Practical Necropsy Guide

Large Necropsy Binder for PDF 4/22/02 9:47 AM Page 2
Practical Necropsy Guide

Introduction
Elanco Animal Health Practical Necropsy Guide
This guide is intended to aid beef cattle veterinarians as they discuss

the value of performing necropsies with their clients. Beef cattle
veterinarians can use this guide with clients to increase their
understanding of proper necropsy techniques and resulting methods
of diagnosis.
This guide has three parts:

The first is a collection of images comparing normal organs with
common cattle health abnormalities.
The second is a review of practical necropsy procedures.
The third is a set of guidelines for proper tissue sampling techniques
and submission procedures.
This guide is not intended to be a fully comprehensive reference and

should only be used in conjunction with veterinary consultation.
1
Eyes
Normal eye Corneal lesion, diffuse corneal edema, starts at

periphery Malignant Catarrhal Fever (MCF)
Conjun ctivitis variety of causes, including: Corneal lesion, central corneal ulcer with
IBR, mycoplasma, foreign bodies and other neovascularization pinkeye
irritants
2
Oral Cavity
Normal oral tissues Muzzle, shallow ulcers typical of viral diseases

BVD, MCF, blue tongue and rinderpest
Oral cavity, ulcers BVD ( ) Oral cavity, ulcers, hard and soft palate BVD
3
Oral Cavity
Tongue, extensive ulcers (ruptured vesicles) Pharynx, retropharyngeal cellulitis (A )

vesicular disease caused by a penetrating wound (B ) balling
gun injury
Notes
Oral cavity, raised proliferative lesions, often

with irregular edges, hard palate papular
stomatitis
4
Esophagus
Normal esophagus, normal postmortem change

with mild anterior congestion and posterior
pallor resulting from postmortem bloat
Esophagus, trauma ( ) penetrating wound, Esophagus, bloat line at thoracic inlet; other
resulting purulent peri-esophageal abscess supportive evidence includes: history, pallor
and edema of hindlimb musculature
5
Esophagus
Esophagus, shallow erosions BVD Pharyngeal mucosa removed from underlying

structures, ulcers BVD
Notes
Esophagus, extensive linear ulcers BVD
6
Upper Respiratory Tract
Normal larynx Larynx, laryngeal edema allergic reaction;

look for pulmonary edema or congestion
Larynx, necrotic laryngitis ( ) calf diphthe- Larynx, chronic laryngitis, small ulcer on
ria epiglottis (circled)/laryngeal polyp ( )
7
Normal trachea Normal trachea, congestion, with intact

mucosal lining can be normal postmortem
change
Nasal cavity (nasal septum removed), Trachea, tracheitis, adherent fibrinonecrotic

fibrinopurulent rhinitis IBR pseudomembrane IBR
8
Trachea, tracheitis, adherent fibrinonecrotic Trachea (cross section), edema in dorsal

pseudomembrane IBR mucosa ( ) honker syndrome
Notes
9
Lungs
Sampling procedures for lungs

Include tissue as indicated by clinical signs or
gross lesions
Fresh sample size: 4 cm cubes of affected tissue
Fixed sample size: 1 cm thick or less of affected
tissue
Normal lungs
Bronchopneumonia, acute (shipping fever, typical Fibrinous pleuropneumonia; consolidated lung

of pneumonic pasteurellosis) ( ) ( ) with pleural fluid (oval) and fibrinous pleuri-
tis; solid line denotes sternum
10
Lungs
Subacute shipping fever with fibrinous pleuritis Fibrinous pleuropneumonia (cut section)
( )
Bronchopneumonia, advanced, progressive, Bronchopneumonia, chronic with abscesses

early abscesses in older part of lesion ( ) (1 ), emphysema (2) and atelectasis (3)
11
Lungs
Chronic pneumonia with atelectasis Acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP); entire lung
overinflated; individual lobules slightly firm
Acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP) (cut section); Acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP)
interlobular edema and emphysema commonly
seen with AIP
12
Lungs
Acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP); note Embolic pneumonia (multifocal lesions through-
emphysema ( ) out lung) ( ) hematogenous spread of bac-
teria from lesions such as endocarditis and liver
abscesses
Aspiration pneumonia (gangrenous), necrotic Parasitic pneumonia note lung worms

lesion ( ) (Dictyocaulus viviparus) in opened bronchi ( )
13
Lungs
Pulmonary granuloma tuberculosis ( ) Lymph node, granuloma tuberculosis
Notes
14
Heart
Normal heart Normal heart
Heart, endocarditis ( ) blackleg Heart, pericarditis blackleg
15
Heart
Heart, fibrinous pericarditis (pericardial sac Heart, dilated right ventricle, rounded
reflected) Haemophilus somnus and other appearance right heart failure
bacteria
Heart, eosinophilic myositis (note pale areas in Heart (cross section), beef measles, tapeworm
endocardium and myocardium) cysts of Taenia bovis ( )
16
Heart
Heart, myocarditis Haemophilus somnus, Heart (cross section), myocarditis

lesions most frequently located in papillary Haemophilus somnus
muscle ( )
Notes
17
Liver
Normal liver Normal liver, postmortem changes; superficial

discoloration is common; incise lesion to
determine significance
Liver, abscesses Liver, nutmeg liver/accentuated lobular pattern

commonly associated with chronic congestion,
often due to heart failure
18
Liver
Liver (cross section), thrombophlebitis, sec- Liver, focal hemorrhage or necrosis; bacillary
ondary to liver abscesses hemoglobinuria; necrotic lesion extends deep
into tissue
Liver, distended, thickened bile ducts liver Liver (dark pigmented tracts) liver flukes
flukes ( )
19
Urinary System
Normal kidney
Kidney, acute pyelonephritis ascending bac- Kidney, renal infarcts ( )

terial infections
20
Urinary System
Kidney, pale moist cortex tubular necrosis, Kidney, hemoglobin stained due to hemolysis
usually due to toxins such as aminoglycosides
Bladder, urethral calculus
21
Urinary System
Normal bladder
Bladder, urinary calculi and cystitis Penile urethra, calculus

Kidney, early hydronephrosis
22
Gastrointestinal
Normal rumen; postmortem changes, loosening

of rumen lining
Rumen chronic rumenitis; note shortened Rumen, inflammation rumenitis, mycotic;

papilli and scarring ( ) may be secondary to acidosis
23
Gastrointestinal
Rumen, ulcers on rumen pillar Rumen, erosions BVD
Omasum, mycotic lesion may be secondary to Abomasum, chronic ulcer ( )

acidosis
24
Gastrointestinal
Abomasum, small ulcers (BVD) Abomasum, parasites Ostertagia spp.
Notes
25
Gastrointestinal
Normal small intestine, typically thin-walled Normal mesenteric lymph nodes

and pale
Small intestine, inflammation Salmonellosis; Small intestine, hemorrhagic enteritis

note enlarged lymph nodes ( ) Salmonellosis; note thickened mucosa and
bloody contents
26
Gastrointestinal
Gall bladder and small intestine, fibrinous casts Small intestine, acute enteritis
( ) Salmonellosis
Small intestine, Peyers patch necrosis BVD Small intestine, Peyers patch necrosis BVD
27
Gastrointestinal
Small intestine, parasites nodular worm, Small intestine, proliferative enteritis (Johnes),
Oesophagostomum ( ) not seen in animals less than two years of age
Notes
28
Gastrointestinal
Normal large intestines Normal mesenteric lymph nodes
Spiral colon, hemorrhagic mucosa Large intestine, inflammation coccidiosis

coccidiosis
29
Gastrointestinal
Large intestine, inflammation coccidiosis
Notes
30
Musculoskeletal
Normal hindlimb musculature
Hindlimb muscle blackleg ( ); normal on Hindlimb blackleg ( )

right
31
Musculoskeletal
Hindlimb muscle, myodegeneration with Hindlimb muscle, severe myodegeneration

cavitation injection site injection site; walled off area can retain signifi-
cant antimicrobial levels for prolonged periods
( )
Notes
Muscle, scar injection site; muscle tissue is

replaced by scar tissue and fat
32
Musculoskeletal
Normal joint; note clear, tenacious joint fluid ( )
Hock joint, acute synovitis; note excess cloudy Stifle joint, synovitis with large fibrin clots
fluid with fibrin ( )
33
Brain
Normal brain
Brain, meningitis with congested vessels and Brain, polioencephalomalacia with flattened
cloudy meninges cerebral gyri and cerebellar coning ( )
34
Brain
Brain, laminar cortical necrosis ( ) Brain, laminar cortical necrosis ( )

polioencephalomalacia (formalin-fixed tissue) polioencephalomalacia (fresh tissue)
Brain, brain stem hemorrhage ( ), Brain, brain stem hemorrhage ( ),

Haemophilus somnus (fresh tissue) Haemophilus somnus (formalin-fixed tissue)
35
Brain
Brain, abscess ( )
Notes
36
Procedures
Practical Necropsy Procedures
This section is intended to illustrate a set of practical procedures for

performing necropsies on feedlot cattle.
Understand and follow the requirements of your animal disposal

service, especially regarding the proper technique used in opening
the animals hide for thorough examination, as well as the specific
policy for picking up animals whose cranium has been opened.
37
Procedures
1 2
Start with the calfs left side down. Record animal I.D.
Do an overall external examination.
3 4
Examine conjunctiva and cornea. Examine oral cavity.

Note inflammation, opacity and ulceration. Note lesions, such as ulceration.
38
Procedures
5 6
Reflect both right legs. Thoroughly expose Reflect abdominal wall and omentum.
pelvis to mandible. Make cut on ventral midline Note fluid, fibrin, inflammation and location
to maximize hide value. of viscera.
Note hemorrhages, inflammation and injection
sites.
7 8
Cut near the sternum (A ) and several inches Knife method for rib reflection.
below the spine (B ) with the cuts ending just Cut through costochondral junction and
dorsal and ventral to the trachea. through intercostal muscles to reflect two
Alternative methods include the careful use of a ribs at a time by twisting and breaking
sharp axe. (works best in younger animals).
39
Procedures
9 10
Cut diaphragm and reflect rib cage. Free tongue, esophagus, larynx and trachea.
Examine pericardial sac in situ. Examine pharyngeal area.
Note presence of exudation, adhesions and extent Cut ventral to the spine and dorsal to the
of involvement. sternum to free thoracic organs.
11 12
Open entire length of esophagus. Open larynx and trachea.

Note mucosal integrity and differentiate inflamma-
tory changes from agonal and postmortem changes
(see page 8-9 for differential diagnosis photos).
40
Procedures
13 14
Palpate and cut through lung tissue. Insert knife at the base of the heart, cutting to
See pages 10-14 for differential diagnosis. the apex, exposing both ventricles.
Note alteration in chamber size, discoloration,
inflammation and hemorrhage.
15 16
Incise papillary muscles. Incise and palpate liver.

Note myocardial and valvular changes. Note evidence of discoloration, enlargement,
changes to bile ducts and consistency (see
pages 18-19).
41
Procedures
17 18
Incise right kidney (caudal to liver). Examine mucosa of several segments of small
Locate and incise left kidney. Avoid cutting intestine.
intestines. Note mucosal thickening, discoloration and
Note areas of discoloration. exudation (see pages 26-28).
19 20
Incise mesenteric lymph nodes. Incise spiral colon and cecum.

Note enlargement. Note mucosal thickening, discoloration and
exudation.
42
Procedures
21 22
Incise reticulum (A), omasum (B) and Determine rumen pH.

abomasum (C). Note inflammation and contents.
Note inflammation, ulceration and contents.
23 24
Examine rumen lining. Incise various muscles, depending on case

history and other observations. Evaluate
injection sites.
43
Procedures
25
* Understand and follow the requirements

* of your animal disposal service regard-
* ing the proper technique used in
* opening the animals cranium for
* thorough examination.
Remove and examine brain only when indications of
Central Nervous System (CNS) disorders are indicated
or there are no other significant necropsy findings.
Expose stifle and other joints as deemed *Use appropriate care in brain
necessary. examination in areas where rabies
Note fluid amount and type. is a possibility.
26 27
Brain removal.* Pry open cranium and cut through meninges.

Make first cut A, 1/3 of the distance between
the eye and the poll. Cut B laterally from first
cut to the foramen magnum. Cut C immediately
posterior to the foramen magnum.
44
Procedures
28 29
Cut spinal nerves and remove brain. Cut brain into longitudinal halves and cross-
section as appropriate.
See pages 34-36 for differential diagnosis.
30
Replace organs into body cavity and close.
45
Sampling
Guidelines for gaining the most information from a necropsy:
If in doubt regarding sampling procedures, contact your diagnostic

laboratory
Take samples from regions of tissue that include lesion margins
It is better to submit too many samples to your diagnostician than
too few
Communicate directly with your animal

disposal services to provide them with the
information they require for each animal to
be picked up*:
Age of animal
Cause of death
Time and date of death
*Some animal disposal services will not pick up an animal if the brain has been examined and/or
removed for diagnosis.
46
Sampling
Fresh Samples
Intestinal sections
Size: 10-20 cm sections
Best, but not required, to tie off/close ends
Other tissues
Size: 4 cm cubes
Sample affected tissues
Sample tissues from other appropriate
organs
Brain*
If indicated by history, place 1/2 brain in
WhirlPakTM or other sealable container
Rumen content
If indicated by history
pH can be determined on site with pH strips
Shipping guidelines
Properly label and seal WhirlPaks
Use insulated container protected by
cardboard box
Include multiple frozen packs
Only freeze samples if necessary for
extended storage beyond 3 to 4 days
WhirlPak is a trademark of Nasco, Inc.
*Some animal disposal services will not pick up an animal if the brain has been examined and/or removed for diagnosis.
47
Sampling
Fixed Samples
Intestinal sections
Size: multiple 2 to 3 cm sections
Do not tie off/close ends
Major organs and other tissues
Size: 1 cm thick or less
Include tissues as indicated by clinical
signs or gross lesions
Brain
If indicated by history, place 1/2 brain* in
WhirlPak or other sealable container
Proper packaging
Properly label each container
10% buffered formalin solution
Formalin volume must be 10X tissue
volume
In most instances, multiple tissue
samples can be combined in a
single container
Shipping guidelines
Seal in unbreakable containers
Double-bag the package contents with
absorbent material to ensure fluid containment
Include completed submission form for lab
(seal in separate plastic bag to keep dry)
Include complete case history
Include contact and billing information
(contact name, address, phone, fax,
account number)
If not shipping immediately, hold for two or
more days. Pour off majority of formalin prior
to shipping.
*Some animal disposal services will not pick up an animal if the brain has been examined and/or removed for diagnosis.
18
48
Acknowledgements
Elanco Animal Health respectfully thanks the following individuals

for their professional contributions to this project:
Bob Glock, DVM, PhD

Roger Panciera, DVM, PhD
Dan Scruggs, DVM, PhD
Ted Clark, DVM, MVSc, Canada
15
49
This practical necropsy guide is brought to you by Elanco Animal Health.
TM TM TM TM
Elanco and the diagonal color bar are trademarks of Eli Lilly and Company. Micotil is a trademark for Elancos brand of tilmicosin. Tylan is a trademark for Elancos brand
of tylosin. Rumensin is a trademark for Elancos brand of monensin sodium.
50

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Large Necropsy Binder for PDF 4/22/02 9:47 AM Page 2

Practical Necropsy Guide

Elanco Animal Health Practical Necropsy Guide

This guide is intended to aid beef cattle veterinarians as they discuss

This guide has three parts:

This guide is not intended to be a fully comprehensive reference and

Normal eye Corneal lesion, diffuse corneal edema, starts at

Normal oral tissues Muzzle, shallow ulcers typical of viral diseases

Tongue, extensive ulcers (ruptured vesicles) Pharynx, retropharyngeal cellulitis (A )

Oral cavity, raised proliferative lesions, often

Normal esophagus, normal postmortem change

Esophagus, shallow erosions BVD Pharyngeal mucosa removed from underlying

Esophagus, extensive linear ulcers BVD

Upper Respiratory Tract

Normal larynx Larynx, laryngeal edema allergic reaction;

Upper Respiratory Tract

Normal trachea Normal trachea, congestion, with intact

Nasal cavity (nasal septum removed), Trachea, tracheitis, adherent fibrinonecrotic

Upper Respiratory Tract

Trachea, tracheitis, adherent fibrinonecrotic Trachea (cross section), edema in dorsal

Sampling procedures for lungs

Bronchopneumonia, acute (shipping fever, typical Fibrinous pleuropneumonia; consolidated lung

Bronchopneumonia, advanced, progressive, Bronchopneumonia, chronic with abscesses

Aspiration pneumonia (gangrenous), necrotic Parasitic pneumonia note lung worms

Pulmonary granuloma tuberculosis ( ) Lymph node, granuloma tuberculosis

Normal heart Normal heart

Heart, endocarditis ( ) blackleg Heart, pericarditis blackleg

Heart, myocarditis Haemophilus somnus, Heart (cross section), myocarditis

Normal liver Normal liver, postmortem changes; superficial

Liver, abscesses Liver, nutmeg liver/accentuated lobular pattern

Kidney, acute pyelonephritis ascending bac- Kidney, renal infarcts ( )

Bladder, urethral calculus

Bladder, urinary calculi and cystitis Penile urethra, calculus

Normal rumen; postmortem changes, loosening

Rumen chronic rumenitis; note shortened Rumen, inflammation rumenitis, mycotic;

Rumen, ulcers on rumen pillar Rumen, erosions BVD

Omasum, mycotic lesion may be secondary to Abomasum, chronic ulcer ( )

Abomasum, small ulcers (BVD) Abomasum, parasites Ostertagia spp.

Normal small intestine, typically thin-walled Normal mesenteric lymph nodes

Small intestine, inflammation Salmonellosis; Small intestine, hemorrhagic enteritis

Normal large intestines Normal mesenteric lymph nodes

Spiral colon, hemorrhagic mucosa Large intestine, inflammation coccidiosis

Large intestine, inflammation coccidiosis

Normal hindlimb musculature

Hindlimb muscle blackleg ( ); normal on Hindlimb blackleg ( )

Hindlimb muscle, myodegeneration with Hindlimb muscle, severe myodegeneration

Muscle, scar injection site; muscle tissue is

Normal joint; note clear, tenacious joint fluid ( )

Brain, laminar cortical necrosis ( ) Brain, laminar cortical necrosis ( )

Brain, brain stem hemorrhage ( ), Brain, brain stem hemorrhage ( ),

Practical Necropsy Procedures

This section is intended to illustrate a set of practical procedures for

Understand and follow the requirements of your animal disposal

Examine conjunctiva and cornea. Examine oral cavity.

Open entire length of esophagus. Open larynx and trachea.

Incise papillary muscles. Incise and palpate liver.

Incise mesenteric lymph nodes. Incise spiral colon and cecum.

Incise reticulum (A), omasum (B) and Determine rumen pH.

Examine rumen lining. Incise various muscles, depending on case

* Understand and follow the requirements

Brain removal.* Pry open cranium and cut through meninges.

Replace organs into body cavity and close.

Guidelines for gaining the most information from a necropsy:

If in doubt regarding sampling procedures, contact your diagnostic