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A GRAPHICAL PROCEDURE
Michael J. Toia
74
U.S. Government work not protected by U.S. copyright.
Coefficients of the Fourier Series are found as A SPECIAL FUNCTION
followss
There is a function repetitive in time that
has a most curious and useful property. Consider
/T
j f(t) cos(nwt) dt an impulse, which is everywhere zero save at one
time,7 t A .' It can be defined by
/ T/2
=^ J l*cos(nwt) dij
d(t) (13)
/T j t~
+ = I O*cos(nwt) dt
'T/2 This function becomes infinite at t=t_
However, it does so in a controlled fashion, such
m f sin(T/2) - ^ B i n ( 0 ) (5) that it satisfies.
This reveals f(t) to be an odd function, f(t) = f(t) = d(t+kT) for all integer k (15)
-f(-t). A glance at Figure 1 confirms the fact.
so that, for any k,
b
n
= -i-
niTL
Fi - cos(mr)l
' J
(9) A straightforward Fourier Transform of f(t)
can be performed. Coefficients A are found as
usual;
For even (odd) values of n, cos(mr) is
clearly equal to +1 (-1)j so
rT
A
n
= ^
Tv
j f(t) cos(nwt) dt (17)
2/nir n odd (10)
Bn =
But f(t) is zero everywhere save near t .
B = 0 n even (11) Therefore we can break (17) into three integrals.
n
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The first and third of these vanish, leaving only
the second integral to he evaluated.
f(t) = +J A 'n cos(nw*:) ^
How, if epsilon is chosen sufficiently small, co
oos(nwt) will remain (essentially) constant over / B*n sin(nwt) dt (2 4 )
the range of integration. We may consider it a
constant, an approximation that improves, without
limit as epsilon shrinks. We obtain
from which it follows that
t +
An = ^f oos(nwto ) j 0 f(t) dt
f(t) = A' t + ^ T a *
/
fcos(nwt) dt
o ]_ n J
= ^ cos(nwtQ ) (19) CO s
(25)
+ J" B (sin(nwt)dt
1 n J
By choice of the origin of time we may
co B*
set t = 0 without loss of generality. Then
o f(t) = A ' t + - cos(nwt)
1
co A *
( 20) + 4_v.Tr
/ ? si n(vnw t /
) (26)
We have found a frequency comb! Each harmonic Thus the series for f(t) has coefficients
has exactly the same amplitude. This well-known given by
result surprises some people.
B y definition,
j{ fx (x) + f2 (x> ) dx =
76
These relations are easily verified. Recall the remaining residue, This is permitted by
the fundamental theorem of integral calculus equation (30).
which states that
The residue is itself a chain of delta
b b functions. However, these differ from the first
f(x) dx = lim (3 D chain in two respects: they are negative spikes,
i-*cd a and their timing varies by one-half cycle from
the first chain. Their frequency spectrum is
An integral is simply the sum of many infinites- nonetheless the same: a fundamental and all
imally small terms, and the value of a sum is harmonics of the same amplitude. Note that the
independent of the order in which terms are step giving rise to the negative chain is the
added. same in amplitude as that giving rise to the
positive spikes.. That is, the integral across
A GRAPHICAL APPROACH TO FOURIER ANALYSIS either a positive or negative spike has the same
magnitude. Therefore, relative amplitudes of the
The focus of this paper is demonstrating two spectra are identical.
that the integrals of the proceeding pages are
unnecessary. One may establish the spectrum of Now expand Table I to include the negative
periodic waveforms "by graphical constructs alone. Table II results.
Grand Total
time Amplitude 2 0 2 0 2 0 etc
-T Phase 0 - 0 0 - etc
FIGURE 4
What is the significance of these new
entries? Let's take them one at a time.
Equation (30) permits us to divide this waveform,
into two separate functions, the positive spikes The negative chain of spikes produces
and the negative spikes. Analysis is performed harmonics whose amplitudes, relative to the first
on each set separately. Resulting spectra are chain's harmonics, are listed as "Amplitude 2."
then summed to obtain the spectrum of Figure 4* But this chain is positioned in time onehalf
cycle late compared to the first chain. Thus,
Analysis of the positive-going chain is each harmonic is delayed by one-half period at
simple. We have already done so, and memorized the fundamental frequency, a constant time.
the result that all frequencies are present and Therefore, the fundamental suffers a l8 o degree
of the same amplitude. Further, each cosine wave phase shift, the second harmonic suffers a 360
is phased to have a maximum at the position of degree shift (the delay time is constant) and so
the spike. This result is tabulated in Table I. on. These shifts are shown as "position f i . "
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We are now in a position to generate the f ' ( t ):
complete spectrum of Figure 4* We add veetor-
ially the "Amplitude 1" and "Amplitude 2"
components. The phase of Amplitude 1 is always
zero, for we chose time to he initiated at the time in
position of the first chain of spikes, which we cycles
chose as a positive chain. The vector sum of
()J3 (d)
spectral components is tabulated in the rows 1/4 1/2 3/4
"Grand Total Amplitude" and "Grand Total Phase."
FIGURE 5B
The last two rows of Table II give us the
spectrum of Figure 4 's waveform. But we want the
spectrum of Figure 1, a square wave. Recall now f"(t): m = 2
equations (27) and (28). What is required is the
9 0 degree retardation of each component of the h
(a)
spectrum, and a l/n reduction of the amplitude time in
of the n-th harmonic. The spectrum of a square
wave then follows. It contains: |(h) 8
cycles
A TACIT EXAMPLE
f(t) time
jL - l
4 t | r
t t +T
0 o
2'
0
\s time in
0 1 /4 1 /2 3 /4 1 cycles 1
FIGURE 5A FIGURE 7
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TABLE V The transform of Figure 7 is oBvious. Each
HARMONIC ANALYSIS OP FIGURE 5 spike may Be treated separately, and terms added
to a taBle of harmonic analysis. When all spikes
Harmonic have Been accomodated, it is necessary only to
number 1 2 3 4 5 6 etc. sum vectorially the terms in the table, divide
each harmonic amplitude by its harmonic number,
m = 1 components of f (t) and retard each phase shift By 1 / 4 cycle. One
derivative is all that is needed, as no residue
Amplitude (c) 3 3 3 3 3 3 etc. exists after the above analysis.
position fi 3/4 6 /4 9/4 1 2 /4 15/4 1 8 /4
time fi l/ 2 1 /2 1 /2 i/ 2 EXPLORING A N ALGORITHM
!/2 1 /2
total fi 1 /4 0 3/4 '2/4 1/4 0
The discussion above suggests a simple and
Amplitude (d) 1 1 1 1 1 etc. general algorithm. A Fourier Series expansion,
position fi 4/4 8 /4 12/4 16/4 20/4 24/4 itself an approximation to a Fourier Transform,
time fi 1 /2 1 /2 i/ 2 1 /2 !/2 !/2 could be computed quickly as follows.
total fi 1 /2 1 /2 1 /2 1 /2 1 /2 1 /2
m = 2 components of f" (t ^
GENERAL ALGORITHM
THE QUICK TRANSFORM
Amplitude (a) 8 8 8 8 8 8 etc.
position fi 0 0 0 0 0 0 1) Approximate the function in a "step and hold"
time fi 0 0 0 0 0 0 format.
total fi 0 0 0 0 0 0 2) Differentiate this approximation. Label each
spike with its integral's amplitude.
Amplitude (b) 8 8 8 8 8 8 etc. 3) Construct a table of harmonic analysis. Enter
position fi 2/4 4/4 6 /4 8 /4 IO/ 4 12/4 therein the contributions of each spike.
time fi 1 /2 1 /2 1 /2 !/2 1 /2 !/2 4 ) Vectorially add all harmonic contributions.
total fi 0 1 /2 0 1 /2 0 1 /2 5) Divide each amplitude by the harmonic number.
6) Shift each harmonic's phase by -90.
m = 1 components of f"( t l
divide by w = 27]/T = 2 TT At this writing such algorithms are being
divide by n explored for application on various small systems
delay fi by 1 / 4 cycle including the MC6800 microprocessor.
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