of his
personal protection. The decline in political and religious authority of
Jerusalem and Zion are the immediate result of the personal intervention
of Yhwh in their fortunes (Isa. 1:24; 2:6; 3:1). The purpose of his inter-

might be taken as the expression of reflective emotions or an emotional reaction to

affective states such as existential shame, feelings of inferiority, fear of losing love,
feelings of humiliation and despondency. Cf. I.L. Janis, Fear, Shame, and Guilt, in:
I.L. Janis (ed.), Personality: Dynamics, Development, and Assessment, New York
1969, 121.
5
A simile is a simple comparison of one thing with another. It does not imply any
deeper or figurative meaning. The latter phenomenon is present in the book of Isaiah
in cases of: pars pro toto (e.g., the sanctuary represents a location, an area, or its
people), totum pro parte (e.g., a location can represent its power elite or a specific
class or professional group), metonymia (i.e., the literary phenomenon that transfers
the original meaning of some object to another; the essence of this transferral is the
assumed similarity and/or causal relationship in space and time between the objects
of comparison) and metaphor (i.e., the use of a word or phrase to indicate something
different from, though related in some way to, the literal meaning; the combination of
at least two metaphors, the so-called mixed metaphor, may result in an absurdity).
 JERUSALEM, ZION AND THE UNIQUE SERVANT OF YHWH 171

vention is not destruction, but to bring about divine insight to the judges
and counsellors in Jerusalem, and the repentance of the people of Yhwh
(Israel) as well (Isa. 1:3, 26). In short, there could be no mistake about
the responsibility and guilt concerning the disaster that struck Jerusalem
and Zion. Therefore, the key to the restoration of faded glory is in the
hands of Yhwh. This will happen as soon as his splendour again covers
Jerusalem and Zion (Isa. 4:5-6). To this end, he purges the entire area
(Isa. 1:16-17, 25; 4:4). On the one hand Yhwh eliminates his enemies
(Isa. 1:24); on the other hand he gets the judges and counsellors to repent
(1:26). Both actions form a part of the tribunal Yhwh will institute and
which will decide who is in his rights (Isa. 1:18). Yhwh will settle the
conflict with the city, behaving itself like a whore, to his advantage (Isa.
1:26), as he will do with the people and the nations. The nations will
assemble themselves on the mountain (Isa. 2:1-3); Yhwh himself will
teach from Zion (2:3-4). There will no longer be (a threat of) war (Isa.
2:4-5; 4:2-3, 5-6).

3. The Manifesto

Actually, Isa. 1:1-2:5 is the initial part of a manifesto. This briefly

represents the religious-political interest and aim of the composer and his
implied potential supporters: the theocracy of Yhwh, while Jerusalem
and Zion are its moral and religious-political centre of the world.6 In this
perspective the passage of Isa. 2:6-5:29 is only an explanation to this
purpose. The following 59 chapters sketch, from different viewpoints,
the process that Jerusalem and Zion pass through whilst the envisaged
theocracy is being established. The hope and ideal of the resurrection of
Jerusalem and Zion is already stipulated in Isa. 1:26-27. It is repeated in
many passages and applauded in a variety of ways (e.g. Isa. 2:2-5; 4:2-6;
66:7-14, 20-23).
Finally, the latter part of the manifesto (Isa. 65-66) resumes the for-
mer one on a higher level: the proclamation and reality of Yhwhs
theocracy in optima forma. These two chapters are also the final part of
the inclusio, in which a new element is added to the many subjects in the

6
In different wording the present author has already suggested the connection be-
tween a manifesto and a professional group in: K.D. Jenner, The Old Testament and
its Appreciation of Cyrus, Persica 10 (1982) 283-4. Cf. K.D. Jenner, Buiten Jeruza-
lem geen Heil?: Beeldvorming en beeldspraak over Jeruzalems religieuze status vr
587/6 v.C., in: K.D. Jenner, G.A. Wiegers (eds), Jeruzalem als heilige stad: Religi-
euze voorstelling en geloofspraktijk (Leidse Studin van de Godsdienst 1), Kampen
1996, 53-73.
172 K. D. JENNER

first five chapters. This new element is carefully evolved in the previous
59 chapters, in which Zion is portrayed as a mother mourning the loss of
her children, while she complains of being cast away (Isa. 49; 66:7-9).
The implicit question of this portrayal is whether Zion might be able to
console others while herself suffering very traumatic experiences and
uttering heartbreaking laments. In light of this question, the manifesto
has a twofold religious-political point that is a very new element. Indeed,
Zion is able to console as a mother; Yhwh enables her to do so, since he
creates the fruits of this consolation: joy, piece and prosperity (Isa.
65:15-16, 18; 66:12-15). Besides, Zion is not childless: the saints and the
servants of Yhwh are her children (Isa. 65:9). The text does not explicitly
forbid the identification of the returning exiles, the servants, the repent-
ing judges and counsellors, and the saints with the political and religious
supporters of the manifesto. Anyhow, Yhwh selects priests and Levites
from the former group (Isa. 66:21). They may do service in the true tem-
ple service and in the celebration of the high feasts in the right spirit,
which manifest the splendour and majesty of Yhwh (Isa. 65:8-10, 17-25;
66:20). The resurrection of Jerusalem and Zion is the basis of Yhwhs
consolation and peace. It is the foundation and centre of the new heaven
and the new earth as well. The final passage of the manifesto is most
interesting (Isa. 66:18-24). The passage depicts the religious practice of
the concrete and actual pilgrimage as soon as Jerusalem and Zion have
become the centre of the new heaven and the new earth. It is concerned
with the comings and goings of the pilgrims. Remarkably, entering the
city, the pilgrims do not see the corpses of the defeated adversaries of
Yhwh. They certainly do, however, on the way back. Possibly, they then
take a different way, through the area of the cemeteries. Anyhow, the
morbid sight reminds the pilgrims of the intensity of Yhwhs revenge
and retaliation concerning his opponents (cf. Isa. 1:28-30). Obviously,
this teaching element during the final stage of the pilgrimage-rituals is an
essential and integral element of the envisaged new heaven and new
earth (Isa. 66:24). Therefore the passage in question does not transpose
secular history to a higher spiritual level. It does not allude to an apoca-
lyptic event. It simply depicts the fortunes of a concrete city where eve-
rything revolves around the glorification of God and the safeguarding of
his holiness (Isa. 4:3).

4. Phases in the Script of the Book of Isaiah

It is beyond doubt that the resurrected Jerusalem and Zion are the ex-
pected centre of the new heaven and the new earth. This is the result of a
 JERUSALEM, ZION AND THE UNIQUE SERVANT OF YHWH 173

long-lasting, complicated process. The range and course of this process

can be concluded from the manifesto. One may distinguish between the
following phases7:
1. The rise of a crisis situation in many areas of society and culture.
2. The proper crisis and its related perception.
3. The rise of hope for change and the development of a related ide-
ology.
4. The realization of this ideology, which may involve support and
rejection, success and failure.
5. The new reality after the survival.
The first phase is long ranged and covers the ruling period from Uzzia up
to and including Hizkia (Isa. 6-39). In these chapters it is explained
which factors have gradually caused the ruin of Jerusalem, the devasta-
tion of the temple, and the downfall of the Davidic dynasty. The struc-
tural element in these factors is the disregard for the admonitions by
Yhwh or given in his name. The information from this phase gives the
impression that the dynasty denies its political failure, and that society
ideologically and emotionally sways between the unconditional loyalty
to and a fierce opposition against Yhwh. The constant threat of war and
the associated pressure of the warnings not to breach the confidence of
Yhwh and to forfeit his protection may have led to a latent identity crisis
as the antagonist of the official perception of invincibility, as expressed
in the so-called Zion theology.
One might have expected a detailed description of this downfall and
the perception of crisis. This description would have provided sufficient
evidence for the second phase. However, the short passage of Isa. 39:6-8
is the only direct evidence. There is a serious lack of evidence concern-
ing social processes, perceptions of the group and collective or individual
emotions. Nevertheless, the chapters 40-55 frequently and expressively
make a stand against feelings of stress and frustration, powerlessness and
inability, tiredness and indifference. Such feelings, implicitly and fre-
quently alluded to in the so-called second Isaiah (e.g. Isa. 40:1-2, 27, 29-
31), are sufficiently recorded from current, unexpected disasters. They
form a part of the modern screen-play of a disaster and the inevitable
impact of a catastrophe. So, this forms a firm base to assume the second
phase and the overt identity crisis as its characteristic feature. In short,
the stipulation of the following phases is based on this second phase.

7
Cf. I.L. Janis, Mans Struggle to Cope with Stress: an Overview, in: I.L. Janis
(ed.), Personality: Dynamics, Development, and Assessment, New York 1969, 3-19.
174 K. D. JENNER

The rise of an ideology of rescue from their situation (e.g. Isa. 41:8-
19) is the characteristic feature of the third phase (the chapters 40-48).
One expects the liberator, the unique servant of Yhwh (e.g. Isa. 42:1-13;
43:14; 44:1-6; 44:24-45:13). Such an ideology is often the reaction to a
long-lasting exposure to danger and the deprivation of spiritual and life-
giving conditions. Usually, the victims of great disasters try to under-
stand what has happened in order to incorporate the events and emotions
into their lives. The disastrous circumstances urge them to create a new
identity. Frequent passages at least give the impression that the fall of
Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple caused a similar inner
process for the exiles (e.g. Isa. 40:6-8). They encourage and comfort
each other and thus they combat scepticism (e.g. Isa. 40:9-11, 27:31).
They reflect on the past. They then use memories related to ancient, tra-
ditional, collective, and national identity. Thus the great deeds of Yhwh
are applauded, but at the same time are they viewed in the perspective of
new political and religious promises (e.g. Isa. 40:12-26; 41:22-23; 44:26;
48:1-3). Also a relation is established between Abraham, Israel, Jacob
and Yhwh (e.g. Isa. 40:27). The new identity is related to the ingroup-
outgroup mechanism, which is expressed in the need for exclusivity and
particularity and the perception of the superiority of Yhwh and his
people, connected with feelings of aggression towards his adversaries.8
The implementation of the new identity (i.e. serving as the light for all
people and nations), in the fourth phase (Isa. 49-56), causes a struggle
for the self-preservation and survival of the servant(s) of Yhwh. It is a
war of attrition between these servant(s) and the adversaries of Yhwh.
The chapters in question give the impression of a fight to the bitter end,
which is characteristic for a victim of a disaster (e.g. Isa. 49:4). As is
evident from case studies, these victims fall prey to utmost despair and
apathetic resignation (cf. e.g. Isa. 49:4, 7, 14, 21; 54:6). They undergo an
inner debate of giving up and fighting on (Isa. 49:8-10). They become
confused and pass through a state of mental disorientation, in which they
suddenly see fragments of images from previous, similar situations,
which they have survived (e.g. Isa. 43:16-17; 49:1-3; 51:9-11; 54:9;
55:3-4). The feed-back between fragments of memory and the current
crisis situation results in the will and the power to survive. These frag-
mentary memories are often related to the role of parents protecting their

8
From a historical view, the third up to and including the fifth phase might be
connected to the beginning of the Persian era: the third and fourth phase to the initial
period of the Persian Empire (Cyrus the Great and his immediate successor), the fifth
one to Darius III. Cf. R.E. Friedman (ed.), The Poet and the Historian: Essays in
Literary and Historical Biblical Criticism (Harvard Semitic Studies 26), Chico 1983.
 JERUSALEM, ZION AND THE UNIQUE SERVANT OF YHWH 175

children. On the one hand this protection expresses itself in the warm
security of the mother and her sorrow and care in critical and stressful
situations (e.g. Isa. 49:14-15). On the other hand the admonitions and
critical incentives of the father attest his love (e.g. Isa. 49:8-9; 50; 51:9-
16). It is remarkable that the chapters in question refer to the care and
consolation of Jerusalem in her role as the mother of her children (cf. Isa.
54). These qualities of the mother are even attributed to Yhwh in his role
of the father (cf. 64:7-11). The emotional power and intention of these
qualities attached to the roles in role-plays may not be underestimated.
Not infrequently, the uncontrolled fragments of the memory cause the
victims incorrect assessment of his situation and the overestimation of
his power to survive the crisis (Isa. 52:13-53:12). Paradoxically, howev-
er, this incorrect assessment forms the drive for the final and utmost
effort to survive (Isa. 51:17-52:12; 54). In the case of the chapters in
question Jerusalem, viewed in the role of the unique servant, is the vic-
tim who struggles for his survival. Recalling the motherly care and the
incentives of the father, the city finds the strength to survive in a hope-
less situation (Isa. 54; cf. chapter 66). In the scope of role-plays it is not
surprising that at the same time Yhwh and Jerusalem are portrayed as
husband and wife, as well as father and mother. The same person can
play more than one role, and in situations of stressful crisis the same
fragmentary image(s) of memory can switch between several personali-
ties. In the case of this fourth phase, the survival of Jerusalem is the im-
petus to its resurrection. Actually, in this phase Jerusalem changes her
identity and overcomes her identity crisis. This triumph presents the
implicit supporters of the manifesto with a paradigm on how to over-
come their identity crisis. The role of the unique servant is essential in
order to implement their new identity, as sketched in the religious-
political manifesto.
The last phase (Isa. 57-66) represents the victims living reality after
he has survived. Just as saved victims are able to forget or repress the
images of the disaster they have experienced, as well as the fragments of
images that their memory reproduced during the fourth phase, the resur-
rected Jerusalem and Zion are similarly able to do so. These chapters
portray Jerusalem as the city in which all people are fairly treated, where
divine justice is practised (Isa. 56:1-2) and the assimilated alien finds his
proper place and earns his rights as well (56:3-6). The temple is the
house where all people can pray and where everyone can participate in
religious ceremonies, rituals, and temple services, be it that he acknowl-
edge Yhwh as the Holy One (e.g. Isa. 56:6-7). Even the eunuch gets an
honourable mention in the temple, if he keeps the Sabbath and obeys the
176 K. D. JENNER

commandments of Yhwh (Isa. 56:4-5). On the other hand all sorts of

admonitions against the deterioration of morals and religious practise
give the impression of a society clearly disobeying the commandments
of Yhwh (e.g. Isa. 56:9-12; 57:3-6; 58:3-6). The Sabbath and the temple
are defiled and the adversaries of Yhwh mock righteous people, who
suffer ruin while nobody takes notice of them (Isa. 57:1-2).

5. Personification9

Cities play a key role in the book of Isaiah, as close reading reveals. At
any rate the city of Jerusalem and Zion are indisputably depicted as per-
sons who play several roles and have a different status in each of their
roles. This observation raises the question as to whether these depictions
are simply matters of a simile, or represent figures of speech like pars
pro toto, totum pro parte, metonymia, (mixed) metaphor, or personifica-
tion.10 The last figure of speech clearly aims at the transferral of meaning
in the line of the psychology of personality. This statement needs the
following concise commentary. The ups and downs of cities or their
inhabitants are described in the terminology of the (role) behaviour of
individuals. This phenomenon is defined as personification. The individ-
ual is ascribed a personality with characteristic features or character
traits, that function in relation to the current canon of values and stan-
dards. This canon prescribes what is common decency or not. So, there is
some interaction between the personification, personality, representation
and the public opinion of cities. Personification implies that complex
social processes such as the protection of the interests of some group or
faction and the related conflicts are simplified down to the interaction
between a very small number of persons. Propaganda is concentrated on
manipulating the public opinion aiming at a positive or negative effect on
the current representation. Propaganda not infrequently results in the
9
See for this and the following paragraphs: J. Brockmeier, D. Carbaugh (eds),
Narrative and Identity: Studies in Autobiography, Self, and Culture (Studies in narra-
tive 1), Philadelphia 2001; D. Cartwright, A. Zander (eds), Group Dynamics: Re-
search and Theory, New York 31968 (11954); Th. L. Glasser, Ch. T. Salmon (eds),
Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent (The Guilford communication
series), New York 1995; D.J. Terry, M.A. Hogg, Attitudes, Behavior, and social
Context: the Role of Norms and Group Membership (Applied social research), New
York 2000; I.L. Janis, L. Mann, Effectiveness of emotional Role Playing in modify-
ing smoking Habits and Attitudes, Journal of Experimental Research in Personality
1 (1965), 84-90; M.A. Milburn, Persuasion and Politics: The Social Psychology of
Public Opinion, Pacific Grove 1991; A.R. Pratkanis and E. Aronson, Age of Propa-
ganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse of Persuasion, New York 1992.
10
See note 4.
 JERUSALEM, ZION AND THE UNIQUE SERVANT OF YHWH 177

stigmatization of virtual or alleged persons, while familiar emotions

easily influence the public opinion. In view of the purpose of propagan-
da, the personifications are carefully chosen, are very familiar to people
and appeal to the conscience and the moral sense of the so-called implied
reader. Therefore they invite a reaction to the message. So, personifica-
tion is not merely a literary figure of speech, not even at the level of the
metaphor. From a psychological view, it creates space for the personality
of the envisaged adherer or the implied reader to give active feed-back to
the manifesto and to the religious-political faction. The totality of envi-
ronmental factors forms the fertile ground for personifications which
form a part of a role-play and are related to all kinds of feelings, among
them feelings of exclusiveness. Such personifications may take on a
special shape. Either one may portray special localities (i.e. empire, na-
tion, country, area or city), or their population (i.e. people or citizens) as
the sources of evil, or one may sing their praises as the saviour, the crea-
tor of peace and prosperity, or the defender of absolute, religious chastity
and irreproachable, moral behaviour. Cities and countries are famous or
infamous; at any rate they are the much bespoken centres of representa-
tion (formation of the image) and propaganda. How the personifications
may turn out and how the dynamics of their personalities may reflect
the movements and tensions within the economical and political force-
fields and the socio-cultural spheres of influence, is explained in the
roles the text of the manifesto reveals.
Equally, the servants of Yhwh enjoy a prominent position. There are
several (categories of) servants. Each (category of) servant(s) plays its
particular role and reveals a special personality including characteristic
emotions. The answer to the question, whether and to what extent their
psychodynamic and role behaviour is comparable to cities, is to be found
in the analysis of the role of the servant(s)11. With respect to this, special
attention will be devoted to the question whether the role of the unique
servant of Yhwh and Jerusalem in her several outspoken roles, are ma-
nifestations of one and the same personification of the city of Jerusalem
and Zion.

11
So, the roles of the cities in the book of Isaiah need to be mapped out and criti-
cally studied.
178 K. D. JENNER

6. Roles in the Book of Isaiah12

Many roles can be distinguished in the book of Isaiah. Together they

depict how the creation of the new heaven and the new earth as well as
the resurrection of Jerusalem and Zion, will take place. The setting is the
downfall of the New Babylonian Empire and Jerusalem, the deterioration
of Zion and the decline of the Davidic monarchy. These events are heu-
ristically presented as a role-play on the global political stage. Each role
has its function and prescribes what the relevant player has contributed to
the past or may contribute to the (near) future. On the one hand, Yhwh is
the invisible producer and sovereign authority behind the curtains. On
the other hand, he also participates in different roles in the scene.
Thus, Yhwh is in turn:
1. Main tenant and owner of the national sanctuary in Jerusalem;
2. Patron and liberator of Jerusalem and Zion;
3. Patron of outcasts, especially of aliens, widows, and orphans;
4. Pacifier;
5. Inaugurator of and judge at the world tribunal;
6. Deceived, but utmost faithful, husband of Jerusalem and Zion;
7. Adversary of the national deities and empires.
In short, Yhwh plays the key role and Jerusalem and Zion the title role.
The following role-players identify themselves with Yhwhs perfor-
mance, accept his absolute authority and are obedient to his command-
ments: the servants of Yhwh (including the unique servant), the saints in
Jerusalem and Zion and the pilgrims who glorify him in his sanctuary
and find comfort and instruction there. The interests of Yhwh and his
adherents coincide. Babel appears to play a minor role. This is but a
semblance. At first, this city as well as the related empire are Yhwhs
instrument in bringing his unfaithful wife to heel. Then they become the
very adversaries of Yhwh the worst, as soon as they forget their
original role. Cities and empires that have a world-wide, good reputation
are also adversaries of Yhwh and therefore take a minor position in the
book of Isaiah. Either they are only the amazed audience of the world
tribunal that Yhwh is planning, or they are the instrument of Yhwh in
letting Jerusalem and Zion function as the splendid centre of his new

12
See for this paragraph and the following paragraphs: B.E. Ashforth, Role, tran-
sitions in organizational life: An identity-based perspective (LEAs organization and
management series), New York 2001; H. Sundn, Die Religion und die Rollen: Eine
psychologische Untersuchung der Frmmigkeit, transl. H. Mller, Berlin 1966.
 JERUSALEM, ZION AND THE UNIQUE SERVANT OF YHWH 179

heaven and new earth: the religious-political empire of Yhwh. This even
holds good for Cyrus; his role aims for the same purpose.13
Jerusalem and Zion play the following roles in turn:
1. National capital and national sanctuary of Judah (neutral or fe-
minine role);
2. Residence of Yhwh and holy city (neutral or feminine role);
3. Unfaithful wife of Yhwh (feminine role);
4. Mother of children (feminine role);
5. Herald of joy (viz.: coming salvation for the cities of Judah,
their liberation, re-entering of Yhwh in the temple and his enth-
ronement; masculine role):
6. The unique servant of Yhwh (masculine role).
The first two roles are functions that do not necessarily call for the per-
sonification of Jerusalem and Zion.14 With respect to the following four
roles, however, it is indisputable that they are attached to the personified
city and temple area. These roles impose a pattern of role behaviour on
Jerusalem and Zion. It is usual in such cases that this pattern prescribes a
standard of accepted or reprehensible behaviour, such as: whore or adul-
teress; unfaithful wife (repudiated, and favourably restored to her origi-
nal position); mother mourning because of her supposedly being child-
less, or consoling those who are entrusted to her care; blind or deaf ser-
vant; herald of salvation or disaster.
The argumentation for the identification of Jerusalem as the unique
servant of Yhwh runs as follows: several (categories) of personalities are
indicated as servant of Yhwh. Jacob and Israel both play the role of the
servant of Yhwh. The people and the alien who obeys Yhwh are also his
servants. Yet, Zion15 is the unique servant of Yhwh. The book of Isaiah
remarkably does not mention the name of this servant. It is however
likely that he is one of the roles of the personified Zion. In Isa. 54:17
Yhwhs wife is approached as his servant. Yhwh has only one wife:

13
Cf. K.D. Jenner, The Old Testament and its Appreciation of Cyrus, Persica 10
(1982), 283-4; R.J. van der Spek, Did Cyrus the Great Introduce a New Policy To-
ward Subdued Nations?: Cyrus in Assyrian Perspective, Persica 10 (1982), 278-82;
R.J. van der Spek, The Babylonian City, in: A. Kuhrt, S. Sherwin-White (eds.),
Hellenism in the East: The Interaction of Greek and non-Greek Civilization from
Syria to Central Asia after Alexander, Berkeley1987, 57-74.
14
In modern languages, it is also not unusual to speak of the actions of centres of
power, authority, and religious practices. The figure of speech of totus pro parte
expresses the conflict and protection of interests between and pertaining to different
lobbies.
15
This name functions as the pars pro toto for Jerusalem throughout.
180 K. D. JENNER

Zion-Jerusalem. So, Zion is the servant. This is the first argument. The
second one is that Yhwh names Zion his people, while this is also re-
puted to be so for the servant of Yhwh. Besides, Zion and the unique
servant of Yhwh are both alluded to as being hit and despised. This in-
disputable observation is the third argument. The combination of all
three arguments leads to the conclusion that Zion and the unique servant
are one and the same personality. All three differently characterize the
function of Jerusalem and its sanctuary. These characteristics enable
Jerusalem and Zion, alias the unique servant, to perform the task Yhwh
imposes on them: to bring back the tribes of Israel, to teach the law and
justice of Yhwh and to thus be the light for the whole world.
The above statement about the identification of Jerusalem, Zion, and
the unique servant holds true at the psychological level of textual inter-
pretation. A. van der Woude, however, has come to a different conclu-
sion. In her dissertation, she makes clear that the literary analyst makes a
number of objections against the identification in question.16

7. Role-Play

The book of Isaiah seemingly reduces history to some kind of role-

play.17

16
Since it is beyond the scope of this paragraph to methodologically discuss the
pros and cons of the identification, this issue will be elaborated in the paragraph
dealing with the methodological evaluation.
17
See for this and the following paragraphs: G.W. Baker, D.W. Chapman (eds),
Man and Society in Disaster, New York 1962; I.L. Janis, S. Feshbach, Personality
Differences associated with Responsiveness to Fear Arousing Communications,
Journal of Personality 23 (1954) 154-66; I.L. Janis, A.A. Lumsdaine et al., Effects
of preparatory Communications on Reactions of subsequent News Event, Public
Opinion Quarterly 15 (1951) 487-518; I.L. Janis, R. Terwilliger, An experimental
study of psychological Resistances to fear arousing Communications, JASPs 65
(1962) 403-10; I.L. Janis, M.B. Smith, Effects of Education and Persuasion on na-
tional and international images, in: H.C. Kelman (ed.), International Behavior: A
social-psychological analysis, New York 1965, 190-235; I.L. Janis, Effects of Fear
Arousal on Attitude and Change: Recent Developments in Theory and experimental
Research, in: L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in experimental social Psychology, New
York 1967, 167-225; Idem, Group Identification under Conditions of external Dan-
ger, in: D. Cartwright, A. Zander (eds), Group Dynamics: Research and Theory,
3
1968 (11953), 80-90; Idem (ed.), Personality: Dynamics, Development, and Assess-
ment, New York 1969; Idem, Victims of Groupthink, Boston 1972; Idem, Stress and
Frustration, New York 1971 [= revision of Idem (ed.), Personality: Dynamics, De-
velopment, and Assessment, New York 1969, part 1]; I.L. Janis, L. Mann, Decision
making, a psychological Analysis of Conflict, Choice, and Commitment, London
1977; I.L. Janis, Stress, Attitudes, and Decisions: Selected Papers (Centennial psy-
 JERUSALEM, ZION AND THE UNIQUE SERVANT OF YHWH 181

At any rate the book can be read from this perspective. This implies that
the interaction between the dramatis personae (i.e. concrete persons or
personified centres of power and authority) is concentrated on the dis-
covery of a defence against the emotional conflicts that a disaster causes.
From the viewpoint of psychotherapy, psychology (of religion) and (reli-
gious) anthropology it is clear that disasters are a shock to the personality
of victims. The later therapeutic reflection on the events reveals that
recalling the perception evokes violent emotions of fear and anxiety
(reflective emotions). These emotions largely influence the victims
attitude, state of mind and way of communication. One may assume that
similar emotions and communication are aimed at in the role-play that is
concerned with the proper acceptance of the impact of events of a disas-
ter in history. Actually, the above analysis points out that the whole psy-
chological process and all its phases are reflected in the composition of
the book of Isaiah. Similarly, like in the script of a role-play, the writ-
er(s) of the book of Isaiah projected the reflective emotions into the
roles, the patterns of role-behaviour, and the personifications. They are a
creation of the composer(s) and form a part of the simple role model he
(or they) have imposed on the text. This role model consists of the fol-
lowing elements:
1. Conflict situations and crisis factors;
2. Identity crisis;
3. Need of a new identity;
4. Call for new leadership, capable of evaluating the crisis, sug-
gesting a solution and able to transpose the latent expectations
for the future into concrete projects;
5. Role acceptation or rejection by the envisaged leader(s);
6. Communication between the new leadership and the supporters
(feedback mechanism);
7. (Re)adjustment of the expectations and concrete plans for the fu-
ture;
8. Rise of a new ideology;
9. Role acceptance or role rejection by the supporters (i.e. they ac-
cept or reject the role of the new leadership);
10. Implementation of the new ideology.
According to the book of Isaiah, the resurrected and personified Jerusa-
lem and Zion form the new leadership. Their new ideology is to guaran-

chology series), New York 1982; Idem, Crucial Decisions, Leadership in Policy
Making and Crisis Management, New York 1989.
182 K. D. JENNER

tee the religious and ritual purity of Jerusalem and Zion, while being the
holy city, the centre of pilgrimage and the capital of the theocratic em-
pire of Yhwh. From the viewpoint of image formation, three factors
might have been of decisive importance to make someone a supporter of
this ideology and give him an extra impetus to adhere to Yhwh:
1. The simplicity of the role model;
2. The vigorous appeal to basic emotions;
3. The psychological mechanism of personification.
All three factors make accessible the identification with and incorpora-
tion of the roles proposed in the manifesto, since this process seems to
run along the lines of stereotypes of stigmatization.18

8. Psycho-Historical Document

In the above paragraphs four characteristic features of the book of Isaiah

have been observed:
1. The book seems to be composed following the five phases of the
psychological process the victim of a disaster passes through
during his efforts to survive and his therapeutic reflection on
this;
2. The composition reflects a complex role-play;
3. The roles are connected with personalities onto which the writer
of the script has projected a variety of (reflective) emotions and
affections which the victim has perceived during his struggle for
survival.
4. The book appears to be a manifesto of a religious-political fac-
tion of religious specialists, the purpose of which is the forma-
tion of a common perception and a shared image of hope.
These four characteristics make the book of Isaiah a psycho-historical
document, in which the writer or the composer evaluates the dramatic
events of the people of Yhwh. The heart of this evaluation is the ideolo-
gy that Yhwh himself guarantees the restoration of peace and justice for
his people. This restoration realizes the new heaven and the new earth.19
The psycho-historical pattern of the five phases may explain the some-
times preposterous inconsistencies found in the book of Isaiah, taken as a

18
This technique reveals itself in all historical-prophetical books. Each book
gives its favourite stereotypes.
19
The expectations, emotions and affections implied in this theology or ideology
are reflected in some Psalms devoted to Yhwh, the Lord of Hosts.
 JERUSALEM, ZION AND THE UNIQUE SERVANT OF YHWH 183

manifesto and script for role playing. These inconsistencies in the course
of reasoning may not be taken as arguments against the unity of the
book, or the devaluation of its literary standard. Due to the psycho-
historical character of the book, the personification of cities, nations and
empires is not a mere figure of speech. The psychological make-up of
such personifications (i.e. their personality) thus emotionally relates
them to the survival of a disaster.
By means of the religious-political ideology, the writer(s) of the mani-
festo and its supporters anticipate the need of the demoralized Israelites
and exiles for a new identity and a new perspective. Whoever joins this
religious-political faction and subscribes to the manifesto, especially to
its basic values and norms, participates in the envisaged new heaven and
new earth. In view of this, Jerusalem and Zion form the principle that
creates the literary unity. With respect to its content they are even the
purpose of the book. The manifesto does not aim at implementing the
idea of a spiritual or apocalyptic Jerusalem and Zion, and new heaven
and earth as well. The very purpose is the concrete realization of a social
interest and religious-political ideal: the restoration of Jerusalem and
Zion as the holy city. The confession that only Yhwh is God, makes one
a descendant of Zion in her capacity of being the beloved of Yhwh.

9. Roles and Communication (Patterns)20

Communication is an essential factor in processes concerning the forma-

tion of common perception. In the book of Isaiah this perception and its
implied communication aim at the realization of a religious-political
interest. One may assume that this purpose to a great extent stipulated the
form and content of the communication. In their analysis of E. Albees
Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf, P. Watzlawick, J. Beavin and D. Jack-
son came to the conclusion that patterns of communication reveal the
struggle for authority and power in human interaction. 21 One may as-
sume that a similar analysis of a religious-political manifesto will prove
their conclusion. Besides, on the basis of such an analysis of the book of
Isaiah, taken as the script of a role-play, one might gain a better under-

20
Cf. C.I. Hovland, I.L. Janis et al. (eds), Communication and Persuasion: Psy-
chological Studies of Opinion Change, New Haven 1953; M. Zemach, The Effects of
Guilt-arousing Communications on Acceptance of Recommendations, Yale Universi-
ty 1966 [unpublished doctoral dissertation].
21
Cf. P. Watzlawick, J.H. Beavin et al., De pragmatische aspecten van de mense-
lijke communicatie (Sociale bibliotheek), transl. G.R. de Bruin, Deventer 41975
(11970).
184 K. D. JENNER

standing of the emotional and affectionate aspects of the writers course

of reasoning as well as of the implied process of the formation of image
and perception. Such an analysis is beyond the scope of this contribu-
tion.22

10. Methodological Evaluation23

Cities are personified and play the role of either adherer to, or adversary
of Yhwh. The servants also play their role. All roles assume personali-
ties, psychodynamics, and role behaviour. The question then arises as to
whether the psychodynamics of personified cities and servants of Yhwh
is compatible with the idea that the book of Isaiah is a manifesto of a
religious-political faction. The above analysis does not demonstrate in-
ternal inconsistencies or logical contradictions. So, from the methodolog-
ical point of view, one may affirmatively answer the question with re-
spect to the compatibility. Anyhow, the book of Isaiah regularly proc-
laims the same religious-political ambition: the resurrection24 of Jerusa-
lem and Zion. Social scientists usually explain such ambitions as the
standpoint of a pressure group by means of which they intend to protect
their interests and to express their expectations for the future.25 The am-
bitions find their way into all sorts of coverage and are usually recorded
in some way. At first glance, the book of Isaiah seems to be no exception
to this rule.
As argued above, the present author has taken Zion and the unique
servant of Yhwh to be two different roles of one and the same personifi-
cation of Jerusalem. This identification of Zion and the unique servant
holds true as long as one keeps to the rules of the above analysis and as
far as the text is actually read on the meta-level of psychodynamics and
psychohistory. It is the earnest hope of the present author to have thus
solved the two major questions in the literary dispute over the identity of
the unique servant of Yhwh. The first problem is to whom this servant
might be connected. In the view of A. van der Woude, the current under-
standing of this servant depends on the importance one attaches to either

22
The present author resolves to make such an analysis.
23
This paragraph is based on the preceding specialist literature as well as: A.D. de
Groot, Thought and Choice in Chess (PsS 4), the Hague 1965, epilogue; A. Smelik,
R. Buikema et al., Effectief beeldvormen: Theorie, analyse, en praktijk van beeld-
vormingsprocessen, Assen 1999.
24
The term resurrection is preferred to the terms rise or restoration because of
the personification of Jerusalem.
25
W. La Barre, Materials for a History of Studies of Crisis Cults: A Bibliograph-
ic Essay, CA 12 (1971), 3-44.
 JERUSALEM, ZION AND THE UNIQUE SERVANT OF YHWH 185

the similarities (U. Berges and M.C.A. Korpel) or the differences

(W.A.M. Beuken, P. Tull Willey, and A. van der Woude) between each
of the two personages.26 On the meta-level of role-play, psychodynamics
and psycho-history27 these two separate viewpoints can result in a syn-
thesis. The personification of Jerusalem may explain the similarities
between the unique servant and Zion. The personified Jerusalem, howev-
er, plays different roles in order to clearly express different tasks and
functions; this explains the differences between Zion and the unique
servant. These arguments also give extra evidence to W.A.M. Beukens
view that everybody whom the unique servant convinces to repent,
should be considered to be a child of Zion; this status would make him
an acknowledged inhabitant of the new city of God.28 The present author
does not see any decisive objection to conclude that Jerusalem in the role
of the unique servant convinces somebody to repent. In the role of the
unique servant, Jerusalem deeply suffers indignity when confessing pub-
licly to her adultery and unfaithfulness to Yhwh. This confession may
convince somebody to repent. After his repentance Jerusalem, in the role
of mother, may console and care for this person. So, her confession could
be the strongest argument of Jerusalem to convince someone to repent
and make him a true inhabitant of the new city of God. So, this explana-
tion also gives an affirmative answer to the second problem as to wheth-
er the unique servant could be a female person. Besides, the above analy-
sis puts into perspective the question as to whether this servant refers to
somebody beyond the text or not (pace H. Leene). On the whole, the
identification of Jerusalem, the unique servant, and Zion does not even
exclude the addition of the messiah to this series of identifications.
The rules of the disciplines in question indisputably differ and it is a
matter of further study, to find out whether it is possible to gear them to
one another, and to combine the conclusions from each of the disciplines.
Due to the psychodynamic and psycho-historical dimensions in the book
of Isaiah, personification of cities may not function as mere figures of
speech as they do in a literary analysis. On the level of psychodynamics
on the one hand, the same personality can play different roles; on the
other hand, the same role can be attached to several personalities. This
implies that the same personality may switch from a masculine to a fe-
minine role, and vice versa. The acknowledgement of this psychodynam-

26
A. van der Woude, Geschiedenis van de terugkeer: de rol van Jesaja 40,1-11 in
het drama van Jesaja 40-55, Maastricht 2005, 221.
27
In other words, from the perspective of the social sciences, which are con-
cerned with the study of normal people in extreme stress situations.
28
Cf. A. van der Woude, op. cit., 223.
186 K. D. JENNER

ic process distinguishes the psycho-historical approach from literary

analysis. Another clear and noticeable distinction between the two dis-
ciplines is that the former discipline interprets inconsistencies, mental
leaps and breaks in the logic of the course of reasoning in the later (the-
rapeutic) report of the events and the victims emotions as the result of
his extreme stress, perception of the environment and the functioning of
his memory.
One important issue still to be resolved is the question whether the re-
ligious-political situation and purpose of the composer(s) are superior to
the basic assumptions and criteria of historical and literary criticism. This
methodological issue is all the more important, since the present author
has not taken into account the results of historical and textual criticism as
presented in other articles in this volume or the broader views of process
analysis and system theory.
A further comparative study of other psycho-historic documents is
needed, before the above results might claim the status of induction29.
They only have the status of observations and the approach belongs to
the field of heuristics. In general, the results of the psycho-historical
analysis of documents from the past have limited value.30 They are the
products of the later perception of somebody from another culture and
society, and they may therefore suffer from his selective and biased
memory and his cognitive predisposition.31 The most serious problem is
that the description of the psychological make-up of the persons in ques-
tion cannot be verified, because they are dead.32 However, the book of
Isaiah is a different case. This book is compared with the (therapeutic)
reports of victims who have survived a disaster; i.e. the comparison is
concerned with normal people behaving under extreme circumstances.
The reflective emotions are apparently similar. This observation under-
lies the view of the present author that the book of Isaiah may be taken as
a psycho-historical document, the author of which lived in the past and
had reliable knowledge of and deep insight into the mental atmospherics
of the faction he adhered to. In this respect, the psycho-historic document
is a normal historical document. Keeping this in mind, the book of Isaiah
is an intriguing source for the history of the religion of Israel and Judah.

29
Cf. A.D. de Groot, Methodology: Foundations of Inference and Research in the
Behavioural Sciences (PsS 6), the Hague 1969, 27-32.
30
Cf. J.A. Jenner, K.D. Jenner, Fabers erogene ontwikkelingsmodel van de
godsdienst in kritisch perspectief, NThT 35 (1981) 177-91.
31
De facto historical, literary, and textual criticism fall under the same verdict.
32
See however A.D. de Groot, Saint Nicholas: A Psychoanalytical Study of his
History and Myth, The Hague 1965.
 JERUSALEM, ZION AND THE UNIQUE SERVANT OF YHWH 187

It is a matter of further scholarly dispute whether the book may be cha-

racterized as an authoritative source for objective, secular historiography.
Actually, the present author resumes an older approach to the history
of the religion of Israel and Judah. Specialists like G. Hlscher33 were
seriously interested in the psychological make-up of the prophets. They
took the prophetical books as (auto)biographical sources. They wondered
whether the prophets were cursed with a neurotic or psychotic character,
or suffered from neurasthenia. J. Lindblom, however, emphasized that
these books were literary products which should be studied according to
the appropriate rules of literary analysis. 34 This view terminated the
older psycho-historical approach. In the later decades of the twentieth
century, Th.W. Overholt also resumed the study of the prophets from the
viewpoint of the social sciences. 35 He took his starting point in compara-
tive sociology and anthropology in order to understand the interaction
between the prophet and his audience. In contrast to Th.W. Overholt, the
present author takes his starting point in the psychology (of religion) and
psychodynamics and the book of Isaiah as the source of reflective emo-
tions. In short, the above observations encourage further interdisciplinary
discussion between the specialists in Old Testament studies and in the
social sciences on this aspect; in fact this discussion should not be li-
mited to the book of Isaiah, but should cover all historical-prophetical
books of the Old Testament. At the moment this issue is beyond the
scope of this article.

11. Conclusion

The above observations explain to a great extent the tone that Yhwh
adopts against his adversaries and his people as well. They make clear
that Yhwh punishes his people as well as his city in her role of the
unique servant with blindness, deafness and disaster in order to lead
them to acknowledge his glory and majesty. The emotions, statements,
and terms of abuse, are so exuberant that one can neither silently ignore
them, nor consider them as mere figures of speech; they are not even the
simple expression of hurt pride. Besides, the interests of Yhwh, his holi-

33
Cf. G. Hlscher, Die Profeten: Untersuchungen zur Religionsgeschichte
Israels, Leipzig 1914; see also J.A. Emerton (ed.), Prophecy (FS G. Fohrer) (BZAW
150), Berlin 1980; J.P.E. Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture, London/Copenhagen
1963-1964 (= 1926-1940).
34
Cf. J. Lindblom, Prophecy in Ancient Israel, Oxford 1962.
35
Cf. Th.W. Overholt, Channels of Prophecy: The Social Dynamics of prophetic
Activity, Minneapolis 1989.
188 K. D. JENNER

ness, the ritual purity of the temple area, the hierarchy, and the pilgrims
seem to be subordinated to the care for widows, orphans and victims of
injustice. Admittedly, these items of social care are mentioned not infre-
quently in the book of Isaiah. Their elaboration concerning content is
however noticeably meagre. These two observations give rise to the
question as to which and whose personality might be connected to this
tone and these emotions and in which psychodynamic processes these
are involved. The present author assumes that this personality is to be
found in the humiliated faction of Jewish religious specialists.
It is plausible that the book of Isaiah is the religious-political manifes-
to of a humiliated professional group or faction of religious specialists.
The devastation of Jerusalem and Zion deprived the members of this
faction of their source of income and thus reduced their status and that of
their profession which was inextricably bound up with Jerusalem and the
temple. Therefore, the revaluation of their status and profession required
the restoration of Jerusalem as the holy city and of Zion as the pure tem-
ple area and centre of pilgrimage. They aimed at consolidating the posi-
tion of Jerusalem and Zion by means of an ideology in which their inter-
ests and those of Yhwh run parallel to each other. This ideology proc-
laims Yhwh, Jerusalem and Zion as superior to other religious centres
and their deities. He is the creator of the new heaven and the new earth,
to whom the past and the future are transparent. Therefore, he is the so-
vereign ruler of the universe and has the power and authority to humi-
liate the deities of other sanctuaries as being idols and human artefacts.
The priests and Levites in Jerusalem preserve the legal order of Yhwh. In
Jerusalem the ideal of Yhwhs justice, expressed in peace and the care
for widows and orphans, is propagated and then implemented all over the
world. This concrete city, its sanctuary included, consoles the pilgrims
and all others who are in need of consolation. Jerusalem consoles them
as her children. This ideology is the main point of the manifesto and is
based on the conviction that Yhwh himself guarantees this care. The
manifesto was composed following the model of a role-play, the script of
which successively shows all the emotional and mental phases of a vic-
tim who has survived a disaster, has later on reflected upon this and then
recorded what he experienced. Yhwh, Jerusalem and Zion play the key
roles.
The manifesto is not an apocalyptical document. Its tenor is not re-
pent, the end is nigh, but repent, the resurrection of Jerusalem and Zion
is nigh. The holy city, resurrected by Yhwh, is the unique servant of
Yhwh and the centre of the new heaven and the new earth. Considering
the manifesto as a psycho-historic document, the many inconsistencies in
 JERUSALEM, ZION AND THE UNIQUE SERVANT OF YHWH 189

the course of argumentation need not amaze the specialists in historical,

literary, and textual criticism.
One may ask whether the book of Isaiah still is of importance for
modern people in current society. Cities were and still are an important
factor in all aspects of society. Their influence and power may not be
underestimated or even neglected. By the looks of it, with respect to this
it is likely that there is not so much difference between the world of the
ancient Near East and modern society. In the past, the dynamics of per-
sonality may have functioned differently. This, however, does not neces-
sarily exclude the fact that the personification of cities might be a proper
instrument for re-using a religious-political ideal and document from an
ancient and different era, area, and culture. Anyhow, it is clear that the
writer of the manifesto completely identified himself with the holy city.
The way he personified and perceived the status and role of this city is
indisputably an invitation to everybody in his time and in the future to
share his perception of the world, his emotions and affections with re-
spect to this city and its sanctuary. He gives his contemporaries and
modern people the clear choice between being a true inhabitant of the
holy city or re-adjusting the core of his message. In fact, it seems that
orthodox-protestant Christian doctrine opted for the latter option, in iden-
tifying the unique servant of Yhwh and Jesus as the Messiah.36

36
The present writer wishes to thank Drs. Maurits J. Sinninghe Damst (Mussel-
kanaal, the Netherlands) for his correction of the English translation of this article.
 ZION AS AN AGUNAH?
AN INTERPRETATION OF ISAIAH 49:14; 50:1 AND 54:6-81

S. Borocin-Knol

1. Introduction

It is well known that the relationship of Israel to G-d is often described in

the Tanakh as a relationship between Zion and G-d. This relationship is
depicted by a marriage bond when the city is a good city, i.e. when the
Jewish people keep the mitswot and are faithful to G-d. When the Jewish
people are however unfaithful to G-d, Zion is called a bad city and the
relationship is that of desertion. As in other books of Neviim and Ketu-
vim, the city Zion has been attributed several feminine metaphors in the
book of Isaiah: she is called a bride, widow, mother, whore and wife. She
is described as being in labour pains, being worried or thoughtful, and is
always viewed in connection to G-d. Whereas the notion of female me-
taphors for Zion is not new in Biblical research or feminist theology, I
detect yet another feminine metaphor for Zion in Isaiah which, although
mentioned in classic rabbinical writings, I have never seen in modern
day Biblical research. The desertion as mentioned in Isaiah is, as I will
argue, described with the metaphor of an agunah, a chained woman,
even though the term itself is not mentioned. Cases of igun are visible in
other books of the Tanakh as well and the usage of this metaphor shows
that it must have been a known concept in those days to abandon ones
wife without divorcing her, as D. Guest says: a metaphor is not an iso-
lated mental concept that exists in some kind of splendid isolation it is
drawn from real conditions, beliefs and values that are shared between
writer and reader.2
The concept of igun is a halakhic one; an agunah is a Jewish woman
chained to a marriage that no longer exists, either because the husband
has gone missing and his death cannot be proven (therefore the term
, a living widow, is also used for this type of agunah) or be-
cause the husband refuses to give a get, a religious divorce, to his wife.

1
Dedicated to my father, zl.
2
D. Guest, Hiding Behind the Naked Women in Lamentations: A Recriminative
Response, Biblical Interpretation: Journal of Contemporary Approaches 7 (1999),
426.
192 S. BOROCIN-KNOL

In both cases the woman is not allowed to start a sexual relationship with
another man and is thus prevented from remarrying. Would she do this
then she would be regarded as an adulterous woman liable to a karet-
punishment, a Divine death penalty, and all children born out of such a
relationship would be mamzerim.3
Some readers might wonder whether it is possible at all to apply a ha-
lakhic problem to stories in the Tanakh. Can one lay a modern sheet on
an old text and see if we can find evidence stating our case? This cer-
tainly depends on the way one interprets the history of the halakhah. If
one holds that the halakhah was solely a manmade law, which developed
throughout the ages, then maybe we cannot retrieve stories which might
imply that women in the Tanakh may be regarded as agunot. The con-
cept might be too new to find it in this ancient text. However, if one
holds, as orthodox Judaism does, that the halakhah was given by G-d to
Moses on Sinai, then one can easily apply the halakhah to the Tanakh.
To interpret the halakhah, rabbis use all available religious sources, from
the Tanakh to the latest halakhic writings. One might say that Jewish
religious exegesis is diachronic exegesis ad absurdum. When the rabbis
are looking to resolve a problem they can use all previous religious and
halakhic texts to state their case. Therefore it is possible to find answers
in the tradition to even the newest problems like for instance genetic
manipulation or artificial insemination, because, as tradition says, every-
thing can be traced back to the law given to Moses. It is from this view-
point that I hold that agunah-cases can be found in the Tanakh.

2. Agunot in the Tanakh

Before discussing the agunah metaphor used for Zion in Isaiah, I will
focus first on three other stories in the Tanakh which deal with agunah-
situations. These stories are the stories of Tamar, the concubines of King
David and Ruth. All these stories show a different side of the agunah
problem. Sometimes at the end of the story the problem seems resolved;
sometimes the igun situation is unchangeable. Irrespective of the result,
these narratives show the plight of an agunah from various angles.

3
A mamzer is, for lack of a better word, a bastard. A mamzer is a child born out
of a forbidden relationship. This stigma can never be lost and will be transmitted
through the generations. A mamzer is a full Jew in every aspect of keeping the mits-
wot, except for the fact that (s)he is not allowed to marry an Israelite. A mamzer can
only marry another mamzer or a ger, a convert, and their children until infinity will
be mamzerim.
 ZION AS AN AGUNAH? 193

2.1. Tamar
In Gen. 38:6-30 we read about Tamar who became an agunah through
the deed of her father-in-law Judah. Tamar was married to Er, but he was
wicked in the eyes of G-d and was therefore killed by Him. He left Ta-
mar behind childless and she therefore fell to levirate marriage. Accord-
ing to halakhah, it is the duty of a brother to marry the wife of his dis-
eased brother, so that he can give her a child and let the name of his
brother live on. If the brother does not want to marry this woman, a spe-
cial divorce ceremony, called halitsah, has to be performed.
Tamar marries her husbands brother but he dies as well, due to a pu-
nishment of G-d when he spilled his seed (therefore, according to tradi-
tion, his name was Onan) so as not to make Tamar pregnant. Tamar, still
being a childless widow, now has to marry the third brother. Judah fears
however that also his third son will die when he marries Tamar and he
therefore sends her to her fathers home, telling her to wait for Shelah,
his third son, to grow up. But even after Shelah has grown up Judah does
not send him to Tamar to marry her. When Tamar realises that Judah is
not going to give her his third son in marriage, she knows that she will be
a childless widow, an , with no way out. She is already mar-
ried to the third brother, since a levirate marriage bond is established at
the minute a woman becomes a childless widow. So Tamar finds herself
in the position of being married without having a marriage; she has be-
come an agunah.
Tamar then takes matters into her own hands and tries to find a way
out of her situation. In the time before any male member of a
family could perform the act of levirate marriage.4 The only thing that is
necessary for levirate marriage to become a full marriage is that the ya-
bam and yevamah have intercourse. No previous ceremony is required.
Knowing this Tamar sets up a plot for her father-in-law by covering her
head with a veil and waiting for him alongside the road. When Judah
comes along he thinks she is a prostitute and offers her a kid from the
flock if she will have sex with him. Since he does not have the payment
with him, she asks for a pledge. They have intercourse and Judah leaves
Tamar his signet, bracelets and staff. After this they both go their way.
Judah sends one of his friends to hand over the payment and regain his

4
This according to Bchor Shor as quoted in M. Zlotowitz, Bereishis Genesis,
vol. 5, New York 1981, 1686, where it is read that As Bchor Shor explains, Tamar
was justified in contriving to have Judah perform the levirate marriage for [as Ram-
ban writes in v. 8] before the Torah was given levirate marriage was performed by
any close relative even the father of the deceased. Since Shelah had not done so, it
was Judahs responsibility to do so.
194 S. BOROCIN-KNOL

property, but the prostitute cannot be found.

When Judah finds out that his daughter-in-law is pregnant, he is fu-
rious. How could she, a married woman, go around and sleep with other
men? Even though Tamar does not have a real marriage, by sleeping
with someone else she has become an adulterous woman, liable to the
death penalty. Judah brings her to trial where she can prove that it was he
who made her pregnant. Judah has to acknowledge that she was right in
her actions, even more right than he himself had been. That Tamar was
right in what she did is also mentioned in bNazir 23b, where it is stated
that:
Ulla said, Tamar and Zimri both committed adultery. Tamar
committed adultery and gave birth to kings and prophets. Zimri
committed adultery and on his account many tens of thousands of
Israel perished. R. Nachman bar Yitzchak said, A transgression
performed with a good intention is better than a mitswah per-
formed with evil intention.5
What is striking in this passage is that Ulla says that Tamar had commit-
ted adultery, while, as we saw earlier, before any male family
member could fulfil levirate marriage and one only needs sexual inter-
course to make the marriage valid. Strictly speaking Tamar thus did not
commit adultery but she implemented marriage by having intercourse,
although the alleged husband was not aware of this.
The text in the Tanakh then states: , which has been
translated and explained in opposite directions. Some understand
as he did not continue, while others explain the verb to mean he did
not cease to be intimate with her thenceforth.6 Zlotowitz compares this
to Num. 11:25 where ( and they did not continue to prophesy) is
regarded by Onkelos as and they did not cease to prophesy.7 Judah was
permitted to continue having sexual relations with Tamar since by their
first cohabitation Tamar had become Judahs proper wife. If Judah did
not want to stay married to Tamar he had to give her a get. Which of the
two things happened, we cannot know for certain.

2.2. The Ten Concubines of King David

According to Deut. 21:15-17 a man is allowed to be married to more
than one woman at the same time and although polygyny was allowed

5
Talmud Bavli, Soncino edition.
6
M. Zlotowitz, op. cit., 1698.
7
Ibid.
 ZION AS AN AGUNAH? 195

and practiced, some scholars do think that it was not the standard (at
least not in the post-exilic period) and that monogamous marriages were
even to be preferred.8 Proof for this could be taken from the fact that
many stories in the Tanakh talk about the wife in the singular (Gen. 2:24;
Ps. 128; 2 Chron. 12:4, 18:22; 19:14) and that also the ideal relationship
between Israel and G-d is described as monogamous (Isa. 61:10, 62:5;
Ezek. 16; Hos. 2:21-22). However, there are different instances men-
tioned in the Tanakh were a man has more than one wife, even though it
may not always have been the mans intention. Abraham, for instance,
only took a second wife because Sara told him so after they had lived
together for ten years without conceiving children (the halakhah says
that a couple might want to get divorced if they have not conceived
children after being married for ten years, this to ensure that one partner
in the couple might find another partner with whom (s)he might conceive
children). Also Jacob may have had the intention to marry only Rachel
but was lured by his father-in-law to marry Leah first and then had no
other choice (since he loved Rachel that much) than to marry a second
time. His two wives then gave him two more women as concubines.
The kings seem to be an exception to the rule that monogamy is pre-
ferred to polygyny, even though it is stated in Deut. 17:17 about a king
that he shall not multiply wives to himself and we also read in bSanhe-
drin 21a:
Neither shall he multiply wives to himself only eighteen, R.
Judah said; he may have more, provided they do not turn away his
heart, R. Simeon said; he must not marry even one who may turn
away his heart.
Fact is however that kings often had many women and concubines. The
wives and concubines of a king were in a different position than other
women. Once being married to a king meant that they could not marry
someone else after being divorced by the king and if they would be de-
filed (against their will or with their approval) they would be forbidden
to the king, i.e. he could not have sexual intercourse with them anymore.
This is what happened to ten concubines of King David.
In 2 Sam. 16:21-23 we read that when King David went to fight one of
his battles, he left behind ten of his concubines. Absalom, his son from

8
See for instance G.P. Hugenberger, Marriage as a Covenant: A Study of Biblical
Law and Ethics Governing Marriage Developed from the Perspective of Maleachi
(VT.S 52), Leiden/New York, etc. 1994, 122; G. Atlan, Les Juifs et le divorce: Droit,
histoire et sociologie du divorce religieux, Berne 2002, 11.
196 S. BOROCIN-KNOL

whom he was estranged, wanted to take over his fathers power and con-
sulted Abithophel about how to do this. Abithophel told Absalom to have
intercourse with the concubines his father left behind and to do this in the
sight of all Israel. This would show the Israelites that he abhorred his
father and those who were with Absalom would be strengthened in their
convictions. To take over, as a new king, the harem of a predecessor
might have been a normal way of acting, since David is reported to have
acted similarly with Sauls harem (2 Sam. 12:8).9 The problem I have
with this is that halakhah strictly forbids to uncover the nakedness of
thy fathers wife (Lev. 18:8); the wives and concubines of ones father
belong to the forbidden relationships which are punished by a karet-
punishment. Gen. 35:22; 49:3-4 talks about a similar matter where it says
that Reuben, who lies with his fathers concubine, incurs a curse and
loses the right of a firstborn. Absaloms act must have been assessed in
the same way by those who narrated it and heard of it.10 By defiling his
fathers concubines Absalom not only showed utter disrespect for his
father but also for G-d.
The story continues by saying that a tent was put upon the top of the
house and Absalom had intercourse with these ten concubines. Whether
the women themselves agreed to this, we are not told; it probably does
not change the outcome of the story anyhow. This public act may be
regarded as a state act equivalent to a declaration that proves that the
king is dead.11 Absalom then even tries to kill his father but does not
succeed and gets killed himself. By defiling his fathers concubines Ab-
salom might have incurred his own death as Hertzberg says what at first
sight is a move of infamous skill, in practice and in the long run proves
to be the reason for Absaloms failure, in that he sets himself above hu-
man and divine law.12
When King David returned to his house in Jerusalem he took his ten
concubines and put them in a house under guard. He continued to feed
them but he did not have intercourse with them anymore (2 Sam. 20:3).
They had become, until the day of their death, living widows (
). The ten concubines did not have a way out of their situation of
igun. They were looked after, be it that they were put in confinement,
but they did not have a married life13 anymore.
9
H.W. Hertzberg, I & II Samuel : A Commentary (OTL), London 1964, 350.
10
Ibid.
11
Ibid.
12
Ibid.
13
With married life I mean here that they did not have sexual intercourse with
King David anymore. Being a concubine, a pilegesh, means that one is not a wife, i.e.
a married woman and in that respect I cannot talk about married life. It is very
 ZION AS AN AGUNAH? 197

One might reason that in this situation being looked after although be-
ing an agunah might be favoured over being a divorcee, since the ten
concubines were not allowed to remarry anyone else either way. Still, the
women were punished for a crime that they might not have agreed to.

2.3. Ruth
Most people who know the story of Ruth and have some knowledge of
what an agunah is are most probably of the opinion that Ruth was an
agunah. Many clues in the story also hint at this, but in fact Ruth was
not an agunah and the marriage between her and Boaz was not a levi-
rate marriage.14 Let us reread the story through the lens of igun.
Ruth and Orpa, two Moabite women, were married to two Israelite
men. These men die, leaving their wives behind as childless widows.
Naomi, their mother-in-law, returns to Israel after the deaths of her hus-
band and her two sons. Ruth and Orpa want to return with her, but Nao-
mi tells them it is better for them to stay with their own people and find a
husband there. For, so she says,
are there yet any more sons in my womb that they may be your
husbands? Turn again my daughters; go your way, for I am too
old to have a husband. If I should say, I have hope, if I should
have a husband also tonight, and should also bear sons, would you
tarry for them till they were grown? Would you stay for them
from having husbands? (Ruth 1:12-13).
These verses hint at levirate marriage; the two women were childless
widows and would normally fall to yibbum. Why this is not the case here
is simple because, first, the two women were not Jewish and therefore
are not bound to the halakhah; second, levirate marriage only falls upon
a brother who has lived at the same time as his deceased brother. So,
even if Ruth and Orpa would have been Jewish, they would have been
free to marry any man they wanted in the absence of a yabam.
Ruth decides to follow Naomi anyhow, stating that thy people will be
my people and thy G-d will be my G-d (Ruth 1:16). Through this state-
ment Ruth became the first convert to Judaism. When both women arrive
in Israel, Ruth tells Naomi that she will go to one of the fields and gather
grain. Naomi tells her to go to the field of Boaz, a kinsman of her on her
husbands side, to gather grain and to find favour in Boazs eyes which

interesting to see though that in connection with these women the text talks about
living widows, suggesting that they were actually married.
14
See further D.A. Legget, The Levirate and Goel Institutions in the Old Testa-
ment with Special Attention to the Book of Ruth, New Jersey 1974.
198 S. BOROCIN-KNOL

also happens. Naomi then plans to convince Boaz to marry Ruth and
instructs Ruth how to convince him. Ruth dresses up and lies down at
Boazs feet. When he wakes up she invites him to spread his cloth over
his handmaid since he is her redeemer. Both these actions are of a sexual
nature as I. Rashkow in her article shows. 15 Boaz is willing to redeem
the field and take along Ruth as his wife by redeeming the field; he is
however not the closest relative who has this duty. Boaz therefore gath-
ers ten men of the elders of the city and also brings the person who is the
closest kinsman of Naomi. He tells this man that he can redeem the field
of Naomis late husband and if he does not want to do this, then he will
do so. The kinsman says he would like to redeem the field. When Boaz
mentions however that by buying the field, the man is also buying
Ruth, in order to restore the name of the death to his inheritance, the
kinsman declines the offer. The sentence to restore the name of the
death to his inheritance also alludes to a levirate marriage. By redeem-
ing the childless widow along with the field and possibly having children
with her, he reinstates the name of the deceased husband by giving him
progeny. Also the next passage in the text, i.e. the refusal of the kinsman
to redeem the field, hints at a levirate marriage or, even more precise, to
a halitsah. The text says that the kinsman refuses; he then takes off his
sandal and hands it to Boaz. It was a custom in former Israel concerning
redeeming and exchanging that one would take off ones sandal and give
it to the other to confirm the transaction. However when a yabam refuses
to marry his yevamah a similar ritual called halitsah is performed. Dur-
ing this ritual the yabam and yevamah are gathered together with a mi-
nyan, ten orthodox men. The woman says that the yabam refuses to fulfil
his duties towards her. Then the man is asked whether he really refuses
to marry the childless widow of his deceased brother and he will confirm
this. The woman will then take off his sandal and spit in front of him.
Then the surrounding people will say three times , house of the
un-shoed, and the divorce is a fact.
In our story Boaz redeems the field and marries Ruth. The story of
Ruth, even though obviously not a story about an agunah, shows once
again women in the Tanakh taking matters into their own hands concern-
ing marriage. Yes, they are dependent on the men, for without their co-
operation with regard to a marriage their future would be uncertain, but
the women take the initial step.

15
I. Rashkow, Ruth: The Discourse of Power and the Power of Discourse, in: A.
Brenner (ed.), A Feminist Companion to Ruth (The Feminist Companion to the Bible
3), Sheffield 1993, 37-40.
 ZION AS AN AGUNAH? 199

3. Zion as a Woman16

The stories so far are stories of real women in the Tanakh who were or
seemed to have been agunot. There is however another story in the Ta-
nakh where, I argue, an agunah-metaphor is visible be it that this time it
is not a woman but the personified city Zion who has become an agu-
nah. To attribute feminine metaphors to cities is a phenomenon that
started already before the Tanakh was written down. The ancient Greeks
for instance already called a city which possessed colonies metro-polis,
mother-city. Also the walls of a city are described with a female image.
On the one hand the city is as a mother who protects her children inside.
At the same time however a city in itself is a protection for women; it is
in the field, i.e. outside of the city, where they are in danger. So a woman
is both the protector and the protected. Using a feminine image to de-
scribe a city is not strange if one considers that the word city is gram-
matically feminine in many languages. However we can also see that the
city has images applied to her that go beyond grammatical gender into
the realms of psychology, social roles and personal identity.17 It is not
unlikely to consider that these metaphors relate to existing images of
women and that the author has a reason for choosing these images.
In ancient literature we can see that cities were regarded as goddesses
or as the wives of gods. In describing the relationship of a deity with a
certain city, marriage metaphors were used. Biddle gives three forms of
how the relationship between a city and a deity is described.18 In Meso-
potamian literature cities are not described in female images; they are
either masculine or neutral. However, influential cities are connected to a
goddess who is the matron of the city and is therefore called mother of
the city. The goddess is then identified with the city. In West-Semitic
and Hellenistic areas the identification of the goddess with the city is
enlarged and the cities themselves are now regarded as divine. In the
third and final form we can see that cities are personalised, especially in
the city complaints which are written after the destruction or defeat of
an important city. In these city complaints a city is described as a mother,
a queen or a princess who mourns over her lost and destructed city. Her
temple is destroyed and her people are exiled or murdered. These com-
16
The majority of the material I will present under this heading comes from: S.
Knol, Zion die Stadt als Frau: Metaphern und sexualisierte Bedeutungen,
Schlangenbrut 80 (2003), 39-40.
17
J.J. Schmitt, The Motherhood of God and Zion as Mother, RB 92 (1985), 561.
18
M.E. Biddle, The Figure of Lady Jerusalem: Identification, Deification, and
Personification of Cities in the Ancient Near East, in: K.L. Younger, W.H. Hallo et
al. (eds), Canon in Comparative Perspective, Lewiston 1991, 173-94.
200 S. BOROCIN-KNOL

plaints are however no personal complaints; the goddess does not identi-
fy herself with the city. If we compare this to the city complaints in the
Tanakh we can see several differences. First, the relationship of G-d with
the city is personal; G-d is compassionate with His people and suffers
with them. Second, due to the fact that Judaism is a monotheistic reli-
gion, there cannot be a relationship between G-d and the goddess of the
city. The city itself therefore has to be the marriage partner of G-d.
Throughout many books in the Tanakh we see that the relationship of G-
d and Israel is depicted as a marriage bond between G-d and Zion.
Whether the marriage relation is a happy one or not depends on the way
the Jewish people relate to G-d. When the people keep the mitswot, Zion
is called a bride, a mother and a good wife; when the people turn away
from G-d, Zion is called a whore, an adulterous wife or a barren woman
(barrenness is apparently a derogatory state). The personified city is thus
either good or bad, i.e. virtuous or promiscuous, and it seems as if
there are no in-between women. This concept of a woman being either
completely good or completely bad, known in feminist theology as the
Madonna-whore dichotomy, is a conceptual scheme that reduces a
woman to sexual function, constrains her role to that of the object of
male control, and values the feminine figure contingent upon her ac-
commodation to male control.19 It is striking that all these metaphors are
somehow connected to sexual relationships: metaphors of a wife (marital
relationships), a whore, a loose or an adulterous woman (extra-marital
relationships), a nidah or agunah (forbidden sexual relationships) and a
raped woman (forced sexual relationships).20
The three metaphors which are most commonly used for Zion are Zion
as a bride and mother, Zion as an outcast woman and Zion as a raped
woman. Let us look at these three metaphors which are interconnected.
Zion as the bride of G-d is at the same time the mother of the Jewish
people. When the Jewish people are faithful to G-d and fulfil His com-
mandments, they are safe in mother Zion and they will not be defeated
by foreign attacks. However when the people become unfaithful to G-d,
He will send them into exile and destroy Zion; through Zion the Jewish
people suffer along. Zion will then mourn her children. When G-d for-

19
P. Gordon, H.C. Washington, Rape as a Military Metaphor in the Hebrew Bi-
ble, in: A. Brenner (ed.), A Feminist Companion to the Minor Prophets (The Femin-
ist Companion to the Bible 8), Sheffield 1995, 319. Gordon and Washington call this
dichotomy the meretrix/madonna complex and cite other references to this subject.
20
For examples on these metaphors, see Ezek. 16 and 23, Isa. 48:14, 50:1; 54:6-8,
Lam. 1-2, Hos. 3.
 ZION AS AN AGUNAH? 201

gives His people, He will end the exile and let them return to Zion. The
city will then be rebuild and have many children again.
The unfaithfulness of the people is however also directly linked to
Zion: the unfaithfulness of the people is described in the metaphor of an
adulterous woman. Zion is described as a once beautiful woman, the
bride of G-d, who became unfaithful to Him and had many lovers (Lam.
1-2; Isa. 1:21). Due to her unfaithfulness G-d sends her away (i.e. the
people are sent into exile) only to take her back again as His bride (i.e.
the end of the exile) when she has changed her behaviour (i.e. when the
Jewish people have repented their iniquities). The unfaithfulness of the
Jewish people is described in gender specific terms and G-ds punitive
actions have successfully been directed to a general image of female
adultery which attracted justified punishment.21 This same story of the
unfaithfulness of Zion has been told again in Hosea 1-3, but there the
story contains aggressive sexual language.22 In this story the speaker, be
it G-d or Hosea,
attacks his metaphorical wife in an aggressive manner. He accuses
her of going after her lovers (Baals), and threatens several times
to strip her naked. After this speech act which exposes so much
sexual violence H/he then starts, ..., to sing a love song to her
... For the metaphorical wife, however, this transition means that
she, after having been victimised by her husband, now becomes
H/his totally passive bride whose only task is to respond to H/his
initiatives.23
Military conquests of cities are, as P. Gordon and H.C. Washington
show,24 often described in language of a sexual nature. There are several
stories in the Tanakh where Zion has been depicted as a raped woman.
This is very clear for instance in Lam. 1-2 where daughter Zion is
mourned as a formerly beautiful woman, now raped and abandoned by
the enemy. The description of G-ds punishment of Jerusalem seamlessly

21
D. Guest, art. cit., 414.
22
See further for instance N. Graetz, God, the Abusive Husband: The marriage
metaphor gets pushed to dangerous limits, The Jerusalem Report, June 12, 1997, 31;
G. Baumann, Liebe und Gewalt: Die Ehe als Metapher fr das Verhltnis JHWH
Israel in den Prophetenbchern (SBS 185), Stuttgart 2000; N. Stienstra, YHWH is
the Husband of His People: Analysis of a biblical metaphor with special reference to
translation, Kampen 1993.
23
F. van Dijk-Hemmes, The Metaphorization of Woman: An Analysis of Eze-
chiel 23, in: F. van Dijk-Hemmes, A. Brenner, On Gendering Texts: Female and
Male Voices in the Bible (Biblical Interpretation Series 1), Leiden 1993, 168.
24
P. Gordon, H.C. Washington, art. cit.
202 S. BOROCIN-KNOL

joins together the language of sexual and military violence.25 Also in

Mic. 4:11 we can see that Zions punishment is described through sexual
humiliation and in Jer. 3; 6 the conquering of Jerusalem by its enemies is
described as a rape. However, the conquering of hostile cities is also
described in clear sexual language as is visible in Nah. 3:5-6 with regard
to Ninive. The cities Babel and Ninive, due to the fact that they were
hostile cities, were often described with derogatory feminine nouns.

4. Zion as an Agunah

Even though it is obvious that the use of gender specific metaphors for
cities is very common in Biblical literature, how can the reading of Zion
in Isa. 49:14; 50:1 and 54:6-8 be justified as reading the story as an
agunah-metaphor, specifically since the verb itself is not used? The
word agunah comes from the Aramaic verb , which can either mean
to incarcerate or to prevent a woman to remarry. This verb is a hapax
legomenon in the Tanakh and can be found in Ruth 1:13 (), where
Ruth binds herself to her mother-in-law Naomi. In Targum Yonathan26
on Isaiah we can however find four more instances were derivations of
can be found, namely in Isa. 24:22 ( ;the Masoretic text gives
), 42:7 (), 42:22 ( )and 49:9 (). In all these cases,
however, the verb is used meaning to incarcerate. Still, in reading Isa.
49:14; 50:1 and 54:6-8 the imagery of an abandoned woman who did not
get a divorce letter from her husband comes to mind.
In the Book of Isaiah the prophet foretells the exile of the people of
Israel and the destruction of Jerusalem. The exile will be the punishment
of G-d because His people do not obey His commandments. To tell the
story of the exile, Isaiah uses the metaphor of a woman who was unfaith-
ful to her husband, who then sends her away, only to take her back after
she had mended her ways. It is in this story that I read a story of an agu-
nah.
In Isa. 49:14 we read: ( Zion said: Hash-
m has forsaken me; my Lord has forgotten me.) The city complaints
about the fact that her husband (G-d) has deserted her and has left her to
her own devises. Her situation is bad; the city is destroyed and her child-
25
P. Gordon, H.C. Washington, art. cit., 315.
26
This Targum is allocated to Yonathan ben Uziel (first century BCE-first century
CE), who was an outstanding pupil of Hillel (bMeg. 3a). It encompasses the Torah,
the Neviim and part of the Ketuvim. The Targum Yonathan is a freer interpretation
of the Hebrew text than the authoritative Targum Onkolos. It was written in Palestine
for the Jews who where living there.
 ZION AS AN AGUNAH? 203

ren are either killed or driven away. In a response to the complaint of the
children of Zion, G-d answers in Isa. 50:1:



Thus said Hash-m: Where is your mothers bill of divorce by
which I sent her away? Or which of my creditors is it to whom I
have sold you? Behold, for your iniquities have you sold your-
selves, and for your transgressions is your mother put away.
In this passage G-d admits that He has put away Zion, His wife. He
however also admits that even though having sent her away, He has not
given her a bill of divorce. As a reason for sending Zion away He gives
the iniquities and transgressions of the Jewish people.27 Elsewhere the
iniquities and transgressions of the Jewish people are expressed in meta-
phors of adultery and harlotry.28 A woman who is an adulterous woman
should be divorced; it is not allowed to punish an adulterous woman by
making her into an agunah, the divorce in itself is punishment enough
as is the fact that the woman is forbidden to ever marry the man she has
committed adultery with.29 This is however exactly what has happened to
Zion; she is put away without being divorced. The reason why G-d has
not divorced His wife Zion is because, as written in Isa. 54:6-8:




For Hash-m has called you as a woman who had been forsaken
and grieved in spirit, and like a wife of ones youth who had be-
come despised, said your G-d. For but a brief moment have I for-
saken you, and with abundant mercy will I gather you in. In the
overflowing of wrath I hid my face from you for a moment; but
with everlasting kindness will I have mercy on you, says your re-
deemer, Hash-m.

27
The Redak writes: You were sold for your iniquities, and your ransom is re-
pentance, as quoted in: A.J. Rosenberg, Isaiah (Miqraot Gedolot), vol. 2, New York
1989, 404.
28
See for instance Isa. 1:21; Lam. 1-2.
29
mSotah 5:1 (derived from Num. 5:11-31), bSotah 27b.
204 S. BOROCIN-KNOL

It was out of anger for her behaviour that G-d cast His wife away but
after she has mended her ways and His anger has subdued He takes her
back. Zion was only a temporary agunah.
That the texts can be read as this can be found in the Mikreot Gedolot,
the commentary of halakhic thinkers to the Tanakh, where both Redak30
and Ibn Ezra31 perceive Zion in these verses to be an abandoned wife. As
the Redak32 writes,
You [Zion] are not like a woman whose husband has died, for
your Husband lives on. You are but like a woman whose hus-
band has become wroth with her and has deserted her for a long
time. G-ds rejection is not permanent, for she is like a wife of
ones youth, who is never rejected permanently.33
The Ibn Ezra, in commenting on the same verse, writes
This is said in reference to the expression the disgrace of your
widowhood, mentioned in the preceding verse [Isa. 54:4]. The
gentiles deride Israel since they have no king.
G-d, therefore, replies that they are no widows but merely a wife
deserted by her husband, who is distressed in spirit.34

30
Redak is short for R. David Kimchi, who lived between c. 1160 c. 1235.
31
Ibn Ezra was born in Spain and lived around the second half of the 11th and the
first half of the 12th century.
32
)( ' -
,

, ,

,


,"

,
,

,
,"
,

:
33
A.J. Rosenberg, op. cit., 431.
34
Ibid.
 ZION AS AN AGUNAH? 205

From this passage of Ibn Ezra we apparently have to learn that being a
widow is more of a disgrace than being an abandoned wife. This because
a widow has fully lost her husband and thus her place as a wife while the
husband of a deserted wife can always return and restore his wifes
place. Apparently it is a well accepted fact that when a husband becomes
angry with his wife that he will leave her without divorcing her and once
his anger has subdued he will come back to his wife, resuming married
life.
The Redak and Ibn Ezra regard the tribes of Judah and Benjamin as
symbolised by Zion who in turn is metaphorised as the wife of G-d. They
contrast the verse of Isa. 50:1
to Jer. 3:8 where we read ( i.e.
Thus said Hash-m: Where is your mothers bill of divorce by which I
sent her away? in contrast to I had put her away, and given her a bill
of divorcement). The tribes of Judah and Benjamin are put against the
ten other tribes, who never returned from their exile and basically va-
nished. In explaining the verses in Isaiah both Redak and Ibn Ezra say
that the verse in Jeremiah is addressing the ten tribes, whereas Isaiah
was addressing the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The ten tribes when
they were driven into exile lost their sovereignty completely.35 There-
fore the ten tribes were divorced by G-d; He really wanted to part from
them and therefore cut off the relationship completely, which is not the
case regarding Judah and Benjamin, as Redak writes:
To Judah, however, He did not give a bill of divorcement. This is
analogous to a man who becomes angry with his wife and sends
her away. He does not want to give her a bill of divorcement, be-
cause he intends to take her back. So it is with Judah, whom G-d
intends to reinstate its position of sovereign over Israel. Isaiah
consoles Israel in this exile that they will surely return, since they
were sold for their sins, and by repenting, G-d will restore them to
their place.36
That G-d did not intend to break His covenant with Israel can also be
seen in the contrast of the words with eternal kindness (Isa. 54:8) to a
brief moment (54:7); the implication is that the kingdom of Israel will
exist forever, as is related in Daniel (Dan. 7:27). The days of exile will
seem like but a moment compared to the length of the Messianic era

35
Ibid., 403.
36
Ibid., 403-4.
206 S. BOROCIN-KNOL

[Ibn Ezra].37 And also Redak writes, All the years of exile are as but a
short moment, compared to the manifold mercies G-d will bestow on
Israel during the Messianic era, when they will be gathered in to their
land.38 The Mezudat David says that the exile will be a brief moment
compared to the length of the peace and tranquillity they will experience
in the Messianic era.39 The bond between G-d and the people of Israel is
an everlasting bond; unfaithfulness on the part of the Jewish people will
have consequences, but the relationship will never end. In the messianic
era even the ten tribes that have been lost will be gathered back in Israel.

5. Conclusion

In traditional rabbinic literature it is thus a given concept that Zion in Isa.

49:14; 50:1 and 54:6-8 can be regarded as an agunah. That most mod-
ern-day exegetes have not read the metaphor of an agunah into these
passages of Isaiah is understandable if one takes into consideration that
religious attributions to the texts of the Tanakh is not common in aca-
demic work, therefore one might not accept the fact that traces of the
problem of igun can be found in the Tanakh. Next to that, one has to be
familiar with this halakhic concept to be able to detect it in texts, which
most exegetes will not be. With this article I have tried to tread some
unfamiliar grounds, since I am a halakhist and not an exegete, and with
that I hope to have given a new insight into the place of Zion within
Isaiah.

37
Ibid., 432.
38
Ibid., 431.
39
Ibid.
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 CONTRIBUTORS
PROF. DR. U. BERGES is professor of Old Testament at the Faculty of
Catholic Theology, University of Bonn (Germany). Main publications:
Das Buch Jesaja: Komposition und Endgestalt (Herders Biblische Studi-
en 16), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 1998; Klagelieder (Herders Theologischer
Kommentar zum Alten Testament), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 2002; Jesaja 40-
48 (Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament), Freiburg
2008. Address: Alttestamentliches Seminar, Kath.-Theol. Fakultt, Regi-
na-Pacis-Weg 1a; D 53113 Bonn, u.berges@t-online.de.
PROF. DR. W.A.M. BEUKEN is professor emeritus of Old Testament at
the Catholic University of Leuven (Belgium). Main publications: Isaiah
II (Historical Commentary on the Old Testament), vol. 2: Isaiah 28-39,
Leuven 2000; Jesaja 1-12 (Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Al-
ten Testament), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 2003; Jesaja 13-27 (Herders Theo-
logischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament), Freiburg/Basel, etc. 2007.
Address: Waversebaan 220, B 3001 Leuven - Heverlee;
Wim.Beuken@theo.kuleuven.ac.be.
DR. S. BOROCIN-KNOL is a Jewish halakhic scholar and member of the
former Agunah Research Unit of the Manchester University, Centre for
Jewish Studies (United Kingdom). Main publications: An Historical
Overview of Some Overt Ideological Factors in the Development of the
Agunah Problem, Manchester 2009; Echtscheiding binnen het joden-
dom, in: Al-Nisa 26/2 (2007), 20-26; Zion die Stadt als Frau: Meta-
phern und sexualisierte Bedeutungen, Schlangenbrut 80 (2003), 39-40.
Address: 172 Albert Avenue, Prestwich, UK M25 LX Manchester;
sknol@hotmail.com.
DR. C.H.J. DE GEUS is emeritus senior lecturer of Classical Hebrew and
Archaeology of the Near East, Faculty of Arts, University of Groningen
(the Netherlands). Main publications: The Importance of Archaeological
Research into the Palestinian Agricultural Terraces, with an excursus on
the Hebrew word gbi, Palestine Exploration Quarterly 107 (1975), 65-
75; The City of Women: womens places in ancient Israelite cities, J.A.
Emerton (ed.), Congress Volume Paris 1992 (VT.S 61), Leiden 1995,
75-87; Towns in Ancient Israel and in the Southern Levant (Palestina
Antiqua 10), Louvain 2003. Address: Schaperstraat 5, NL 9722 LN
Groningen; chjdegeus@kpnplanet.nl.
230 CONTRIBUTORS

DR. K.D. JENNER is emeritus lecturer of Old Testament Studies, but still
senior participant in research on the Syriac Bible at the Leiden Universi-
ty (the Netherlands). Main publications: The Use of the Particle yt in
the Syro-Hexaplaric Psalter and the Peshitta, in: M.F.J. Baasten, W.Th.
van Peursen (eds), Hamlet on a Hill (FS T. Muraoka), Leuven 2003,
287-306; La Peshitta: fille du texte massoretique?, in: A. Schenker, Ph.
Hugo (eds), Lenfance de la Bible hebraque: Lhistoire du texte de
lAncien Testament la lumire des recherches rcentes (Le monde de la
Bible 52), Genve 2005, 238-63; K.D. Jenner, W. van Peursen et al.,
CALAP: An Interdisciplinary Debate between Textual Criticism, Tex-
tual History, and Computer-Assisted Linguistic Analysis, in: P.S.F. van
Keulen, W.Th. van Peursen (eds), Corpus Linguistics and Textual Histo-
ry: A Computer-Assisted Interdisciplinary Approach to the Peshitta
(SSN 48), Assen 2006, 13-44. Address: P.O. Box 9515, NL 2300 RA
Leiden; k.d.jenner@umail.leidenuniv.nl.
DR. M.J. DE JONG is coordinator for biblical studies New Testament at
the Netherlands Bible Society, Haarlem. Main publications: Isaiah
among the Ancient Near Eastern Prophets: a comparative study of the
earliest stages of the Isaiah tradition and the Neo-Assyrian prophecies
(VT.S 117) Leiden 2007; Ezekiel as a Literary Figure and the Quest for
the Historical Prophet, in: J. Tromp, H.J. de Jonge (eds), The Book of
Ezekiel and Its Influence, Aldershot 2007, 1-16; Mark 16:8 as a Satisfy-
ing Ending to the Gospel, in: R. Buitenwerf, H.W. Hollander, et al. (eds),
Jesus, Paul, and Early Christianity (FS H.J. de Jonge) (NT.S 130), Leiden
2008, 123-49. Address: Zijlweg 198, NL 2015 CK Haarlem;
mdjong@bijbelgenootschap.nl.
PROF. DR. A. VAN DER KOOIJ is professor of Old Testament Studies at
the Leiden Institute of Religious Studies, Faculty of Humanities, Leiden
University (the Netherlands). Main publications: Die alten Textzeugen
des Jesajabuches: ein Beitrag zur Textgeschichte des Alten Testaments
(OBO 51), Fribourg/Gttingen 1981; The Oracle of Tyre: the Septuagint
of Isaiah 23 as Version and Vision (VT.S 71), Leiden/Boston, etc. 1997;
Canonization of Ancient Hebrew Books and Hasmonaean Politics, in:
J.-M. Auwers, H.J. de Jonge, The Biblical Canons (BEThL 163), Leuven
2003, 27-38. Address: P.O. Box 9515, NL 2300 RA Leiden;
a.van.der.kooij@religion.leidenuniv.nl.
DRS. P. LUGTIGHEID is a PhD student at Leiden University (the Ne-
therlands). Main publications: The Kingship of Yhwh and his ser-
vant, Dutch Studies Near Eastern Languages Literatures 4 (2001),
193-217; De Terugkeer van Jhwhs Dienaar: Jes. 44-46 als betoog (in
 CONTRIBUTORS 231

preparation). Address: Van Almondestraat 25, NL 2614 EW Delft;

pengalugtigheid@ziggo.nl.
DR. A.L.H.M. VAN WIERINGEN is senior lecturer of Old Testament at the
Faculty of Catholic Theology, University of Tilburg (the Netherlands).
Main publications: The Implied Reader in Isaiah 6-12 (Biblical Interpreta-
tion Series 34), Leiden/Boston, etc. 1998; Isaiahs Roles. The Unity of a
Bible Book from the Perspective of the Sender-role, in: P. Chatelion Cou-
net, U. Berges (eds), One Text, a Thousand Methods (FS S. van Tilborg),
Leiden/Boston, etc. 2005, 115-24; The Reader-Oriented Unity Of The
Book Isaiah (Amsterdamse Cahiers voor Exegese van de Bijbel en zijn
Tradities Supplement Series 6), Vught 2006. Address: Heidelberglaan 2,
NL 3584 CS Utrecht; A.L.H.M.vanWieringen@uvt.nl.
DR. A. VAN DER WOUDE, is an independent biblical scholar and a pastor
in a nursing home. Main publications: Geschiedenis van de terugkeer: de
rol van Jesaja 40,1-11 in het drama van Jesaja 40-55, Maastricht 2005;
Hearing Voices While Reading: Isaiah 40-55 as a Drama, in: P. Cha-
telion Counet, U. Berges (eds), One Text, a Thousand Methods (FS S. van
Tilborg), Leiden/Boston, etc. 2005, 149-73; Can Zion Do Without the
Servant in Isaiah 40-55?, CTJ 39 (2004), 109-16. Address: Kanunnik
van Osstraat 6, NL 6525 TX Nijmegen; a.vanderwoude@tiscali.nl.
 INDEX OF AUTHORS
Abma, R., 121
Ackroyd, P., 30, 31
Ahn, G., 157
Albertz, R., 37, 102, 108
Alexander, J.A., 73, 75, 179
Andersen, F.I., 125
Ashforth, B.E., 178
Atlan, G., 195
Avigad, N., 1, 3
Bahat, D., 4
Baker, G.W., 180
Baltzer, K., 104, 106, 109, 113,
159
Barkay, G., 5
Barker, M., 89
Barth, H., 45
Barthel, J., 22, 23, 24, 26, 27,
28, 29, 30, 31, 36
Barthlemy, D., 67, 68
Baumann, G., 201
Becker, U., 22, 23, 31
Beentjes, P.C., 114
Berges, U., IX, 31, 63, 72, 96,
98, 109, 112, 116, 143, 159,
164, 185
Beuken, W.A.M., IX, 12, 53,
59, 63, 67, 79, 136, 139, 144,
145, 149, 151, 164, 166, 185
Biddle, M.E., 163, 199
Blenkinsopp, J., 70, 109, 110,
111, 115, 136
Boer, P.A.H. de, 150
Borger, R., 42
Brockmeier, J., 176
Campbell, J.G., 15
Cartwright, D., 176, 180
Clements, R.E., 21, 37, 44, 45,
46
Cogan, M., 32, 33, 34
Conrad, E.W., 82
Coste, J.M., 17
Cowley, A.E., 133
Day, J., 27, 52, 110
De Vries, S.J., 76
Dekker, J., 37
Delitzsch, F., 136
Dietrich, M., 108
Dietrich, W., 16, 23
Dijk-Hemmes, F. van, 201
Dille, S.J., 161
Dobbs-Allsopp, F.W., 112
Downs, R.M., 100
Dubovsk, P., 54
Duhm, B., 12
Ego, B., 100, 103, 104, 108
Eichrodt, W., 97
Elliger, K., 127, 134, 154
Emerton, J.A., 187
Exter Blokland, A.P. den, 122,
125
Faust, A., 7
Fohrer, G., 12, 187
Franken, H.J., 2
Friedlaender, M., 67
Friedman, R.E., 174
Gallagher, W.R., 43
Gehlen, R., 100
George, A.R., 101
Gesenius, W., 73, 133, 145
Geus, C.H.J. de, VIII, 1, 5, 6, 7
Geva, H., 2, 4, 5, 8
Glasser, Th. L., 176
Gordon, P., 68, 200, 201, 202
Grg, M., 102, 104
Gorp, H. van, 159, 162
Graetz, N., 201
Groot, A.D. de, 184, 186
Groves, J.A., 128, 147
234 INDEX OF AUTHORS

Guest, D., 191, 201 Korpel, M.C.A., 110, 113, 118,

Haag, E., 111, 125 185
Hardmeier, C., 52 Kszeghy, M., 60, 61
Hartenstein, F., 103 Kratz, R.G., 103, 128, 134
Hayes, J.H., 38 Kuhrt, A., 157, 179
Hermisson, H.J., 105, 127, 132, Kustr, Z., 89
149, 150, 151, 152 La Barre, W., 184
Herodotus, 73 Laberge, L., 15
Hertzberg, H.W., 146, 196 Leene, H., 52, 106, 116, 121,
Herzog, Z., 4 122, 125, 143, 149, 151, 165,
Hironymus, 18, 52 185
Hffken, P., 57, 159 Legget, D.A., 197
Hgenhaven, J., 42 Levenson, J.D., 112
Hoheisel, K., 99, 100 Lindblom, J., 187
Hlscher, G., 187 Lland, H., 161
Hossfeld, F.-L., 79, 104 Lubetski, M., 67
Hovland, C.I., 183 Lugtigheid, P., IX, 125, 126,
Hugenberger, G.P., 195 138
Hultgrd, A., 108 Maag, V., 38
Hunziker-Rodewald, R., 103 Maier, C.M., 160
Irvine, S.A., 26, 32, 33, 34 Mandolfo, C.R., 160
Janis, I.L., 170, 173, 176, 180, Marti, K., 12
183 Matheus, F., 115
Janowski, B., 100, 101, 103, Mathews, C.R., 12
104, 108 Maul, S.M., 101, 104
Jenner, J.A., 186 Mayer, W., 43
Jenner, K.D., IX, X, 37, 46, 74, Milburn, M.A., 176
171, 179, 186 Moor, J.C. de, 32, 43, 57, 96,
Jenni, E., 68, 143 110, 113, 159
Jespen, A., 146 Mller, H.-P., 57, 70, 178
Jong, M.J. de, VIII, 72, 74 Naaman, N., 46
Kaiser, O., 31, 103, 107 Niccacci, A., 67, 72
Keel, O., 96, 99, 101 Novk, M., 108
Kiesow, K., 104, 118 Ollenburger, B.C., 37, 38, 41,
Killebrew, A.E., 1 44
Klopfenstein, M.A., 137 Oswalt, J.N., 67, 73
Knauf, E.A., 5, 43 Ottley, R.R., 15
Knol, S., IX, 199 Overholt, Th.W., 187
Koehler, L., 68, 134, 143 Paganini, S., 118
Koenig, J., 15 Parpola, S., 39
Knig, E., 63, 70, 73, 97 Pedersen, J.P.E., 187
Kooij, A. van der, VIII, 16, 17, Pezzoli-Olgiati, D., 99, 102
18, 43, 44, 46, 57 Pongratz-Leisten, B., 100, 104
Koole, J.L., 110, 136, 164 Pratkanis, A.R., 176
 INDEX OF AUTHORS 235

Procksch, O., 12 Stoebe, H.J., 141

Rashkow, I., 198
Reich, R., 3, 4, 5
Renz, Th., 95
Ringgren, H., 74
Rinschede, G., 99
Roberts, J.J.M., 31, 37, 56
Rosenberg, A.J., 67, 68, 73,
203, 204
Sallaberger, W., 101
Sass, B., 1
Schaudig, H., 44
Schmid, H.H., 38, 145, 146
Schmitt, J.J., 160, 199
Schwarzenbach, A., 99
Seeligmann, I.L., 17
Seitz, C.R., 82
Seybold, K., 96, 97
Shukron, E., 3, 4
Simian-Yofre, H., 71
Smelik, A., 184
Smelik, K.A.D., 32, 35
Smith, J.M., 101, 180
Soden, W. von, 57
Sommer, B.D., 108
Spek, R.J. van der, 179
Sperber, A., 90
Sprockhoff, J.-F., 99
Spronk, K., 52, 114
Spykerboer, H.C., 118
Sthler, K., 108
Steck, O.H., 12, 38, 109
Steiner, M.L., 2, 46
Stienstra, N., 201
Sundn, H., 178
Sweeney, M.A., 29, 31, 163
Tadmor, H., 32, 33, 34
Talstra, E., 121, 122, 125, 150
Terry, D.J., 176
Toorn, K. van der, 37, 38
Troxel, R.L., 18
Tull Willey, P., 113, 114, 116,
165, 185
Ussishkin, D., 2, 9
Vaughn, A.G., 1, 3, 4, 56
Veenhof, K.R., 72
Verheij, A.J.C., 56
Vermeylen, J., 45, 118, 164
Walton, T., 125
Watts, J.D.W., 72
Watzlawick, P., 183
Weippert, H., 99
Weippert, M., 2, 9
Werlitz, J., 26, 27, 31, 36, 99
Westermann, C., 134, 135, 137,
140, 143, 145
Wieringen, A.L.H.M. van, IX,
49, 50, 52, 53, 58, 61, 62, 81,
88, 90, 93, 163
Wildberger, H., 29, 39, 68, 69,
71, 72, 75
Williamson, H.G.M., 27
Woude, A. van der, IX, 159,
160, 164, 166, 180, 184, 185
Zemach, M., 183
Ziegler, J., 15, 17
Zlotowitz, M., 193, 194
 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES
Genesis 14:21, 107
1:1, 146 14:29, 137
1:2, 132 14-15, 111
1:6, 111 15, 96, 111
2:7, 143 15:5, 137
2:10-14, 101, 104 15:13, 111
2:24, 195 15:18, 96
2-3, 108 17:1-7, 107
7:7, 71 19:16, 74
9:8-17, 119 19:19, 74
13:1, 119 20:4, 146
13:10, 20, 108 20:18, 74
15:2, 73 23:29, 71
16:11, 28 30:13, 152
16:11-12, 28 30:14, 152
17:19, 28 34:24, 71
18:11, 69 38:26, 152
18:33, 73
20:7, 150 Leviticus
21:2-3, 28 6:21, 143
27:46, 71 11:33, 143
29:35, 28 14:5, 143
30:6, 28 14:50, 143
32:1, 73 15:12, 143
35:22, 196 18:8, 196
38:6-30, 193 19:9, 69
38:8, 193 23:22, 69
45:25, 119
49:3-4, 196 Numbers
5:11-31, 203
Exodus 5:17, 143
7:5, 117 10:33, 117
11:4, 117 11:2, 150
12:11, 117 11:25, 194
12:31, 117 20:1-13, 107
12:37-38, 107 21:7, 150
12:38, 119 22:11, 24
13:18, 119 23:10, 69
13:21, 117 23:21, 96
238 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES

32:11, 119
1 Samuel
Deuteronomy 2:2, 70
1:30, 117 8:7, 96
8:3, 118 12:12, 96
9:5, 127 13:3, 74
9:26, 150 14:4, 152
12:5, 76 15:34, 128
12:11, 76 17:9, 24
12:21, 76 17:33, 24
14:23-24, 76 25:28, 27
16:2, 76
16:3, 117 2 Samuel
16:6, 76 2:28, 74
17:17, 195 3:18, 34
20:10, 24 5:9, 1
20:19, 24 5:18, 69
21:15-17, 194 5:22, 69
24:19-22, 69 7, 117
26:2, 76 7:9, 69
26:19, 156 7:14, 34
28:12, 139 7:16, 27
32:4, 70 7:25, 127
32:15, 14, 70 12:8, 196
32:18, 70 15:10, 74
32:31, 70 16:21-23, 195
33:5, 14, 96 17:10, 69
18:16, 74
Joshua 20:3, 196
6, 74 20:22, 74
15:8, 69 23:3, 70
18:6, 69 23:13, 69
24:20, 152
Judges
3:27, 74 1 Kings
6:34, 74 1:34, 74
7:8, 74 1:39, 74
7:16, 74 1:41, 74
7:20, 74 7:23-26, 104
8:2, 69 8, 150
11:13, 119 8:6, 151
11:16, 119 8:7, 151
13:3-5, 28 8:21, 151
13:24, 28 8:29, 76, 150, 151
 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES 239

8:30, 150, 151 18:26, 30

8:31, 150 18:36-37, 44
8:33, 150 18-20, 31, 47
8:35, 150, 151 19:1-5, 44
8:42, 150 19:6-7, 44
8:51, 117 19:8, 24
9:15, 5 19:8-9, 44
11:13, 34 19:9, 72
11:34, 34 19:9-35, 46
11:38, 27 19:19, 35
15:19, 147 19:20, 35
19:2, 69 19:35, 47
21:29, 36 20, 31
23:13, 69 20:8-11, 30
21:11-15, 36
2 Kings 23:26-27, 36
9:13, 74 24:2, 36
11:2, 71 25:8-17, 136
12:17, 24 25:13-17, 117
15:29-30, 33
16, 25, 32, 35, 47 Isaiah
16:1-2, 32 1, 79
16:2-4, 32 1:1, 1, 54, 81, 82, 89, 90, 91,
16:5, 24, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 92
36, 47 1:1-2:5, 171
16:5-9, 31, 32, 33 1:2-3, 170
16:5-18, 32 1:3, 171
16:6, 33 1:5-6, 89
16:6-9, 33 1:7-18, 170
16:7, 33, 35 1:8, 170
16:7-9, 32, 33, 34, 35, 47 1:8-9, 169
16:8, 147 1:9, 108
16:9, 35 1:9-10, 51, 53
16:1, 25 1:10, 116
16:10-18, 32, 35 1:10-15, 170
16:18, 32 1:16-17, 171
16:19-20, 32 1:18, 169, 171
17:21, 37 1:21, 201, 203
18:14, 43 1:21-23, 170
18:14-16, 43 1:21-26, 79
18:17, 30 1:21-27, 79
18:17-19:9, 44 1:24, 170, 171
18:17-35, 44 1:25, 171
18:18, 30 1:26, 171
240 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES

1:26-27, 171 5:12-13, 169

1:28, 170 5:17, 113
1:28-30, 172 5:18-19, 40
1-5, 169 5:20, 40
1-12, 78, 79 5:21, 40
1-38, 57, 88 5:22-23, 40
1-39, 38, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 5:26-30, 73
57, 61, 62, 79, 81, 85, 89, 6, 51, 53, 54, 55, 96, 100,
93, 95 103, 104
2:1, 81 6:1, 25, 89
2:1-3, 171 6:1-8:18, 22
2:1-5, 55, 76, 79 6:5, 96
2:2-4, 100, 108 6:9, 25, 29, 74
2:2-5, 52, 53, 54, 59, 171 6:9-10, 25, 29
2:3, 95, 109, 119 6:9-11, 25
2:3-4, 171 6:10, 74
2:4, 108 6:11, 103
2:4-5, 171 6:12, 69
2:5, 51 6-7, 22
2:6, 169, 170 6-12, 54, 55, 58
2:6-5:29, 171 7, 31, 64, 79
2:9, 170 7:1, 22, 24, 25, 30, 31, 36,
2:10-21, 170 47, 54, 56, 57, 58, 60, 64,
2:17, 69 77, 82, 89
2:20, 69 7:1-7, 73
2:22, 69, 170 7:1-9, 25, 29, 84
3:1, 170 7:1-14:27, 90
3:1-7, 169 7:1-17, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
3:2-7, 170 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36,
3:9, 170 39, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54,
3:11, 170 55, 58, 59, 60, 62, 82, 88,
3:13-14, 170 90
3:16-14:1, 169 7:2, 24, 25, 26, 33, 58, 71, 83
4:2-3, 171 7:2-3, 26, 33, 35
4:2-6, 79, 171 7:3, 25, 26, 30, 82, 89
4:3, 95, 172 7:4, 24, 25, 26, 82
4:4, 95, 171 7:4-9, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33, 35,
4:5, 20 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 48
4:5-6, 171 7:5, 24, 25, 26
5, 40 7:5-7, 41
5:6, 119 7:5-9, 64
5:8, 40 7:6, 25, 26, 29, 33, 58
5:8-30, 170 7:7, 25, 77
5:11, 40 7:8, 24, 26, 38
 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES 241

7:8-9, 58, 77 9:5-6, 16, 45

7:9, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 36, 9:6, 83
38, 39, 52, 54, 58, 64, 83 9:8, 64
7:10, 25, 89 10, 40
7:10-12, 31, 82, 84 10:1-2, 40
7:10-13, 29 10:5, 56, 60
7:10-17, 25, 27, 29, 84 10:5-6, 41, 73
7:11, 25, 30, 31, 84 10:5-11, 60
7:11-12, 84 10:5-15, 40, 41
7:11-14, 31 10:7, 58
7:12, 55, 89 10:8-11, 58
7:13, 25, 26, 29, 36, 83 10:9-11, 64
7:13-14, 25, 29 10:11-19, 60
7:13-17, 31 10:12, 95
7:14, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 10:13-14, 58
31, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 10:15, 60
41, 46, 48, 51, 55 10:16-19, 45
7:14-15, 55, 62, 84, 89 10:20, 60
7:14-17, 29 10:24, 19, 60
7:15, 27, 83 10:24-25, 40
7:16, 25, 27, 28, 29, 40 10:27, 45, 71
7:16-17, 87 10:28, 56
7:17, 24, 29, 36, 37, 56, 58, 10:28-11:16, 89
60, 87 10:28-32, 40, 56, 61
7:18, 61 10:32, 95
7:19, 61 10:33-34, 45, 56, 61
7:20, 38, 61 11, 83, 117
8:1-4, 38, 40, 41, 73 11:1-5, 16, 45, 48
8:1-8, 51, 53, 55 11:2, 15
8:3, 28 11:2-4, 19, 83
8:4, 38, 64 11:4, 15, 146
8:5-8, 29 11:10, 74
8:8, 51 11:11, 64, 72
8:11-15, 29 11:12, 74, 117
8:14, 70, 109 11:16, 119
8:16, 101 12, 51, 53, 55, 79, 80, 88
8:23-9:6, 89 1-2, 100
9:1-4, 45 12:3, 117
9:1-6, 46, 48, 79 12:4, 55
9:2, 55, 83 12:6, 78
9:3, 45, 60 13:1, 59, 81, 93
9:3-4, 73 13:1-14:27, 64
9:5, 28, 51, 52, 53, 55, 62, 13:2, 74, 78
83, 88 13:4, 78
242 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES

13:9-11, 72 17:4, 65, 68, 69, 70

13:11, 73, 74 17:5, 65, 69, 75
13:12, 69 17:5-6, 69, 79
13:17, 59, 60 17:6, 65, 69, 70, 75, 77
13-14, 51, 53, 55, 56, 59, 73, 17:7, 65
79, 88 17:7-8, 69, 70, 77
13-17, 71 17:8, 65, 71
13-19, 63, 79 17:9, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71
13-22, 59 17:9-10, 70, 77
13-23, 56, 60, 63, 74 17:9-11, 69
13-27, 72, 74, 78, 79 17:10, 66, 70, 71, 77, 78, 109
13-35, 88 17:11, 66, 75
14:4-21, 60 17:12, 18, 66
14:5-7, 60 17:12-13, 77
14:9, 84 17:12-14, 71, 77
14:11, 60, 84 17:13, 15, 66, 74, 78
14:15, 60, 84 17:14, 66, 71, 72
14:17, 74, 100 17:7, 71
14:19, 60 17-18, 63, 64, 68, 69, 77, 79,
14:20-21, 72 80
14:21, 74 18, 64, 72, 76
14:24, 60 18:1, 66, 67
14:24-25, 45 18:1-2, 73, 74
14:24-27, 45, 79 18:1-6, 39, 64, 72, 76
14:25, 45, 73, 74 18:2, 66, 68, 73, 76, 77
14:26-27, 45 18:3, 66, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78
14:28, 46, 59, 90 18:4, 66, 75, 76, 77, 78
14:28-32, 64 18:4-5, 79
14:28-66:24, 91 18:5, 66, 75, 76, 77
14:30, 72 18:6, 67, 76, 78
14:32, 45, 72, 78 18:7, 64, 67, 68, 74, 75, 76,
15:1, 59, 81 77, 78
15-16, 64, 78, 80 19:1, 59, 81
16:1, 78, 100 19:1-4, 39
16:1-4, 72 19:20, 71
16:4, 71 19-20, 169
16:4-5, 72 20, 51, 53, 56, 61
16:8, 100 20:3, 72
17, 64, 75, 77 20:4, 73
17:1, 59, 65, 81 20:5, 72
17:1-3, 38, 41, 63, 77 20:6, 73
17:2, 65, 71 21:1, 59, 81, 100
17:2-3, 70 21:1-10, 80
17:3, 64, 65, 67, 68, 71, 77 21:3, 74
 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES 243

21:11, 59, 81 28, 80

21:13, 59, 81 28:1, 80
21-23, 63, 79 28:1-4, 40, 41
22, 61 28:7-10, 39, 40
22:1, 59, 81 28:14, 80
22:1-14, 80 28:15-18, 39, 40
22:5, 73 28:16, 80
22:11, 80 28:18-19, 73
22:15-18, 39 28-32, 22
23, 80 28-35, 56
23:1, 59, 81 29:1, 80
24:4, 74 29:15, 39
24:8, 18 29:18, 74
24:10, 79, 80 30:1-2, 39
24:12, 80 30:1-5, 39
24:13, 69 30:6, 81
24:22, 202 30:6-8, 39
24:23, 63, 78, 95, 96, 97, 114 30:14, 143
24-27, 56, 63, 80 30:19, 80, 95
24-35, 56 30:27-28, 45
25:1-5, 16, 17, 18 30:27-33, 45
25:2, 17, 18 30:29, 45, 69, 70, 109
25:2-3, 80 30:30, 15, 74
25:3, 17 31:1, 39
25:3-4, 17 31:1-3, 39
25:4, 17, 18, 19 31:3, 39, 69
25:5, 11, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 31:4, 80
20 31:8, 69
25:6, 74 31:8-9, 45
25:6-7, 78 31:9, 74, 95
25:7, 74 32:1-2, 45
25:9, 51, 53, 56, 70, 116 32:2, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18,
25:10, 78 19, 20
26:1, 80 32:3, 74
26:4, 70, 109 32:14, 80
26:5, 80 32:15, 100
26:9, 74 32:16, 100
26:13, 116 33:5, 80
26:18, 74 33:15, 74
27:6, 74, 79 33:19, 74
27:10, 80, 100 33:20, 95
27:12, 79 33:20-22, 117
27:13, 74, 78 33:23, 74
27:31, 174 34, 12, 102
244 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES

34:1, 74 37:36-37, 57
34:8, 12 37:37, 86
34:8-17, 12 37:38, 57, 86
34:13, 119 38, 31, 84, 89, 90, 91
34:16-17, 52, 53, 56 38:3, 83
34-35, 100 38:5, 83, 90
35, 12, 13 38:5-6, 83
35:1, 13, 19, 100 38:7, 91
35:1-2, 11, 12, 14, 20 38:7-8, 30, 84
35:2, 12, 14, 19, 116 38:8, 90, 93
35:3-4, 14 38:9, 57, 81, 82
35:4, 19, 70 38:9-20, 81
35:5, 19 38:10, 73, 84, 90
35:6, 100 38:10-20, 57
35:6-7, 13, 14, 19 38:11, 69
35:8-10, 12 38:16, 83
35:9-10, 110 38:17, 83
35:10, 110 38:18, 84
36:1, 82, 85, 90 38:18-19, 83
36:1-38:8, 81 38:20, 85, 91
36:2, 30, 61, 82, 85 38:21-22, 85, 91
36:7, 116 38:21-39:8, 81
36:19, 64 38:22, 30, 84, 85, 91
36-37, 51, 61, 80, 84, 85, 88 39, 53, 54, 57, 61, 62, 81, 83,
36-38, 23, 31, 57, 87, 88 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91,
36-39, 51, 53, 57, 59, 81, 82, 92, 93
85, 91, 92, 93, 100 6-7, 57, 58, 88
37:1, 85 39:1, 61, 72, 86
37:6, 82 39:2, 61, 86, 87, 91
37:7, 86 39:4, 91
37:8, 85 39:6, 87, 91, 92, 149
37:9, 72 39:6-8, 173
37:14, 85, 91 39:7, 87, 91
37:15-20, 85 39:8, 53, 83, 88, 91, 92
37:16, 83 40, 62, 81, 86, 89, 92
37:19, 69 40:1, 88, 91, 92, 93, 115, 163
37:20, 70, 84, 116 40:1-2, 102, 167, 173
37:21-35, 60, 83 40:1-9, 99
37:22, 95 40:1-11, 58, 88, 92, 102, 115,
37:29, 86 160, 163
37:30, 91 40:2, 97, 98
37:30-32, 82, 83 40:3, 98, 100, 116
37:32, 95 40:3-5, 102
37:35, 83 40:6-8, 102, 164, 174
 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES 245

40:8, 116 42:17, 116

40:9, 95, 97, 98, 102, 103, 42:18, 74
159, 164, 167 42:20, 74
40:9-10, 93 42:22, 202
40:9-11, 102, 174 42:24, 97
40:10, 166 43:1, 97, 115
40:10-11, 163, 167 43:3, 70
40:12-26, 174 43:3-4, 146, 148, 149, 155
40:20, 133 43:4, 69
40:22-24, 145 43:9, 117
40:27, 97, 173, 174 43:14, 115, 174
40:29-31, 173 43:15, 96
40-48, 97, 98, 99, 105, 122, 43:16, 137
137, 174 43:16-17, 174
40-49, 163 43:19, 100
40-52, 114 43:19-20, 98
40-55, 12, 95, 96, 97, 99, 43:20, 100
102, 106, 107, 109, 111, 43:22, 97
113, 115, 116, 117, 119, 43:28, 97
122, 131, 136, 145, 153, 44, 121
157, 159, 161, 162, 163, 44:1, 97
164, 165, 166, 167, 173 44:1-6, 174
406:1-2, 163 44:2, 14, 97
40-66, 52, 54, 60, 80, 81, 85, 44:5, 97
88, 89, 92, 93, 159, 160, 44:6, 96, 115
163, 164, 166, 167 44:8, 70, 109
41:8, 97 44:11, 69
41:8-19, 174 44:13, 69
41:13, 131, 132 44:15, 69
41:13-20, 20 44:21, 97, 126, 128, 155
41:14, 97, 115 44:21-22, 126, 158
41:18, 13, 14, 100 44:21-23, 125, 126
41:18-19, 98 44:21-46:13, 121, 122, 130,
41:19, 100 135, 138, 153, 154, 155,
41:21, 96, 97 156, 157
41:22-23, 174 44:22, 115, 122, 126, 137,
41:27, 93, 95, 97, 98, 159, 138, 146
164, 165 44:23, 97, 115, 126, 128,
42:1, 164 130, 154, 155, 156, 158
42:1-9, 164 44:24, 115, 121, 123, 125,
42:1-13, 174 126, 127, 128, 129, 130,
42:6, 145 131, 132, 133, 139, 140,
42:7, 202 142, 146, 147, 154, 155,
42:11, 13, 100 158
246 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES
44:24-26, 131, 132
44:24-28, 121, 122, 123, 125,
131, 132, 134, 135, 137,
138, 139, 145, 147, 154,
155, 158
44:24-45:7, 127, 140, 141
44:25, 121, 124, 128, 129,
130
44:25-26, 125, 127, 128, 129,
130, 131, 132
44:25-28, 130, 154
44:26, 13, 97, 98, 103, 113,
121, 124, 125, 127, 128,
129, 130, 131, 132, 133,
134, 138, 146, 154, 155,
156, 157, 174
44:26-28, 99, 103, 109, 130,
131, 132, 133
44:27, 103, 124, 128, 132,
133, 138
44:28, 97, 98, 103, 121, 123,
124, 128, 131, 132, 133,
138, 151, 154, 155, 156,
157
44-46, 121, 122, 138, 146,
154, 155, 156, 157
45, 62, 121, 136, 137, 141,
144, 145, 153, 155, 157
45:1, 123, 138, 140, 146,
147, 155, 157
45:1-7, 138, 139, 140
45:1-8, 122, 135, 138, 155,
158
45:1-13, 123, 135, 136, 151,
154, 155
45:2, 138, 140
45:2-7, 139
45:3, 62, 139, 140
45:4, 97, 139, 140, 157
45:4-5, 140
45:4-6, 147
45:5, 121, 139, 140
45:6, 121, 139, 140
45:6-7, 142
45:7, 121, 127, 139, 140,
141, 142, 147, 155
45:8, 121, 138, 141, 145,
146, 151
45:9, 141, 142, 143, 144,
146, 147, 153
45:9-10, 141, 142, 143, 144,
152, 153
45:9-11, 144, 156
45:9-13, 121, 122, 141, 143,
144, 148, 152, 153, 154,
156, 158
45:9-17, 153, 156, 157
45:10, 141, 143
45:11, 72, 142, 143, 144,
145, 147, 154
45:11-12, 142
45:11-13, 141, 142, 143, 144,
145, 147, 152
45:11-25, 158
45:12, 69, 142, 144, 145,
146, 147
45:12-13, 123, 154, 156
45:13, 104, 121, 123, 133,
136, 140, 142, 144, 145,
146, 147, 148, 149, 151,
152, 153, 154, 157, 174
45:13-14, 148, 149, 152, 155
45:14, 105, 121, 136, 140,
146, 147, 149, 150, 151,
152, 153
45:14-17, 122, 147, 148, 152,
153
45:14-46:13, 135, 136, 151,
154, 155, 157
45:15, 70, 139, 144, 148,
151, 152, 153
45:15-17, 148, 149, 152, 153
45:16, 148, 149, 153
45:17, 140, 148, 149, 151,
152, 153, 155
45:18, 105, 121, 133, 138,
144, 146, 147
45:18-19, 122, 137
 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES 247

45:18-25, 153, 156, 157 154, 155, 156, 157, 158,

45:19, 97, 105, 121, 139, 159
144, 145, 150, 153, 157 46:14, 151
45:20, 140, 150, 151 46-47, 105
45:20-21, 105 47:1, 60
45:21, 70, 121, 136, 145 47:4, 115
45:21-23, 135, 154, 155 47:15, 106
45:22, 121, 136, 151 48, 106, 107
45:22-23, 105 48:1, 97, 106, 109
45:22-25, 140 48:1-2, 106
45:23, 145 48:1-3, 174
45:24, 135, 141, 145, 150, 48:2, 109
151, 153 48:3, 109
45:24-25, 153 48:9, 106
45:24-26, 136 48:10, 106
45:24-28, 134, 135, 136 48:12, 97
45:25, 145, 155 48:13, 106
45:25-26, 135 48:14, 200
45:26, 134, 135, 136, 137 48:16, 106, 164
45:26-28, 137 48:17, 106, 115
45:27, 134, 137 48:18-19, 106
45:28, 134, 135, 136, 137 48:20, 97, 106, 107, 115,
45-46, 135, 153 116, 117, 118
46, 121, 136, 137, 141, 145, 48:20-21, 97, 107
153, 156, 157 48:21, 106, 107, 113
46:1-2, 153, 155, 158 48:22, 81, 149
46:3, 97, 105, 151, 153 48:24, 134
46:3-11, 158 48:25, 134
46:3-12, 158 48:26, 134
46:4, 156 48:27, 134
46:6, 156 48:28, 134
46:8, 153 49, 162, 172
46:9, 105, 121, 154 49:1-3, 174
46:9-11, 154 49:1-6, 164
46:9-13, 121 49:1-13, 165
46:10, 134, 156 49:3, 136
46:10-11, 154 49:4, 174
46:11, 134, 156 49:5, 97, 117, 126, 136
46:12, 105, 150, 151, 153, 49:6, 97
158 49:7, 115, 174
46:12-13, 155, 157 49:8-9, 175
46:13, 98, 105, 121, 122, 49:8-10, 174
136, 138, 146, 150, 151, 49:9, 202
49:13, 163
248 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES

49:14, 98, 159, 160, 161, 51:19, 163

167, 174, 191, 202, 206 51:22, 113, 152
49:14-15, 175 51-52, 99
49:14-26, 160, 161, 162, 163, 52, 114, 115
165 52:1, 95, 97, 98, 110, 113,
49:15, 160, 162 114, 116, 159
49:16-26, 163, 167 52:1-2, 110, 113, 114
49:18, 160, 163 52:2, 95, 97, 98, 110, 113,
49:19, 13, 113, 133 159
49:20, 160 52:3-6, 114, 115
49:21, 174 52:4-6, 113
49:22, 74 52:7, 70, 96, 97, 98, 110,
49:22-26, 161 113, 114, 115, 159, 164
49:23, 152, 163 52:7-9, 113
49:24, 161 52:7-10, 110, 113, 114, 115,
49:26, 97, 115 163, 166
49-53, 122 52:8, 98, 110, 113, 115, 116,
49-54, 137 159
49-55, 97, 99 52:9, 13, 97, 110, 113, 115,
49-56, 174 116, 163
50, 175 52:10, 70, 116, 163
50:1, 191, 200, 202, 203, 52:11, 117, 118
205, 206 52:11-12, 97, 110, 113, 116,
50:2, 100, 137 117, 118
50:4-9, 111, 164, 165 52:12, 117
51:1, 109 52:13-53:12, 89, 164, 165,
51:2, 109 175
51:3, 12, 13, 98, 100, 101, 52:15, 74
108, 113, 115, 118, 159, 53:1, 166
163 53:1-6, 165
51:4, 108 53:2, 13, 14
51:5, 98 53:10, 89, 166
51:9, 110, 111, 113 53:11, 89
51:9-11, 98, 174 54, 175
51:9-16, 110, 175 54:1, 149
51:9-52:12, 110, 165 54:1-3, 117
51:10, 131 54:1-17, 165
51:11, 98, 110, 118, 159 54:2, 73
51:12, 69, 163 54:3, 103, 166
51:15, 111 54:4, 204
51:16, 98, 111, 159 54:5, 115, 159
51:17, 97, 110, 112, 113 54:6, 149, 174
51:17-23, 110, 112 54:6-8, 191, 200, 202, 203,
51:17-52:12, 175 206
 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES 249

54:7, 205 59:13, 116

54:8, 115, 149, 205 59:20, 97, 159
54:9, 137, 174 59:21, 149
54:10, 149 60, 152, 165
54:11, 163 60:4, 159, 163
54:13, 166 60:4-9, 163, 167
54:17, 165, 166, 179 60:5, 152
55, 117, 118 60:5-7, 152
55:1-3, 119 60:6, 164
55:3, 117, 119 60:13, 14, 19
55:3-4, 174 60:14, 20, 159
55:5, 118 60:16, 97, 163
55:6-13, 166 61, 164, 165
55:7, 116 61:1, 164, 165, 167
55:11, 119 61:2, 116, 163
55:12, 118 61:3, 159, 165
55:12-13, 97 61:4, 103, 113
55:13, 118 61:5-7, 152
55-56, 163 61:6, 116
55-66, 95 61:10, 195
56:1-2, 175 62, 165
56:2, 69 62:1, 95, 159
56:3-6, 175 62:3, 156
56:4-5, 176 62:4, 159
56:6, 165, 166 62:5, 195
56:6-7, 175 62:10, 74
56:9-12, 176 62:11, 159, 163
56-66, 159, 163, 165, 166, 63:6, 73
167 63:13, 100
57:1, 71 63:17, 165
57:1-2, 176 6-39, 173
57:3-6, 176 64:3, 74
57:3-13, 70 64:7, 18
57:18, 163 64:7-11, 18, 175
57:19, 149 64:9, 18, 95, 100, 159
57:21, 81 64:10, 12, 18, 19, 113
57-66, 175 65:7, 149
58:1, 97 65:8, 165
58:3-6, 176 65:8-10, 172
58:8, 117 65:9, 97, 165, 172
58:11, 108, 118 65:13, 165
58:12, 113 65:14, 165
58:14, 97 65:15, 165
59:4, 146 65:15-16, 172
250 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES

65:17-18, 112 8:1, 76

65:17-25, 172 8:19, 96, 114
65:18, 172 9:24, 36
65:25, 149 10:7, 96, 97
65-66, 169, 171 10:10, 96, 97
66, 100, 162, 175 11:12, 70
66:1-5, 169 13:11, 156
66:7, 161 13:17, 71
66:7-9, 162, 172 17:12, 97
66:7-14, 160, 161, 162, 165, 17:18, 36
171 20:15, 24
66:8, 74, 159, 161, 163 22:10, 73
66:9, 161 26:18, 95
66:10, 80, 161 27:16, 117
66:10-11, 162 28:3, 117
66:11, 162, 163, 167 28:6, 117
66:11-14, 162 31:1, 76
66:12, 162 31:8, 118
66:12-14, 162 31:9, 118
66:12-15, 172 31:12, 108, 118
66:13, 162, 163 32:14, 143
66:14, 162, 163, 165 32:29, 24
66:18-23, 76 34:1, 24
66:18-24, 172 34:7, 24
66:19, 74 34:22, 24
66:20, 68, 149, 172 42:14, 74
66:21, 149, 172 46:9, 72
66:23, 149 46:18, 96
66:24, 172 46:21, 36
48:15, 96
Jeremiah 49:9, 69
1:5, 126 50, 106
1:13, 71 50:8, 106, 117
1:19, 24 50:17, 73
3, 202 51:6, 106
3:8, 205 51:13, 106
3:17, 76, 97 51:35, 95
4:4, 71 51:45, 117
4:5, 74 51:47, 36
4:11, 76 51:52, 36
4:19, 74 51:57, 96, 97
4:21, 74
6, 202 Ezekiel
6:1, 74 11:15, 109
 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES 251

16, 195, 200

20:33, 96 Obadiah
23, 200 5, 69
28:11-19, 108 21, 97
30:4, 72
30:9, 72 Jonah
31:8-9, 108 2:4, 137
31:16, 108
31:18, 108 Micah
33:24, 109 1:3-4, 103
36:35, 108 2:13, 97
38:5, 72 3:10, 95
40-48, 95 3:11, 38, 147
47, 117 3:12, 95
47:1-12, 20, 104 4:2, 95
4:7, 96, 97, 114
Hosea 4:8, 95
1:2-9, 28 4:11, 202
1-3, 201 6:10, 139
2:21-22, 195 7:1, 69
3, 200
5:8, 74 Nahum
8:1, 74 2:1, 114, 115
13:4, 70 3:5-6, 202
14:6, 13 3:9, 72
14:7-8, 69
Habakkuk
Joel 1:6, 131
2:1, 74 1:12, 70
2:3, 108 3:6, 103
3:5, 95 3:18, 70
4:16, 95
4:17, 95 Zephaniah
4:18, 104, 117 1:16, 74
2:2, 36
Amos 3:10, 72
1:2, 95 3:15, 96, 97
2:2, 74 3:17, 70
3:6, 74 3:20, 76
4:2, 36 4:14, 95
4:13, 103 4:16, 95
5:2, 70
7:12, 73 Haggai
9:11-12, 117 2:6, 152
252 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES

27:9, 70
Zechariah 28:1, 70
1:14, 95 29, 96
1:17, 95 29:10, 96
2:10-11, 106 31:3, 70
6:10, 26 33:7, 139
6:14, 26 36:9, 104
8:3, 95 42:6, 70
9:9, 95, 114 44:5, 70
9:14, 74 44:6, 73
10:5, 73 46, 16, 71, 101
11:16, 131 46:4, 117
13:1, 117 46:5, 15, 104
14:8, 104 46:6, 38
14:8-10, 117 47:3, 96
14:9, 96 47:6, 74
14:16-17, 97 47:7, 96
47:8, 96
Malachi 47:9, 96
1:14, 96, 97 48, 71, 101
48:3, 96
Psalms 48:4, 38
2:7, 34, 140 48:9, 45
3:1, 71 50:23, 70
3:3, 70 54:3, 70
5:9, 3 60:6, 71
7:11, 70 60:14, 73
9:9, 146 61:4, 71
17:9, 71 62:3, 70
18:3, 70 62:8, 70
18:8, 70 65:6, 70
18:32, 70 65:10, 104
18:47, 70 68:23, 137
19:5, 70 68:25, 96
20:6, 70 68:32, 72
22:16, 143 69:2, 70
22:29, 97 69:3, 137
24, 96 69:16, 137
24:5, 70 69:36, 70
24:7, 96 72:9-11, 152
24:8, 96 73:26, 70
24:9, 96 74:12, 96
24:10, 96 74:39, 73
25:5, 70 75:6, 70
 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES 253

76, 71, 138 146:10, 96, 114

76:3-4, 38 149:2, 96, 114
78:35, 70 150:3, 74
78:55, 71
79:9, 70 Proverbs
80:4, 70 2:4, 139
84:4, 96 28:12, 156
85:5, 70
87, 45, 104 Job
87:4, 72 2:8, 143
87:7, 104 3:21, 139
88:2, 70 5:12, 128
89, 117 7:9, 73
89:4, 34 12:17, 128
89:27, 34, 70 12:19, 128
89:40, 34 14:20, 73
92:16, 70 17:12, 71
93, 138 28:19, 72
93:1, 96, 115 39:24-25, 74
93:4-5, 138
93-100, 101, 116 Canticle
94:22, 70 2:1, 13
95:1, 70 2:11, 73
95:3, 96
96:10, 96, 115 Ruth
97:1, 96, 115 1:12-13, 197
98:1, 116 1:13, 202
98:3, 70, 116 1:16, 197
98:4, 116 2:15-16, 69
98:6, 74, 96
99:1, 96 Lamentations
99:4, 96 1:10, 102
106:9, 107, 137 1-2, 200, 201, 203
106:47, 70 2:3, 71
108:14, 73 2:6, 108
109:26, 70 4, 113
110:1, 140 4:15, 116
113, 145 4:21, 113
122, 3 5:10, 71
128, 195
132, 117 Daniel
132:10, 34 4:34, 96
136:11, 117 7:27, 205
144:1, 70
254 INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES

Ezra 16:31, 96
1:1-3, 98 16:35, 70
1:7-11, 117
2:1, 119 2 Chronicles
2:59, 119 6:20, 76
4:7, 26 12:4, 195
7:6, 119 18:22, 195
7:7, 119 19:14, 195
7:28, 119 28, 35, 47
8:1, 119 28:17, 32
29-32, 47
Nehemiah 36:22-23, 98
1:9, 76
4:12, 74 Ben Sira
4:14, 74 1:4, 73
7:5, 119 27:153, 69
7:6, 119 39:14, 13
7:61, 119 50:8, 13
12:1, 119
Matthew
1 Chronicles 1:20-21, 28
4:9, 28
11:15, 69 Luke
12:1, 71 1:30-31, 28
14:9, 69