Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
DOI 10.1007/s00410-013-0891-4
ORIGINAL PAPER
Distinguishing lower and upper crustal processes in magmas
erupted during the buildup to the 7.7 ka climactic eruption
of Mount Mazama, Crater Lake, Oregon, using 238U230Th
disequilibria
Meagan E. Ankney Clark M. Johnson
Charles R. Bacon Brian L. Beard
Brian R. Jicha
Received: 1 November 2012 / Accepted: 24 May 2013 / Published online: 5 July 2013
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (outside the USA) 2013
Abstract Uranium-series isotope ratios determined for
35 volcanic rocks and 4 glass separates erupted from *36
to 4.8 ka at Mt. Mazama, Crater Lake, Oregon, identify
both 230Th-excess and 238U-excess components. UTh
isotope compositions cover a wide range, exceeding those
previously measured for the Cascade arc. Age-corrected
(230Th/232Th) and (238U/232Th) activity ratios range from
1.113 to 1.464 and from 0.878 to 1.572 (44.4 % 230Th-
excess to 8.8 % 238U-excess), respectively. The most dis-
tinctive aspect of the data set is the contrast in UTh iso-
tope ratios between low and high Sr (LSr, HSr)
components that have been previously identified in prod-
ucts of the 7.7 ka caldera-forming climactic eruption and
preclimactic rhyodacite lavas. The LSr component exclu-
sively contains 238U-excess, but the HSr component, as
well as more primitive lavas, are marked by 230Th-excess.
230
Th-excesses such as those recorded at Mt. Mazama are
commonly observed in the Cascades. Melting models
suggest that high 230Th-excesses observed in the more
primitive lavas evolved through mixing of a mantle melt
with a partial melt of a mafic lower crustal composition
that contained garnet in the residuum that was produced
Communicated by M.W. Schmid.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this
article (doi:10.1007/s00410-013-0891-4) contains supplementary
material, which is available to authorized users.
M. E. Ankney (&)  C. M. Johnson  B. L. Beard  B. R. Jicha
Department of Geoscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
1215 West Dayton Street, Madison, WI 53706, USA
e-mail: bosket@wisc.edu
C. R. Bacon
Volcano Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey,
345 Middlefield Rd, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
through dehydration melting of amphibolite that was ini-
tially garnet free. Dehydration melting in the lower crust
offers a solution to the hot-slab paradox of the Cascades,
where low volatile contents are predicted due to high slab
temperatures, yet higher water contents than expected have
been documented in erupted lavas. The 238U-excess
observed at Mt. Mazama is rare in Cascade lavas, but
occurs in more than half of the samples analyzed in this
study. Traditionally, 238U-excess in arc magmas is inter-
preted to reflect slab fluid fluxing. Indeed, 238U-excess in
arcs is common and likely masks 230Th-excess resulting
from lower crustal interaction. Isotopic and trace element
data, however, suggest a relatively minor role for slab fluid
fluxing in the Cascades. We propose that 238U-excess
reflects melting and assimilation of young, hydrothermally
altered upper crust. The processes related to generating
238
U-excess are likely important features at Mt. Mazama
that accompanied development of a large-scale silicic
magma chamber that led to the caldera-forming eruption.
Keywords Mount Mazama  Crater Lake  Cascade arc 
Uranium-series isotopes  Crustal interaction
Introduction
The Cascade arc is commonly characterized as a hot arc
based on its slow convergence rates and the youthfulness of
the subducting Juan de Fuca and Gorda plates (Wilson
1988; Blackwell et al. 1990; Harry and Green 1999; Van
Keken et al. 2002; Hildreth 2007). This is consistent with
high melting temperatures that have been estimated for
primitive lavas (e.g., Conrey et al. 1997; Elkins-Tanton
et al. 2001; Leeman et al. 2005), which in turn suggests
extensive melting and assimilation of significant amounts
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of lower crust. The high proportion of mafic lavas in the
Cascade arc implies elevated magma fluxes from the
mantle, which may be aided by the extensional nature of
much of the arc (Hughes and Taylor 1986; Priest 1990;
Sherrod and Smith 1990). High magma production rates for
the Cascade arc have been inferred based on an estimate of
*2,300 volcanoes, indicating a relatively large number of
volcanic centers per kilometer of arc length (Hildreth
2007), although other studies contend that the Cascade arc
is a relatively low productivity arc based on global surveys
(Hughes and Mahood 2011).
Three major types of mantle-derived basaltic magma are
recognized in the Cascades: high-alumina olivine tholeiites/
low-K tholeiites (HAOT/LKT), calc-alkaline arc basalts
(CAB), and highly enriched intraplate basalts (IPB) (Bacon
et al. 1997). These magmas represent a range of melting
conditions in terms of depth and temperature and point to
heterogeneity in the mantle source regions, as well as pos-
sible variation in the extent of interaction with the lower
crust. From these magmas, three components have been
proposed to exist in the sub-arc mantle of the Cascades: (1)
a depleted source, similar to that which produces MORB,
(2) subduction components, including those of modern and
ancient age, and (3) an enriched source that has OIB or
IPB affinities (Morris et al. 1990; Bacon et al. 1997; Borg
et al. 1997, 2002; Conrey et al. 1997; Reiners et al. 2000;
Grove et al. 2002; Leeman et al. 2004, 2005; Smith and
Leeman 2005; Hildreth 2007; Schmidt et al. 2008; Rowe
et al. 2009; Ruscitto et al. 2010). Trace element and isotopic
compositions of recent primitive Cascade lavas suggest
smaller inputs from subduction fluid components as com-
pared to other arcs (Morris et al. 1990; Leeman et al. 2004,
2005; Smith and Leeman 2005; Ruscitto et al. 2010). The
chemical and isotopic compositions of B, Be, and Li do not
provide evidence for extensive slab fluid fluxing (Morris
et al. 1990; Leeman et al. 2004). Moreover, the lack of
U-excess in 238U230Th isotope compositions of most
Cascade lavas (e.g., Newman et al. 1986; Volpe 1992; Jicha
et al. 2009b) is consistent with a minor subduction fluid
component, which stands in contrast to arcs that contain
238
U-excess, and high abundances of fluid-sensitive ele-
ments, such as Ba (e.g., Turner et al. 1996, 1997; Hoo-
gewerff et al. 1997; Tepley et al. 2006). Compared to arc
magmas worldwide, the Cascade arc generally defines an
end member for low Ba/Th and (238U/230Th)0 (UTh
activity ratio corrected for ingrowth of 230Th since the time
of eruption), the latter indicating Th-excess, which may
broadly indicate a relatively low subduction fluid compo-
nent for the modern Cascades (Fig. 1).
Crustal thickness beneath the Cascade arc varies from
35 to 45 km (Mooney and Weaver 1989), and crustal
interaction is variable along strike of the arc. Near Crater
Lake, the continental crust is estimated to be approximately
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Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
710
610
510
Ba/Th
410
310
210
110
10
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
(238U/230Th)0
Fig. 1 (238U/230Th)0-Ba/Th variations for the Cascades relative to
other volcanic arcs. Note the dominance of Th-excess [low
(238U/230Th)0] and lower Ba/Th ratios at the Cascades relative to
these other arc settings. Data sources: New Britain (NB, Cunningham
et al. 2009), Aleutians (Al., Turner et al. 1998; Finney et al. 2008),
Sunda (Su., Hoogewerff et al. 1997), Lesser Antilles (LA, Turner
et al. 1996), Tonga-Kermadec (T-K, Turner et al. 1997), and Central
America (CA, Tepley et al. 2006; Singer et al. 2011). Data for
Cascades includes this study and data from Jicha et al. (2009b) and
Newman et al. (1986). Relative to many arcs, the Cascades have
strong Th-excess and low subduction fluid components
44 km thick (Leaver et al. 1984). Seismic velocity mea-
surements are interpreted to suggest that the lower crust is
around 15 km thick and likely mafic in composition
(Leaver et al. 1984; Yang et al. 2008; Gao et al. 2011). The
lower crust may be equivalent to that which forms the
basement to the Klamath Mountains or may reflect un-
derplated Cenozoic basaltic rocks (Bacon 1990). A low
P-wave velocity zone measured in the lower crust beneath
Crater Lake by Harris et al. (1991) is supportive of lower
crustal melting and is interpreted to represent the roots of
the volcano. Uncertainty exists, however, as to the degree
of interaction of Cascade magmas with the lower crust and
the role of the lower crust in magma evolution.
Determining the roles of amphibole versus garnet in
deep crustal evolution provides constraints on the temper-
atures, water contents, and bulk composition of the lower
crust during melting. Important deep crustal roles for these
minerals may exist even when such minerals are not
common or present as phenocrysts in specific suites of
magmas (e.g., Arculus and Wills 1980; Hildreth and
Moorbath 1988; Koyaguchi and Kaneko 1999; Petford and
Gallagher 2001; Annen and Sparks 2002, 2006; Dufek and
Bergantz 2005). The process of cryptic fractionation of
amphibole in arc magmas in the lower crust, which can
occur near the liquidus at H2O [ 5 % and T \ 1,100 C,
has been invoked to explain the compositions of many arc
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
magmas (e.g., Davidson et al. 2007; Hildalgo and Rooney
2010; Kratzmann et al. 2010; Larocque and Canil 2010).
Evidence for deep crystallization of garnet (near-liquidus at
H2O [ 5 %; T * 8501,100 C) is also found in arc
rocks, in xenoliths, and in REE patterns (e.g., HREE
depletion), and garnet fractionation can explain the mod-
erate Fe/Mg ratios of many arc rocks (e.g., Prouteau and
Scaillet 2003; Lee et al. 2006; Hildalgo and Rooney 2010).
A garnet signature in arc magmas can also be produced comprehensive view of the buildup to the climactic erup-
through amphibole dehydration reactions that produce
garnet in the residuum, even for lithologies that did not
initially contain garnet (e.g., Wolf and Wyllie 1993; Sen
and Dunn 1994; Rapp and Watson 1995). Garrison et al.
(2006) note that residual garnet can generate significant U
Th fractionation in lower crustal melts. Despite the
potential importance of garnet in lower crustal processes in
the Cascades, its role has been generally difficult to con-
strain based on geochemical data and due to the fact that
garnet is not an early liquidus phase in mafic composition
magmas at pressures appropriate for the lower crust in the
Cascades (e.g., Mercer and Johnston 2008), although lower
crustal melting and a role for garnet has been identified by
Conrey et al. (2001) and Streck et al. (2007) to explain
compositions of lavas at Mt. Jefferson and Mt. Shasta,
respectively.
Interaction with the upper crust has likely occurred in
many Cascade magmas (e.g., Grove et al. 1988), but the
development of large shallow magma bodies has been rare
in the Quaternary Cascades. Only three Quaternary col-
lapse calderas have been identified in the Cascades: Kul-
shan (1.15 Ma, Mt. Baker), Rockland (400 ka, Lassen
volcanic center), and Crater Lake (7.7 ka, Mt. Mazama)
(Clynne 1990; Hildreth 1994; Bacon and Lanphere 2006).
This is a relatively low number compared to other circum-
Pacific arcs, several of which have 810 or more identified
caldera centers (e.g., Ishikawa et al. 1969; Aramaki 1984;
Miller and Smith 1987; Newhall and Dzurisin 1988; Wil-
son et al. 1995; Hughes and Mahood 2011). Each of the
caldera-forming pyroclastic eruptions associated with the
Quaternary Cascade centers vented a similar volume of
material (5080 km3 dense rock equivalent), and the
resulting calderas are of a similar size (*510 km, Bacon
1983; Clynne 1990; Hildreth 1996, 2007; Hildreth et al.
2004; Bacon and Lanphere 2006). The conditions that
allowed for the development of large, shallow magma
chambers at these centers relative to others in the Cascades
are unclear. Magma production rates at these volcanoes are
not unusual compared to the rest of the arc (Hildreth 2007),
and the upper crustal stress regimes at each caldera are
quite different. Kulshan caldera formed in the compres-
sional segment of the arc, Rockland in a transtensional
segment, and Crater Lake in an extensional section (Clynne
1990; Hildreth 1996; Bacon and Lanphere 2006).
565
The 238U230Th isotope system, when combined with
other geochemical data, can address issues of mantle
melting conditions, subduction fluid components, and
lower and upper crustal interactions in young volcanic
systems. Of the three caldera centers of the Quaternary
Cascades, Mount Mazama/Crater Lake is currently the
most extensively studied and is the only caldera young
enough for U-series isotope analysis. In this study, a
tion is provided through the lens of whole-rock UTh
isotope analyses of lavas and other pyroclastic rocks that
were erupted from *36 to 4.8 ka (Bacon and Lanphere
2006; Bacon 2008). U-series isotopes also provide insights
into magma evolution, assimilation, and mixing that are not
possible with other isotopic systems, due to the high sen-
sitivity of this isotope system to recent processes. UTh
isotopes may identify the role of garnet in the lower crust
and are potentially a sensitive tracer of meteoric hydro-
thermal systems in the upper crust.
Geologic background
Mount Mazama is located in the central part of the Cascade
arc. The edifice, at approximately 3,700 m in height prior
to its collapse, was comprised of mainly andesitic to dacitic
lavas that were built through many discrete eruptions
beginning around 400 ka (Bacon and Lanphere 2006).
Total eruptive volume is estimated at 112 km3, including
the 50 km3 produced in the climactic eruption at 7.7 ka
(Bacon and Lanphere 2006; Bacon 2008).
In the Mount Mazama region, the western edge of the
Basin and Range province extends into the Cascade arc,
where the extensional environment is expressed at the
surface by northsouth normal faults and C80 monoge-
netic volcanoes (Bacon 1990; Bacon and Lanphere 2006).
The monogenetic volcanoes that surround the flanks of
Mount Mazama provide examples of magmas that may be
representative of those that were parental to more evolved
magmas erupted from the climactic magma chamber. The
lavas extruded at these volcanoes are primarily basaltic
andesites that have CAB affinities, as well as three units
with HAOT/LKT affinities (Bacon 1990; Bacon et al. 1994,
1997). They range in SiO2 from 48 to 63 wt% (Fig. 2a). No
IPB units have been identified.
Growth of the climactic magma chamber was marked by
the eruption of preclimactic rhyodacite lava flows and domes,
which are interpreted as leaks from the developing climactic
chamber. These rhyodacites, which range in SiO2 from 69.5 to
72 wt%, were extruded in four distinct pulses at *27, 24 6,
18 8, and *7.77.9 ka, immediately prior to the climactic
eruption (Bacon and Lanphere 2006). The final group of pre-
climactic rhyodacites, represented by the Llao Rock and
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A 3.5 km3. With one exception, each of these units contains low
B
C contents (Fig. 2B). Two types of plagioclase (An3264)
Fig. 2 SiO2 variations relative to K2O (a), MgO (b) and Sr (c) for
Mt. Mazama rocks. Includes samples analyzed for UTh isotopes in
this study, as well as additional samples. Major and trace element data
from Bruggman et al. (1987, 1989) and Bacon (unpublished). The
wide range in Sr contents for mafic- and intermediate-composition
samples define the LSr (low Sr) and HSr (high Sr) suites
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Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
Cleetwood flows, comprise the largest volume fraction,
strontium (LSr) and/or high strontium (HSr) andesitic enclaves
(5861.5 % wt% SiO2). These enclaves are interpreted to
reflect multiple injections of andesite magma into the chamber
and are thought to be representative of magmas that were
parental to the rhyodacites (Bacon and Druitt 1988; Druitt and
Bacon 1989). The terms LSr and HSr are applied to geo-
chemically distinct compositions that were conveniently
characterized by Sr concentration at a particular SiO2 content,
recognizing that concentrations of other mantle-incompatible
trace elements are broadly correlated with that of Sr.
The climactic eruption at *7.7 ka occurred in two
phases, a single-vent and a ring-vent phase, consisting of
*50 km3 DRE (Bacon 1983). The bulk of the erupted
material (C90 %) is homogeneous rhyodacite that contains
70.5 wt% SiO2 and *1015 % phenocrysts (Bacon and
Druitt 1988; Druitt and Bacon 1989). Other products of the
climactic eruption include crystal-rich HSr andesite scoria
(1,2001,800 ppm Sr; 5361 wt% SiO2; 2851 % pheno-
crysts), LSr andesite scoria (\800 ppm Sr; 5160 wt%
SiO2; 5066 % phenocrysts), and olivine ? pyroxene-rich
scoria (4753.5 % wt% SiO2; *60 % phenocrysts)
(Fig. 2c). The LSr and HSr scoria are also distinguishable
based on their 87Sr/86Sr ratios (Bacon et al. 1994). The
olivine ? pyroxene-rich scoria has distinctly higher MgO
have been identified in the rhyodacite, one that has low Sr
contents and so is associated with the LSr component, and
the other that has high Sr contents in the cores, hence of
HSr affinity. Druitt and Bacon (1989) suggest that this
indicates that the plagioclase inventory was, in part, pro-
duced by mixing of LSr and HSr andesite magmas. The
preclimactic and climactic rhyodacites are interpreted to
have evolved from either a LSr component or a mixture of
LSr and HSr components (Druitt and Bacon 1989); none of
the rhyodacites were derived from an exclusively HSr
component.
Postcaldera volcanism has been mainly andesitic and
occurred only within the caldera (Bacon et al. 2002).
Andesites include those erupted to form the central plat-
form (1.06 km3; 57.562.5 wt% SiO2), Merriam Cone
(0.34 km3; 60.5 wt% SiO2), Wizard Island (2.6 km3;
58.560 wt% SiO2), and east basin (not sampled,
0.03 km3). These were all emplaced within a few 100 years
of the climactic eruption. The most recent postcaldera
volcanism produced a subaqueous rhyodacite dome
(0.07 km3; *4.8 ka; 71.5 wt% SiO2). Volume, age, and
composition information for postcaldera lavas was taken
from Bacon and Lanphere (2006).
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585 567

Potential lower crustal interaction

A
Relatively high melting temperatures of up to
1,3001,450 C have been calculated for Cascade HAOT
lavas and up to *1,300 C for the CAB lavas (Bartels
et al. 1991; Leeman et al. 2005), which several studies have
suggested should result in significant amounts of lower
crustal melting and assimilation (e.g., Conrey et al. 2001;
Elkins-Tanton et al. 2001). Interaction with lower crust
may be difficult to assess using O, Sr, Nd, Hf, and Pb
isotopes, however, if the basement is composed of young,
mafic crust because of the lack of isotopic contrast between
the mantle and such crust for these elements (e.g., Bacon
et al. 1994, 1997; Hildreth 2007; Schmidt et al. 2008). Os
isotope compositions are more sensitive to detecting
young, mafic crust, as highly radiogenic (high 187Os/188Os)
mafic crust relative to the mantle can develop in just a few B
million years after its creation due to the large ReOs
fractionation between the mantle and crust (Hart et al.
2002, 2003; Jicha et al. 2009b; Schmidt et al. 2013). At
Mount Mazama, REE patterns of both the basaltic andesite
and HSr components are permissive of interaction with a
mafic lower crustal composition in the presence of garnet,
although REE patterns alone cannot prove or disprove a
role for garnet during crustal melting. Basaltic andesite
lavas have LREE enrichment and HREE depletion relative
to HAOT/LKT lavas. HSr enclaves/scoria found in or
associated with preclimactic and climactic rhyodacites are
similarly enriched in LREE and depleted in HREE relative
to the LSr enclaves/scoria (Fig. 3). Additionally, lower
87
Sr/86Sr ratios documented in the HSr scoria/enclaves, as Fig. 3 Chondrite-normalized REE diagrams for the HAOT and
noted below, are consistent with mafic lower crust (e.g., basaltic andesite samples (a) and the LSr and HSr components (b) in
Bacon et al. 1994; Conrey et al. 2001). However, Sr isotope the evolved rocks. Note the LREE enrichment and HREE depletion of
the basaltic andesites relative to the HAOTs and the HSr component
compositions in some older Mt. Mazama eruptive products relative to the LSr component. REE concentrations from Bruggman
do not show the same association with high or low strontium et al. (1987, 1989). Chondrite composition from Sun and McDonough
contents. Low variability of the Nd and Pb isotope compo- (1989)
sitions of volcanic products from Mt. Mazama generally
reflects the young nature of the crust where these magmas LSr andesite magmas as a likely parent (Bacon et al. 1994).
potentially originated (eNd = 3.96.1, 206Pb/204Pb = In contrast, the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of the climactic rhyodacite is
18.8418.97, 207Pb/204Pb = 15.5615.62, 208Pb/204Pb = significantly lower, at 0.70354, which is interpreted to
38.4138.62, Bacon et al. 1994). reflect mixing with a low 87Sr/86Sr component, most likely a
HSr magma (Bacon et al. 1994). This confirms interpreta-
Upper crustal history and hydrothermal systems tions by Bacon and Druitt (1988) and Druitt and Bacon
(1989) that the climactic rhyodacite represents mixing
Strontium isotopes provide a view of the upper crustal between components derived from LSr andesite and HSr
history that is recorded in the major components erupted andesite magmas, whereas the preclimactic rhyodacites
during the climactic eruption. Almost the entire range of were mainly sourced from LSr andesite magmas.
87
Sr/86Sr ratios found at Mt. Mazama is represented by Isotopic compositions of Sr, Nd, and Pb are permissive
climactic scoria and enclaves in preclimactic rhyodacites. of some upper crustal interaction, but do not require it, and
Low Sr andesite enclaves cluster around 87Sr/86Sr = we again note that the Sr isotope compositions are
0.70363, whereas HSr andesite enclaves have a lower decoupled from concentrations in some older Mount
average 87Sr/86Sr ratio of *0.70342. The 87Sr/86Sr ratio of Mazama rocks. Stronger evidence for upper crustal inter-
preclimactic rhyodacites cluster at *0.7037 and point to action is indicated by low d18O values in preclimactic and

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climactic eruptive products (Bacon et al. 1989, 1994;
Mandeville et al. 2009). Low d18O values for plagioclase
(down to -3.4 % relative to V-SMOW) and quartz (down
to -2.2 %) in partially melted granitoid blocks present in
deposits of the climactic eruption, as well as rarely in the
preclimactic rhyodacites, are interpreted to represent wall
rock that was assimilated by the growing climactic cham-
ber (Bacon et al. 1989, 2000; Bacon and Lowenstern 2005).
Assimilation of low-d18O hydrothermally exchanged
granitoids is consistent with the oxygen isotope composi-
tions of glass from the climactic rhyodacite and andesite
scoria, which has d18O values as low as ?4 %. Although
post-eruption alteration of glass may change d18O values,
such alteration would be expected to increase d18O values
and/or produce devitrification.
The granodiorite blocks and associated antecrysts in
rhyodacite provide a window into the non-erupted portions
of the magmatic system. UTh geochronology of ante-
crystic zircons present in preclimactic rhyodacites indicate
that they crystallized in associated plutonic bodies over
several periods of time, with clusters around 5070, *110,
and *200 ka (Bacon and Lowenstern 2005). Each of these
periods can be correlated with pulses of dacitic volcanism
at Mount Mazama. Oxygen isotope compositions of the
plutonic rocks have been affected by exchange with low-
d18O meteoric hydrothermal fluids, indicating the presence
of an active, shallow hydrothermal system.
Samples and analytical methods
The sample suite is comprised of 35 whole-rock and 4 glass
powders of fresh, unaltered eruptive products from Mount
Mazama that span ages from *36 to 4.8 ka. This suite
includes 11 whole-rock samples of climactic and preclimactic
rhyodacite and 14 associated andesite enclaves, scoria, and
cumulates, along with three samples of postcaldera lavas and
seven samples of eruptive products from selected monoge-
netic volcanoes. The sample suite also includes glass sepa-
rates from four of the climactic samples analyzed in this study,
one for each of the components of the caldera-forming erup-
tion (rhyodacite, LSr scoria, HSr scoria, and olivine cumu-
lates). The samples were collected during geologic mapping
of the Mount Mazama region by Charles R. Bacon (USGS),
and sample numbers correspond to those given in Bruggman
et al. (1987, 1989). All of the samples were previously ana-
lyzed for major and trace element contents by X-ray fluores-
cence (XRF) and instrumental neutron activation analysis
(INAA) methods (see supplementary table, Bruggman et al.
1987, 1989), and some for Sr, Nd, Pb, and O isotopes (Bacon
et al. 1994, 1997). Estimates of percentages of phenocrysts in
the units analyzed are available in Bacon (2008).
For UTh analyses, aliquots of *100350 mg of pow-
dered whole rock/glass were spiked prior to digestion with
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Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
a mixed 235U229Th tracer. The samples were digested
through several stages of heating in HF, HNO3, and HCl
acids in Teflon beakers or Parr bombs. The rhyodacite
samples were digested using Parr bombs to facilitate faster
and more complete dissolution of silicic samples, given the
possibility that they may contain refractory accessory
minerals. Upon complete dissolution, as checked using a
binocular microscope, samples were passed through anion
exchange columns (30 mL, Teflon) using BioRad AG1x8
200400 mesh resin to isolate U and Th. Some of the Th
cuts were processed through an additional set of columns
(700 lL, Teflon) using the same type of resin to further
purify them, if dry-downs of the first cut showed significant
material.
Precise measurements of U-series isotope ratios were
made on a Micromass IsoProbe MC-ICP-MS at the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin-Madisons Radiogenic Isotope Lab,
following methods of Jicha et al. (2005, 2007, 2009b). To
prepare samples for isotopic analysis, U cuts were diluted
to *30 ppb in a 2 % solution of HNO3 acid. The dilute U
solutions were then aspirated at *45 lL/min using an
Aridus desolvating nebulizer. 238U and 235U were mea-
sured on Faraday detectors. Each sample or standard was
analyzed for thirty, ten-second integrations at a total ion
intensity (238U ? 235U) of 6-9 V. Analyses of samples
were interspersed with analyses of variable concentration
U standard solutions (NBL-114, 238U/235U = 137.88;
U-500, 238U/235U = 1.0003) and rock standards. Thorium
cuts and standard solutions were diluted to *100150 ppb
in a 30 ppb solution of U-500 in 2 % HNO3
(238U/235U = 1.0003). The use of a U-500 solution to
dilute the Th cuts, as opposed to only 2 % HNO3, allows
for monitoring of instrumental mass fractionation
throughout Th isotope analysis. The samples were aspi-
rated in the same fashion as that used for U analysis.
Measurements of 229Th and 232Th were made using Fara-
day collectors, and 230Th was measured using a Daly
multiplier equipped with a high-abundance sensitivity
(WARP) filter. Forty, 10-s integrations were measured for
each sample or standard solution at a total ion intensity
(230Th ? 232Th ? 235U ? 238U) of 2050 V. Analysis of a
mixture of IRMM-035 and U-500 was done before and
after each sample analysis, along with monitoring the
DalyFaraday gain. The DalyFaraday gain is equal to the
mass-bias-corrected 232Th/230Th ratio divided by the true
232
Th/230Th value (IRMM-035 232Th/230Th = 87,859).
Sample analyses were also interspersed with analyses of
variable concentration IRMM-036 and IRMM-035 solu-
tions mixed with U-500, as well as analyses of standards
including AThO, BCR-2, and AGV-2 to monitor accuracy,
reproducibility, and external precision (Table 1). Repro-
ducibility and precision were also monitored by performing
duplicate analyses of *20 % of the samples. Twenty-nine
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
analyses of IRMM-035 yielded a 232Th/230Th ratio of
87,879 590 (2-SD) and 25 analyses of IRMM-036
yielded a 232Th/230Th value of 327,287 2,248 (2-SD).
Our results for IRMM-035, IRMM-036, AThO, BCR-2,
and AGV-2 are indistinguishable within uncertainty from
the consensus values of Sims et al. (2008).
Results
Volcanic rocks and glasses from Mt. Mazama have a large
range in U-Th isotope compositions relative to other Cas-
cade volcanoes, varying from *44 % Th-excess to *9 %
U-excess (Table 1; Fig. 4). Using the KAr, 40Ar/39Ar, and
14
C ages of the eruptive units, or stratigraphically estimated
ages, determined by Bacon and Lanphere (2006), activity
ratios of (230Th/232Th) were corrected for ingrowth of
230
Th since the time of eruption. High Sr andesites from
preclimactic and climactic eruptions and primitive lavas
from monogenetic vents around the flanks of Mount
Mazama have *1244 % Th-excess and are within range
of what has been measured previously in the Cascades
(Bennett et al. 1982; Newman et al. 1986; Volpe and
Hammond 1991; Volpe 1992; Reagan et al. 2003; Jicha
et al. 2009b; Mitchell and Asmerom 2011). Olivine
cumulates from the climactic eruption also have Th-excess
of 840 %. Uranium-excess of up to 9 % is observed in
preclimactic and climactic LSr andesites and rhyodacites,
which also have among the highest (230Th/232Th) ratios in
the Cascades. Postcaldera andesites plot the within error of
the equiline (\1 % U-excess) and have similar UTh iso-
tope compositions to the climactic rhyodacite. The post-
caldera rhyodacite, however, has a Th-excess of 3 %, and a
significantly lower UTh isotope ratio than the climactic
rhyodacite, which may indicate that it has a different origin
from both the climactic rhyodacite and the postcaldera
andesites. Previous measurements of 230Th238U232Th
disequilibria by Reagan et al. (2003) of a climactic HSr
andesite scoria, a LSr andesite scoria, and rhyodacite
pumice are in agreement with results of the current study,
although we note that the uncertainties reported by Reagan
et al. (2003) are larger than those reported here because the
previous measurements were done by thermal ionization
mass spectrometry (TIMS).
UTh isotope compositions of glass separates of the LSr
scoria (82C-637G) and climactic rhyodacite (81C-631G)
components are within error of the corresponding whole-
rock samples (82C-637 and 81C-631). The HSr scoria glass
separate (81C-606G) has *6 % higher Th-excess than the
whole rock (81C-606) of the same sample. The olivine
cumulate glass separate (82C-866G) is in U-excess and has
a UTh isotope composition that is similar, if not equiva-
lent, to the LSr basaltic andesite scoria of the climactic
569
eruption. This is in contrast to the samples whole-rock
composition (82C-866), which is in Th-excess, and lies
outside of the range of (230Th/232Th) ratios measured for
the Cascades in this and other published studies. We
attribute these differences to the cumulate nature of this
sample.
Discussion
We focus our discussion on the UTh isotope compositions
of the preclimactic and climactic whole rocks, because,
when combined with other isotopic and trace element data,
they can be used to distinguish the influence of the lower
and upper crust on Mt. Mazama magmas, and also provide
clues to the relative amounts of lower and/or upper crustal
melting and assimilation. The wide range in UTh isotope
ratios, when coupled with the distinction of 238U-excess
versus 230Th-excess, argues for variation in the origins of
the LSr versus HSr components in the climactic chamber.
Below, we discuss the sources of Th- and U-excess at Mt.
Mazama, which we will argue reflect melting and assimi-
lation of lower and upper crust, respectively.
Generation of 230Th-excess: production of garnet
in the lower crust
Dehydration melting of the lower crust can produce garnet
from the breakdown of amphibole and plagioclase, and this
is likely a more common process in arc settings than
generally thought. Examples of a role for garnet in the deep
crustal portions of arcs has been observed in exposed
sections of lower crust, such as the Kohistan arc in Pakistan
(Kono et al. 2009), the Amalaoulaou Neoproterozoic arc in
Mali (Berger et al. 2009), and the Tonsina complex in
Alaska (DeBari and Coleman 1989). The high affinity of U
over Th in garnet may be tracked using UTh isotopes, as
recently applied in the Cascades at Mount Adams (Jicha
et al. 2009b). Th-excesses at Mount Adams, which are
similar to those measured at Crater Lake in this study, are
interpreted to reflect a garnet signature during lower crustal
interaction. This signature, which may be present in many
arc settings, is more readily observed in the Cascades rel-
ative to other arcs because of the low subduction compo-
nent signature, especially in regard to subduction fluid-
mobile elements, which are commonly associated with
U-excess (Fig. 1). In a more typical arc setting, enrichment
of melts by a stronger subduction component, including U
and other fluid-mobile elements (e.g., Turner et al. 1996),
would presumably disguise a Th-excess garnet signature,
via a U-excess subduction overprint. The application of U
Th isotopes to detect interaction with the lower crust is also
notable in the Cascade arc because the young nature of the
123
 Table 1 UTh results for whole-rock and glass samples of preclimactic/climactic/postcaldera volcanic rocks
570

Sample Eruptive unit Lat. Long. Age SiO2 Th U (230Th/232Th) 2r (230Th/232Th) 2rd (238U/232Th) 2r n
No.a (N)b (W)b (ka)c wt% (ppm) (ppm) age corrected

123
Postcaldera lava whole rocks
81C-673 Rhyodacite dome 4256.570 12207.100 4.8 0.6 71.7 8.459 3.577 1.315 0.008 1.316 0.008 1.283 0.008 2
0
80C-515 Wizard Island andesite 4256.34 12209.120 *7.3 60.0 2.106 0.951 1.364 0.008 1.363 0.008 1.370 0.008 1
81C-669 Wizard Island andesite 4256.740 12208.910 *7.3 58.4 1.626 0.746 1.382 0.008 1.381 0.008 1.391 0.008 1
Climactic whole rocks
81C-631 Ignimbrite rhyd. pumice 4258.800 12223.900 7.7 0.1 70.4 4.740 2.169 1.384 0.008 1.383 0.008 1.388 0.008 1
0 0
79C-154 Pumice fall rhyd. pumice 4258.67 12207.57 7.7 0.1 70.7 4.702 2.179 1.384 0.008 1.383 0.008 1.406 0.008 1
80C-442 LSr basaltic andesite scoria 4257.270 12209.900 7.7 0.1 53.1 0.857 0.436 1.434 0.009 1.426 0.009 1.545 0.009 1
81C-582 LSr basaltic andesite scoria 4251.030 12200.050 7.7 0.1 56.5 1.225 0.635 1.453 0.009 1.445 0.009 1.572 0.009 1
81C-637 LSr andesite scoria 4253.470 12211.830 7.7 0.1 59.7 2.495 1.182 1.398 0.008 1.395 0.008 1.437 0.009 1
81C-591 Ignimbrite HSr and. scoria 4253.530 12211.820 7.7 0.1 57.8 2.861 1.139 1.335 0.008 1.344 0.008 1.208 0.007 2
0 0
81C-606 Ignim. HSr basaltic and. scoria 4253.50 12211.82 7.7 0.1 53.4 1.618 0.638 1.341 0.008 1.351 0.008 1.196 0.007 1
79C-106 Pumice fall HSr and. scoria 4258.320 12206.120 7.7 0.1 58.8 2.402 0.851 1.248 0.007 1.261 0.007 1.074 0.006 1
86C-1290 Ignimbrite ol. cumulate scoria 4252.040 12206.900 7.7 0.1 48.2 1.335 0.409 1.271 0.008 1.296 0.009 0.930 0.006 1
82C-866 Ignimbrite ol. cumulate scoria 4258.370 12208.990 7.7 0.1 52.7 0.909 0.406 1.456 0.009 1.464 0.009 1.357 0.008 1
Climactic glass separates
81C-606G Ignim. HSr basaltic and. scoria 4253.500 12211.820 7.7 0.1 61.4 3.442 1.302 1.345 0.008 1.359 0.008 1.148 0.007 2
0 0
81C-631G Ignimbrite rhyd. pumice 4258.80 12223.90 7.7 0.1 72.6 5.205 2.389 1.381 0.008 1.381 0.008 1.393 0.008 1
82C-637G LSr andesite scoria 4253.470 12211.830 7.7 0.1 71.9 5.464 2.555 1.395 0.008 1.393 0.008 1.419 0.009 1
82C-866G Ignimbrite ol. cumulate scoria 4258.370 12208.990 7.7 0.1 63.1 2.530 1.290 1.452 0.009 1.445 0.010 1.547 0.009 2
Preclimactic silicic whole rocks
79C-160 Cleetwood rhyd. vitrophyre 4258.850 12204.450 *7.77.8 70.3 4.794 2.218 1.378 0.008 1.376 0.008 1.404 0.008 1
0 0
79C-158 Llao Rock rhyd. pumice 4258.63 12207.43 *7.9 72.0 5.198 2.416 1.389 0.008 1.388 0.008 1.410 0.008 2
79C-153 Llao Rock rhyd. vitrophyre 4258.320 12208.730 *7.9 70.8 4.777 2.252 1.389 0.008 1.386 0.008 1.430 0.009 2
80C-504 Llao Rock dike rhyd. felsite 4258.120 12208.080 *7.9 72.2 5.432 2.555 1.393 0.008 1.390 0.008 1.427 0.009 1
0
82C-728 Sharp Peak NE dome rhyd. 4300.40 12200.200 18 8 70.5 4.758 2.214 1.384 0.008 1.379 0.010 1.412 0.008 2
92C-1749 Bear Bluff rhyd. felsite 4250.250 12209.580 24 6 69.8 5.184 2.380 1.382 0.008 1.380 0.009 1.393 0.008 1
0 0
80C-227 Grouse Hill rhyd. vitrophyre 4259.68 12207.86 27 0.6 71.2 5.890 2.807 1.407 0.008 1.397 0.009 1.446 0.009 1
82C-803 Steel Bay rhyd. vitrophyre 4258.700 12207.180 27 0.6 71.6 6.056 2.889 1.410 0.008 1.399 0.009 1.448 0.009 1
81C-553 Munson Valley dacite 4254.280 12208.450 35 8 67.5 4.545 2.098 1.387 0.008 1.382 0.010 1.400 0.008 1
81C-538 Williams Crater dacite 4257.330 12211.190 *35 67.1 4.514 2.057 1.376 0.008 1.374 0.008 1.382 0.008 1
Preclimactic andesite enclave whole rocks
82C-775 Cleetwood flow HSr enclave 4259.890 12202.760 *7.77.8 61.3 2.717 0.991 1.280 0.008 1.293 0.008 1.106 0.007 1
0 0
79C-209 Llao Rock flow HSr enclave 4258.70 12207.70 *7.9 59.3 3.726 1.245 1.270 0.008 1.289 0.008 1.014 0.006 2
88C-1548 Bear Bluff tuya and. lava 4249.570 12209.790 24 6 58.1 1.892 0.874 1.383 0.008 1.379 0.009 1.401 0.008 1
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
 Table 1 continued
Sample Eruptive unit Lat. Long. Age SiO2 Th U (230Th/232Th) 2r (230Th/232Th) 2rd (238U/232Th) 2r n
No.a (N)b (W)b (ka)c wt% (ppm) (ppm) age corrected

80C-226 Grouse Hill dome LSr enclave 4259.470 12207.430 27 0.6 59.3 2.476 1.100 1.323 0.008 1.316 0.009 1.348 0.008 2
0
82C-811 Steel Bay dome LSr enclave 4258.87 12207.350 27 0.6 61.1 2.640 1.140 1.306 0.008 1.305 0.008 1.310 0.008 1
81C-552 Munson Valley and. enclave 4254.280 12208.450 35 8 59.9 2.067 0.943 1.361 0.008 1.352 0.010 1.384 0.008 1

Mt. Mazama basalts/basaltic andesites and HAOT whole rocks

92C-1771 Vent SW of Castle Point HAOT 4252.38 12114.680 *10 49.8 0.875 0.282 1.169 0.007 1.188 0.019 0.977 0.006 1
85C-1241 N of Williams Crater bas. and. 4258.080 12211.260 *34 52.6 2.264 0.703 1.216 0.007 1.315 0.028 0.942 0.006 1
80C-354 Red Cone basaltic and. bomb 4259.890 12209.760 35 8 53.7 2.724 0.844 1.116 0.007 1.182 0.026 0.940 0.006 2
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585

81C-543 Williams Crater basaltic and. 4257.430 12211.760 *35 51.5 2.499 0.764 1.133 0.007 1.211 0.029 0.927 0.006 2
82C-814 Little Castle Ck bas. and. bomb 4253.880 12214.400 *35 52.8 2.818 0.815 1.161 0.007 1.268 0.036 0.878 0.005 1
0
80C-355 Red Cone basaltic andesite 4259.70 12210.150 35 8 54.0 2.514 0.778 1.065 0.006 1.113 0.019 0.939 0.006 1
Rock standards
AThO 7.411 2.256 1.017 0.002 0.924 0.009 2
BCR-2 5.759 1.666 0.880 0.005 0.878 0.007 5
AGV-2 6.072 1.889 0.946 0.004 0.944 0.008 7
(230Th/232Th) and (238U/232Th) uncertainties for samples are reported as internal 2 SE. Uncertainties for rock standards reported as 2 SD
a
All samples and sample numbers from the collection of Charles Bacon (USGS)
b
Locations from Bacon et al. (1994)
c
Ages of samples from Bacon and Lanphere (2006) and Bacon (2008); errors reported are 2r
d 40 14
(230Th/232Th)0 ratios were calculated using the whole-rock values and the Ar/39Ar, KAr, or C age determinations. Errors incorporate uncertainty in ages
571

123
572
1.5
1.4
(230Th/232Th)0
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
(238U/232Th)
Fig. 4 (238U/232Th)-(230Th/232Th)0 variations for Mount Mazama,
including data from Reagan et al. (2003). Green field represents UTh
data for the Cascades collected prior to this study (data from Bennett
et al. 1982; Newman et al. 1986; Volpe and Hammond 1991; Volpe
1992; Jicha et al. 2009b; Mitchell and Asmerom 2011). Dotted tie
lines indicate whole-rock/glass pairs for those samples where the
difference is greater than analytical uncertainty (i.e., greater than
symbol overlap). The dotted line denotes those samples recording
U-excess, which represents \15 % of the UTh data previously
collected in the Cascades. The box labeled Lower Crustal Melt
represents a 25 % melt of the lower crustal composition indicated in
the text. The box labeled Mantle Melt represents a 1 % melt of the slightly lower (2.8 1.2 wt% for Southern Cascades,
spinel lherzolite mantle composition indicated in the text. Compo-
nents A and B are representative of the LSr and HSr components,
respectively, and their placement is based on the UTh isotope
compositions of the LSr and HSr scoria of the climactic eruption.
Component C is an estimated UTh isotope composition for the bulk
crust. Error bars are roughly equal to symbol size
crust beneath Crater Lake and the Cascades makes it dif-
ficult to test for interaction with mafic, garnet-bearing
lower crust using O isotopes, or radiogenic isotope systems
such as LuHf, Sr, Nd, and Pb, which require significant
time periods to produce distinct isotopic compositions.
Prior studies have recognized partial melting of a mafic
lower crustal composition, as well as the presence of gar-
net, as important factors in generating major and trace
element compositions (e.g., Conrey et al. 2001; Streck
et al. 2007) and isotopic variations (e.g., Conrey et al.
2001) in Cascade lavas, but we note that variations in U
Th isotopes provide a clearer view of such processes
because the relative amount of fractionation is much larger.
The role of garnet in producing Th-excess in Mt. Maz-
ama rocks was evaluated for both mantle and crustal
sources using non-modal batch melting models. For mantle
melting, both a spinel lherzolite (51 % olivine, 23 %
clinopyroxene, 21 % orthopyroxene, 5 % spinel) and gar-
net lherzolite (50 % olivine, 12 % clinopyroxene, 27 %
orthopyroxene, 11 % garnet) were used. For crustal melt-
ing, an amphibolite lower crust with a modal mineralogy
123
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
that is equivalent to the starting materials from various
dehydration melting experiments (see Eqs. 1, 3, and 5
below) was used. Non-modal melting models are essential
because at the high pressures that are consistent with the
lower crust (1015 kbar), or upper mantle, and under
conditions of dehydration melting, garnet is produced
during breakdown of amphibole ? plagioclase biotite
(e.g., Wolf and Wyllie 1993; Sen and Dunn 1994; Rapp
and Watson 1995). It is important to stress that dehydration
melting offers a mechanism for producing a garnet signa-
ture where garnet was not initially present in the crust.
Experimental studies indicate that garnet likely does not
fractionate from basaltic compositions at lower crustal
temperatures and pressures in the Cascades (e.g., Mercer
and Johnston 2008), although garnet fractionation from
more evolved magmas in the lower crust remains possible.
Dehydration melting also produces mafic granulite to
eclogite restites, which is consistent with the composition
of the lower crust in the Cascades as determined by Stanley
et al. (1990) from seismic velocities. In addition, it offers
an explanation to the hot-slab paradox of the Cascade
arc, where the high temperatures of the subducted slab
directly beneath the Quaternary Cascades likely produce
very low volatile contents in mantle melts (Syracuse et al.
2010). Although H2O contents of Cascade magmas are
2.3 0.6 wt% for Central Cascades, Ruscitto et al. 2010,
2012) than the global average for arc magmas
(3.3 1.2 wt%, Ruscitto et al. 2012), Cascade magmas
contain significantly more water than might be expected
from thermal modeling of the slab, which may, in fact, be
the result of water released during dehydration melting of
amphibole (e.g., Rapp and Watson 1995).
Generation of 230Th-excess: non-modal batch melting
model parameters
Models were used to approximate the U and Th chemical
and isotope compositions of those samples that contain the
highest Th-excesses, which includes the more primitive
volcanic rocks analyzed in this study (Figs. 5, 6). REE
concentrations were also modeled to determine if we could
approximate the mild LREE enrichments and HREE
depletions observed in the Mt. Mazama lavas using the
same model parameters as those used to approximate U and
Th isotope compositions (Fig. 7). The role of accessory
minerals in producing UTh fractionation during lower
crustal melting is not discussed in detail in this paper, as
it was found by Berlo et al. (2004) to be negligible at
degrees of melting [10 %. Furthermore, accessory phases
are exhausted within a few percent melting in dehydration
melting experiments of amphibolite (e.g., Sen and Dunn
1994; Rapp and Watson 1995).
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
Fig. 5 (238U/232Th)-(230Th/232Th)0 activity ratio diagram illustrating
lower crust ? mantle melting, followed by mixing, relative to the U
Th isotope data from Mt. Mazama for samples that have Th-excess.
Note that we target the more primitive Basalt/Basaltic andesite
component with our mixing models. The purple line represents
melting of a lower crustal amphibolite, with tick marks shown at 1, 2,
3, 5, 10, 15, and 20 % melt fraction. The green line represents melting
The parameters used to generate the non-modal batch
melting model are summarized in Table 2. Multiple melting
mode (P) values for minerals in amphibolite were calculated
using methods from Ottonello et al. (1984), with melting
reactions determined from modal compositions of partially
melted rocks from various vapor-absent melting experiments
(Wolf and Wyllie 1993; Sen and Dunn 1994; Rapp and
Watson 1995) listed below (assumed 100 g of material):
67:47 hbl 32:53 plag 20:0 liquid
80:0 residue residue 40:59 gt 40:59 pyx
7:92 plag 10:89 hbl; 10 kbar
Wolf and Wyllie 1993
40:59 gt 40:59 pyx 7:92 plag 10:89 hbl
39:0 liquid 61:0 residue residue 24:0 gt
64:0 pyx 9:0 plag 3:0 hbl; 10 kbar
Wolf and Wyllie 1993
76:3 amph 20:5 plag 2:3 qtz 0:9 titanite
12:2 liquid 87:8 residue residue 43:96 amph
9:79 plag 21:87 gt 24:37 cpx; 15 kbar
Sen and Dunn 1994
43:96 amph 9:79 plag 21:87 gt 24:37 cpx
22:7 liquid 77:3 residue residue 7:89 amph
36:87 gt 55:24 cpx; 15 kbar)
Sen and Dunn 1994
573
of a spinel lherzolite mantle, with tick marks shown at 1, 2, 3, and
5 % melt fraction. This model shows mixing between a 15 % melt of
the lower crust and a 15 % melt of a spinel lherzolite mantle. The
ratios noted on the gray mixing line are the proportions of mantle melt
to crustal melt included in the mixture. The black dotted lines show
the effect of aging following mixing
67 amph 30 plag 2:1 qtz 0:9 Fe-Tiox
5 liquid 95 residue residue 29:47 amph
26:32 plag 5:26 qtz 18:95 gt 20:0 cpx;
16 kbar; initial modal composition estimated)
Rapp and Watson 1995 5
29:47 amph 26:32 plag 5:26 qtz 18:95 gt 20:0 cpx
50:0 liquid 50:0 residue
residue 50:0 gt 50:0 cpx; 16 kbar
Rapp and Watson 1995 6
These equations are applicable to a mafic lower
1
crustal composition that contained no initial garnet,
providing a conservative approach to testing for a garnet
geochemical signature, although we recognize that
subsequent melting of the resulting residual (garnet-
bearing) compositions could also produce melts that have
2 a lower crustal garnet signature. Note that at higher
percent melts, which are expressed by Eqs. 2, 4, and 6,
residual garnet and pyroxene begin to destabilize as
amphibole is exhausted. Melting mode values (P) for the
garnet lherzolite and spinel lherzolite mantle
3 compositions were taken from the following equations
from Ottonello et al. (1984):
40:34 gt 38:07 di 21:59 en 91:48 liquid 8:52 fo
Eq: 5; normalized to 100 g; Ottonello et al: 1984
4 7
123
574 Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585

1.75 1000
A 15% melt
10% melt
5% melt
5% melt
1.50 60:40
Lower 0% melt

Melt/chondrite
100
(230 Th/ 238U)0

85:15 Crustal
Melt
1.25
95:5
HSr scoria/enclaves
10
1.00 Ol-bearing scoria
Mantle Basalt/Basaltic and.
Melt HAOT
0.75
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1
Th (ppm) La Ce Nd Sm Eu Dy Er Yb Lu

1000
Fig. 6 A comparison between modeled and measured (230Th/238U)0 B 15% mantle melt
ratios and Th concentrations for samples that contain Th-excess. The 95:5
Mantle Melt and Lower Crustal Melt boxes and mixing line 85:15
represent the same melt fractions and proportions of mantle to crust as 60:40

Melt/chondrite
noted in Fig. 5 100 15% crust melt

10:34 sp 40:54 en 49:12 di

67:23 liquid 32:77 residue residue 87 fo 13 en 10

Eq: 3; normalized to 100 g; Ottonello et al: 1984

8
Kd values were selected from a variety of sources to
approximate mineral melt partitioning of U and Th in the
mantle and amphibolite lower crust (Table 2). Choosing
initial mantle and lower crust compositions posed a
challenge because samples that have high Th-excess in
the Cascades (including Mt. Mazama) have a wide range in
(230Th/232Th)0 ratios, from 1.00 to 1.35. For our models,
we used UTh isotope compositions for the original mantle
and bulk crust of (238U/232Th) = (230Th/232Th)0 = 1.05
and 1.30, respectively, as these encompass the bulk of the
Th-excess data measured in this study. These compositions
are assumed to lie on the equiline, because it is likely that
the bulk mantle and crust are [300 ka in age. A plot of the
Mt. Mazama data in terms of the amount of Th-excess
[(230Th/238U); Fig. 8] shows a trend that converges on
(238U/232Th) = 1.30, which is taken as the UTh isotope
composition for the bulk crust (component C). The mantle
UTh isotope composition is constrained by data from Mt.
Adams, which contains a significantly greater abundance
of mafic rocks than Mt. Mazama, using samples that
have the lowest cOs values (cOs = [187Os/188Os)measured/
(187Os/188Os)mantle - 1] 9 100), which indicate the least
extent of crustal interaction (Jicha et al. 2009a, b). The
point on Fig. 8 at which the Mt. Adams field intersects the
equiline is taken as a likely UTh isotope composition for
the Cascade mantle, although we recognize that multiple
mantle compositions may exist.
1
La Ce Nd Sm Eu Dy Er Yb Lu
Yb Lu
Fig. 7 Chondrite-normalized REE diagrams: a modeled melts of an
amphibolite lower crust during dehydration melting that produced
residual garnet (see text). Note that the amount of LREE enrichment and
HREE depletion increases as the percent of melting increases due to the
production of garnet during melting. b Mixing between a 15 % mantle
melt and 15 % lower crustal melt (dehydration melting shown in (a). The
proportions noted are the percentage of mantle to crust included in each
mixture. The fields in each diagram represent the range of REE
concentrations for the HAOT (yellow, dotted outline) and basaltic
andesite (purple, solid line) components shown in Fig. 3. Collectively,
these models demonstrate that the elevated LREE/HREE ratios of Mt.
Mazama samples are consistent with residual garnet during melting of
the lower crust, followed by mixing with mantle-derived magmas.
Chondrite composition from Sun and McDonough (1989)
Generation of 230
Th-excess: non-modal batch melting
model results
The results from a model generated using melting modes
(P) calculated from Eq. 1 are discussed below (Table 3; Wolf
and Wyllie 1993). Increasing the percent melt of an
amphibolite lower crust according to P values calculated
from Eq. 1 produces increasing Th-excesses, up to 53.8 %
[(238U/232Th) = 0.845 at 20 % melt], reflecting the greater
degrees of garnet production at larger extents of melt during
non-modal melting. This amount of Th-excess allows for
mixing of mantle melts with higher melt fractions of the lower
crust (up to 20 %) at our assumed bulk crust composition,

123
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585 575

0.39
3.55
6.43

8.32
4.51

Sources Wood et al. (1999), Conrey et al. (2001), McKenzie and ONions (1991), Tiepelo et al. (2002), Blundy and Wood (2003), Berlo et al. (2004), Prowatke and Klemme (2005), Elkins et al. (2008),
which is consistent with the inferred high liquidus tempera-

11.1
18.6
21.4
20.4
12.3

2
tures of Cascade basaltic magmas that provide indirect evi-

ti
dence that high degrees of lower crustal melting may occur

0.004
0.004
0.003

0.300
0.025

0.023
0.20
0.25

0.30
0.28
0.25
mt (e.g., Leeman et al. 1990; Bartels et al. 1991). The extent of
Th-excess produced depends, however, upon the Kds used
qtz

for U and Th in garnet. We selected high Kd values for garnet

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(DU = 0.8, DTh = 0.3, Scheibner et al. 2008) relative to
0.0052
0.002
0.016
0.019

0.042
0.052
those typically measured or calculated for mafic lower crust
0.03

0.12

0.36
0.45
opx

0.2
compositions because they allow for high Th-excesses to
form with increasing melting of a lower crustal composition
0.023
0.019
0.12
0.18

0.69

0.85
cpx

that has no initial garnet. Lower Kd values require that sig-

0.4
0.7

1.1

0.9
1
nificant amounts of garnet ([20 %) be present in the initial
6.0E-05
3.0E-04

0.075 modal mineralogy and produce models in which the amount

0.055
0.32
0.28
0.22
0.16
0.95
0.09

0.06
plag

of Th-excess decreases with increasing percent melt, so that

the highest Th-excesses are achieved at the lowest percent
amph

melts (\1 %). This is inconsistent with the higher degrees of

0.01
0.01

0.45

1.75
0.3

1.4

3.1
3.0
1.9
1.5
2

lower crustal melting noted above. The Kds for other phases
Lower crust

are relatively unimportant in regard to the UTh composi-

0.005
0.016
0.169
1.155
1.678
10.53
19.01
26.33
0.8
0.3

tions produced by the model because the Kd for U in garnet is

30c
gt

over twice that of Th, which virtually eliminates any effects

from other phases considered. We note that similar Th-
7E-04
0.007

0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01

excesses and REE patterns (discussed below) can be gener-

sp

ated using P values calculated from Eqs. 3 and 4 (Sen and

0.0032

Dunn 1994) and Eqs. 5 and 6 (Rapp and Watson 1995), but
0.013

0.021
0.087
0.217
0.01

0.32
1.06

4.03
5.5

we choose to focus on Eq. 1 (Wolf and Wyllie 1993) because

gt

it produces increasing Th-excesses up to higher percent melts

0.0052

0.0068
0.002
0.002
0.003

0.013
0.022

0.049

(20 %). At greater than 20 % melting of the lower crust,

0.01

0.03

0.06
opx

according to Eq. 2, the percent Th-excess begins to decrease

Partition coefficientsb

as residual garnet and pyroxene start to destabilize. This

0.023
0.019
0.054
0.098
0.21
0.26
0.31
0.33
0.29
0.28
0.28
cpx

occurs at lower melt fractions according to Eqs. 4 and 6, at 15

and 5 % melting, respectively.
6.0E-05
9.5E-06

Multiple fractions of modeled melts of a spinel lherzo-

Mantle

0.0004
0.0005

0.0013
0.0016
0.0017
0.0015
0.0015
0.0015
0.001

lite mantle and amphibolite lower crust were mixed toge-

ol

ther in varying proportions to determine reasonable fits for

Amphibolite lower crust

the array of basaltic andesites from monogenetic cones that

have the highest percentages of Th-excess, an example of
which is illustrated in Fig. 5. Melting Cascade mantle that
Sources Palme and ONeill (2004), Rudnick and Gao (2004)

has a garnet lherzolite composition (not shown in Fig. 5)

Table 2 Non-modal batch melting model parameters

generates Th-excesses up to 18.2 % [(238U/232Th) = 0.888

2.33c

3.30
1.18
2.80
1.50
1.20
0.18
18.0
36.0
18.5

at 1 % melt]. Melting Cascade mantle that has a spinel

c

Scheibner et al. (2008), Qian and Hermann (2013)

1

lherzolite composition generates Th-excesses up to 13.0 %

[(238U/232Th) = 0.929 at 1 % melt]. The array of UTh
Garnet lherzolite

isotope compositions of the basaltic andesites can be

approximated with mixtures of a range of melt fractions of
0.145c
0.686
1.785
1.327
0.431
0.162
0.711
0.465
0.462
0.071

both the mantle (125 % melt) and the lower crust

c
0.05

(120 % melt). A plot depicting mixing between a 15 %

Source concentration (ppm)a

mantle melt and a 15 % lower crustal melt indicates that

Spinel lherzolite

the elemental concentration of Th in the modeled mixture

is consistent with that of the high Th-excess isotope ratios
0.145c

of primitive lavas analyzed in this study (Fig. 6), providing

0.686
1.785
1.327
0.431
0.162
0.711
0.465
0.462
0.071
c

Estimated
0.05

an important check on the model assumptions in terms of

end members. In both Figs. 5 and 6, the samples plot
Sm
Nd

Dy

Yb
Th

Ce

Eu

Lu
La

Er
U

across a range of proportions of mantle to crust from about

b
a

123
576 Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585

(238U/ 232Th) may plot below another mixing line, tied to different melt
1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.8 fractions of mantle and crust, which would in turn indicate the
1.6 passage of time (decay of 230Th) since mixing occurred
1.5
(dashed lines in Fig. 5). In some cases, a residence time of up
to 50 kyr is suggested, but it is difficult to infer unique resi-
1.4 dence times relative to the uncertainties in the mixing models.
(230 Th/ 238U)0

1.3 By themselves, the UTh isotope data suggest an important

1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
(232Th/ 238U)
Fig. 8 (232Th/238U)-(230Th/238U)0 variations for Mt. Mazama sam-
ples. This is a modification from a conventional UTh diagram to
show mixing lines as straight lines (238U in denominator), which
allows mixtures of lower crustal melt, mantle melt, and bulk crust or
upper crustal melt to be constrained by a multi-component mixing
triangle. Note the convergence of those samples that have Th-excess
on the equiline. The definitions of the Lower Crustal Melt and
Mantle Melt are as in Fig. 4. The placement of both the Cascade
Mantle and Bulk Crust is discussed in the text. A second possible
mantle composition enriched by subduction fluids, with a UTh
isotope composition similar to that indicated by the blue Bulk
Crust box, could be responsible for the array of samples in U-excess.
This would shift the Mantle and Mantle Melt boxes to the left
along the equiline. Importantly, the resulting Lower Crustal Melt-
Bulk Crust-Mantle Melt mixing triangle for this second mantle
composition would exclude several samples in Th-excess, providing a
check on our primary Cascade Mantle placement. Data for the
Mount Adams field is taken from Jicha et al. (2009b). Symbols match
those in Fig. 4
95:5 to 60:40, assuming mixing of melts that reflect 15 %
melting each of mantle and crust.
Multiple mixing scenarios may imply multiple possible
residence times. For example, a sample may plot directly on
one mantlelower crust line, indicating no time has passed
since fractionation and mixing. The same sample, however,
role for garnet in the residuum upon melting of the lower crust
and mixing with a mantle source, but they cannot robustly
constrain the time since melting and mixing in the absence of
independent constraints on the proportion of mantle and
crustal melts and percent melting. The data are suggestive of
perhaps many 10s of kyr of evolution for several samples,
but the data do not require this, and a wide range of mixing
1.2 1.3 proportions and percent melting of crust and mantle is per-
mitted. We also recognize that the assumed positions of the
crust (component C) and the mantle on the equiline have an
effect on the proportions of melt included in the mixtures. For
example, mixing a mantle melt with a melt of a bulk crust that
had an initial UTh isotope composition that plotted lower on
the equiline (i.e., (238U/232Th) = (230Th/232Th)0 \ 1.3) can
explain samples with lower (230Th/232Th)0, but only at very
low melt fractions of the lower crust. A higher bulk crust
composition (i.e., (238U/232Th) = (230Th/232Th)0 [ 1.3) is
problematic because mixing lines between the crust and
mantle start to become too steep, or have positive slopes, so
they no longer explain the array of high Th-excess primitive
lavas. It could, however, be accommodated by lower percent
melts (\5 %) of the crust calculated using melting modes
from Eq. 5 (Rapp and Watson 1995), as these produce Th-
excesses of up to 81 %, so mixing lines would still have
negative slopes. These uncertainties notwithstanding, the U
Th data require that mantle and crustal melting processes
occurred less than *300 ka prior to eruption, and probably
less than *100 ka before eruption, if reasonable melting and
mixing parameters are used.
The concentrations of REEs produced by the non-modal
batch melting models are consistent with what we observe
in the more primitive, higher Th-excess samples analyzed

Table 3 Non-modal batch partial melting results

Calculated melting mode (P) values Modeled (230Th/238U) for degrees of partial melting below
Gt lherzolite Sp lherzolite Amphibolite F (%) Gt lherzolite Sp lherzolite Amphibolite
Mantle Mantle Equation 1 Mantle Mantle Equation 1

gt 0.44 -1.62 1 1.182 1.130 1.374

cpx 0.42 0.73 -1.55 2 1.101 1.075 1.446
opx 0.24 0.54 -0.08 3 1.068 1.051 1.476
plag 1.31 5 1.040 1.031 1.503
amph 2.94 10 1.017 1.013 1.526
ol -0.1 -0.42 15 1.009 1.007 1.534
sp 0.15 20 1.005 1.004 1.538

123
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
in this study. Melting of an amphibolite lower crust com-
position produces melts that have increasingly steeper REE
patterns with increasing percent melting, including LREE
enrichment and HREE depletion, due to a growing amount
of garnet that is produced in the residuum (Fig. 7a). It is
important to note that this is a trend opposite to that tra-
ditionally obtained in melting models that contain initial
garnet that is increasingly exhausted with progressive
melting. Mixing of a 15 % lower crustal melt with a 15 %
spinel lherzolite mantle melt produces increasing LREE
enrichment and HREE depletion with a decreasing pro-
portion of mantle to crust (Fig. 7b). As with the UTh
chemical and isotope compositions, the amount of LREE
enrichment recorded in Mt. Mazama samples may be
explained by a range of proportions of mantle to crust,
from about 95:5 to 60:40. Using a melt of a depleted
mantle, as suggested by Nd isotope data (Bacon et al. 1994,
1997), still allows for appropriate amounts of LREE
enrichment and HREE depletion to occur upon mixing with
the lower crustal melt. Melting of, and mixing with, a
mantle that has a garnet lherzolite composition serves to
slightly decrease the proportion of crust to mantle needed
to approximate the compositions of the Mt. Mazama
samples. The La/Yb-1/Yb relations support our mixing
model, where the steep positive trend that is defined by the
basaltic andesite samples (Fig. 9) coincides with a mixing
line calculated from our melting model, showing that the
trend can be attributed to mixing with a lower crustal melt
that had garnet in the residuum. A caveat, however, must
be noted with regard to the LREE enrichments observed in
volcanic rocks from Mt. Mazama in that interaction with
garnet, while permissible, is not an exclusive explanation
for enrichments in LILE and LREE. These enrichments can
be explained by variations in the mantle source and/or
different degrees of melting of a mantle enriched by a
subduction component (e.g., Bacon et al. 1997), and sev-
eral components may be contained within the measured
REE contents. Additionally, we recognize that the melts
produced by dehydration melting experiments of amphib-
olites at lower crustal PT conditions are significantly more
felsic in terms of their major element compositions than the
basaltic andesites from Mt. Mazama. It seems likely,
however, that silicic crustal melts will be strongly diluted
with melts from the mantle in regard to major elements,
whereas incompatible element signatures will be retained.
In addition, silicic crustal melt components may also be
modulated by coeval melting of ultramafic material, as
postulated by Conrey et al. (2001) based on tonaliteperi-
dotite experiments by Carroll and Wyllie (1989).
The HSr samples have lower Th-excesses than the more
primitive samples and cannot be explained by the same
simple mixing lines discussed above. We propose that the
HSr component likely originated from magmas that mixed
577
with lower crustal dehydration melts in a manner similar to
the basaltic andesites and that subsequent mixing and/or
assimilation within the developing magma chamber pro-
duced the observed UTh, REE, and LILE compositions.
The resulting fluid from dehydration melting of amphibole
should produce magmas with higher H2O contents than
would otherwise be expected in a hot, young arc, and
amphibole-bearing lower crust should be a fertile melt
source (e.g., Davidson et al. 2007). This fluid could con-
tribute to the subduction signature interpreted by Bacon
et al. (1997) to be present in magmas from Mt. Mazama
that is thought to be reflected in high Sr concentrations, as
well as higher concentrations of other LILEs. A lower
crustal source for high Sr contents has been proposed for
lavas from Mt. Shasta (e.g., Streck et al. 2007; Zellmer
2009) and Mt. Jefferson (e.g., Conrey et al. 2001). The HSr
component has a similar level of LREE and LILE enrich-
ment as the basaltic andesites, but is slightly less HREE
depleted. High Sr samples are, however, LREE enriched
and HREE depleted relative to the LSr component. Con-
sequently, they do not fall along the steep trend defined by
the basaltic andesite samples in Fig. 9, but rather roughly
define a shallower trend that falls between the basaltic
andesites and the LSr component. In Figs. 5 and 8, the HSr
samples appear to trend toward the initial bulk crust
composition that was defined on the equiline, toward the
evolved preclimactic and climactic rhyodacites analyzed in
this study. Several of the HSr samples analyzed are
enclaves that are associated with a preclimactic rhyodacite,
and the remaining HSr samples are scoria erupted during
the climactic eruption. We suggest, therefore, that the
lower Th-excesses and trend toward the equiline that is
observed in the HSr component is generated by evolution
of a HSr parent magma, coupled with possible mixing with
host rhyodacite or interaction with a U-excess upper crustal
component in the climactic magma chamber. This HSr
parent likely had an initial UTh isotope composition
similar to the analyzed basaltic andesite samples.
The HAOT/LKT sample analyzed in this study, which
has the low LREE/HREE ratios that are typical of Cascade
HAOT/LKT lavas, has a similar UTh isotope ratio as
primitive basaltic andesites from various monogenetic
volcanoes. In the Cascades, and specifically at Mt. Maz-
ama, HAOT/LKT magmas are typically attributed to adi-
abatic decompression melting of a hot, nearly anhydrous
mantle in the spinel peridotite stability field (e.g., Hart
et al. 1984; Leeman et al. 1990; Sisson and Layne 1993;
Bacon et al. 1997; Grove et al. 2003). These magmas are
not thought to be associated with lower crustal interaction
and do not have REE patterns that are indicative of a garnet
signature (Bacon 1990). The mixing models calculated for
this study, however, indicate that a small amount of crustal
interaction (a proportion of mantle to crust of 95:5) is
123
578
25
20
15
La/Yb
10
5
0 produce the large amount of ingrowth of 230Th required to
0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
1/Yb
Fig. 9 La/Yb-1/Yb variations for Mt. Mazama samples. Includes
samples analyzed for UTh isotopes in this study and additional
samples from Bruggman et al. (1987, 1989) and Bacon (unpublished).
The gray dotted mixing line shows a mixture between a 15 % mantle
melt and 15 % lower crustal melt, with proportions of mantle to crust
noted at various points along the line. The lower crustal melt (not
shown) is located at La/Yb = 372 and 1/Yb = 6.01, and plots off the
scale of the diagram. Symbols match those in Fig. 2. The high La/Yb
ratios of the HSr samples, relative to the LSr samples, suggests a
significant role for garnet in the residue during melting of the lower
crust in the HSr samples
required to replicate the amount of Th-excess observed in
this sample (Fig. 6), given the Th concentrations of the end
members. Small additions of crust that had garnet in the
residuum are also, in fact, permitted by the REE patterns
measured for some HAOT/LKT lavas at Mt. Mazama
(Figs. 7, 9). In addition, HAOT/LKT lavas do show evi-
dence of LILE enrichment, which, as stated earlier, may, in
part, be attributable to the release of fluid during dehy-
dration melting of amphibole in the lower crust. Additional
U-series isotope analyses of HAOT/LKT lavas are needed
to determine the extent of crustal interaction, if any, and
the distinction from the basaltic andesite (CAB) compo-
nent, but the modeling illustrated here demonstrates that
UTh isotopes may be an exceptionally sensitive indicator
of garnet relative to other geochemical tracers such as
REEs.
Generating U-excess: subduction enrichment
versus shallow crustal hydrothermal fluids
U-excess is less common in the Cascades and less than
15 % of the Cascades UTh isotope data measured prior to
this study are 238U-enriched (Fig. 4). At Mt. Mazama,
more than half of the samples analyzed in this study are
238
U-enriched, and these record the highest U/Th isotope
ratios yet measured in the Cascades (Fig. 10). The most
123
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
commonly cited origin for U-excess in an arc setting is
U-addition from dehydration of the subducting slab and
fluid fluxing of the mantle wedge, reflecting the fluid-
mobile nature of U (e.g., Turner et al. 2003). Such an origin
for 238U-enrichment was suggested by Reagan et al. (2003)
in their UTh isotope study of Mt. Mazama. This origin,
however, seems an unlikely explanation for the U-excess at
Crater Lake. Assuming our inferred initial mantle compo-
sition is correct, melting a subduction fluid (and U)-
enriched mantle that had an initial (238U/232Th) =
(230Th/232Th)0 = 1.05 would require an exceptionally
large amount of U enrichment, in combination with a very
long residence time ([200 kyr) following fractionation, to
reach the (230Th/232Th)0 values of the LSr component and
evolved magmas of Crater Lake. Importantly, there are no
samples from Mt. Mazama that reflect the array of data
points that would be produced by such a path. Either
magmas that have these compositions were never erupted,
were destroyed in the caldera-forming eruption, or this
scenario did not occur.
Alternatively, the presence of another mantle compo-
nent that plots higher on the equiline and was enriched by
subduction fluids may account for the missing array of
samples extending from our suggested Cascade mantle
composition (see Fig. 8 text). Trace element and other
isotope compositions of primitive magmas in the Cascades
generally only allow for small subduction fluid components
(Morris et al. 1990; Leeman et al. 2004, 2005; Smith and
Leeman 2005; Ruscitto et al. 2010), which is consistent
with the relatively small U-excesses observed at Crater
Lake (\9 %). However, samples analyzed for UTh iso-
topes at Mt. Shasta by Newman et al. (1986) and Volpe
(1992), a volcano typically associated with a stronger
subduction fluid component relative to other Cascade
centers (Grove et al. 2002, 2003), plot primarily in Th-
excess, and the few samples in U-excess do not have UTh
isotope ratios as high as those of Mt. Mazama. We there-
fore conclude that subduction processes are an unlikely
explanation for U-enrichment at Crater Lake.
We propose an alternative for U-excess, via melting of
shallow crust that has been altered by hydrothermal fluids
enriched in U. Although this scenario has been rarely
proposed for U-enrichment in arc rocks, it is recognized
that interaction with the upper crust is an important con-
sideration when interpreting U-series disequilibria in arc
magmas (e.g., Reubi et al. 2011). Villemant et al. (1996)
suggested that pyroclastic rocks erupted at Mt. Pelee in the
Lesser Antilles arc were enriched in U due to a hydro-
thermal component, relative to coeval effusive rocks.
Several studies address the link between hydrothermally
altered rocks and enrichment of U over Th at the Long
Valley, Valles, and Yellowstone calderas (Sturchio et al.
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
1.50
1.45
(230Th/232Th)0
1.40
1.35
1.30
1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60
(238U/232 Th)
Fig. 10 (238U/232Th)-(230Th/232Th)0 variations for Mt. Mazama
samples that have U-excess. Components A, B, and C are discussed
in the text. The asterisk by Preclimactic LSr encl. denotes that one
sample in this group that plots along the Component AB mixing line
is an andesite lava that erupted coevally with the Bear Bluff
rhyodacite, not an enclave. The red lines are isochrons. The larger
numbers above the red lines denote the age if (234U/238U) = 1. The
smaller text denotes the age of the isochron if (238U/234U) [ 1. The
significance of this is discussed in the text. The black arrows shown in
the inset point toward where we would expect possible parents for
Components A and B to plot
1986, 1987; Wollenberg et al. 1995). Large enrichment in
U over Th (over 200 %) is produced in the high-tempera-
ture parts of hydrothermal systems that are also associated
with significantly depleted d18O values, indicating exten-
sive hydrothermal interactions (see supplementary plot,
Sturchio et al. 1987; Wollenberg et al. 1995). In younger
caldera systems such as Mt. Mazama, this U-enrichment
may translate to U-excess as recorded by U-series isotopes.
Assimilation of hydrothermally altered wall rock of the
climactic magma chamber beneath Mt. Mazama is well
documented by the presence of granodiorite blocks in the
climactic ejecta, as well as antecrysts in preclimactic
rhyodacite (Bacon et al. 1994, 2000; Bacon and Lowen-
stern 2005). The granodiorite blocks are characterized by
significantly decreased d18O values, which are interpreted
to be the result of exchange of O isotopes with meteoric
hydrothermal fluid. d18O values as low as ?4 % relative to
V-SMOW have been recorded in the climactic rhyodacite.
One LSr scoria has Sr, Nd, and Pb isotope ratios identical
to those of the low-d18O granitoid blocks, as well as a d18O
value for plagioclase of ?4.7 %, which is consistent with
assimilation of rocks that exchanged with meteoric
hydrothermal fluids at high temperature. In addition, the Sr
isotope compositions of both the LSr and evolved com-
ponent may have been influenced by the upper crust.
87
Sr/86Sr ratios of the preclimactic rhyodacites match those
579
of the granodiorites, and the LSr component has radiogenic
Sr isotope ratios relative to the HSr component (Bacon
et al. 1994); these features are consistent with upper crustal
interaction.
The O and U-series isotope database for Mt. Mazama
rocks does not yet allow direct correlation of low magmatic
d18O values and U-excesses documented in the evolved
and LSr components, but the data appear to be broadly
consistent with our expectations that generation of
U-excess magmas via assimilation of hydrothermally
altered upper crust is a viable alternative to enrichment via
subduction fluids. Uranium mobilization via fluid flow has
been documented for crystallizing plutons (Buntebarth
1976), meteoric hydrothermal systems (Gosnold 1987), and
low-temperature groundwater flow (Guthrie 1991). Given
the evidence at Crater Lake for a significant meteoric
hydrothermal system, as documented by lowered d18O
values (Bacon et al. 1989, 1994), it seems likely that U
addition could occur by this mechanism. Support for this
model comes from studies of U enrichment in the Idaho
batholith, where dD and d18O were strongly lowered in the
shallow parts of the batholith (Criss and Taylor 1983).
Gosnold (1987) found that the greatest enrichment of heat-
producing elements, including U, occurred in the zones that
had the greatest lowering of dD and d18O values, indicating
high water/rock ratios.
An important caveat to consider regarding the influence
of hydrothermal fluid on UTh isotope compositions is that
a comparison of Crater Lake to large caldera systems such
as Yellowstone may be inappropriate given the size dif-
ference between both the volcanoes themselves and their
associated hydrothermal systems. Additionally, we note
that the data from Sturchio et al. (1987) are taken from very
shallow drill cores of hydrothermally altered rhyolitic
extrusive rocks. Increased crystallinity of intrusive rocks,
both in the plutonic rocks beneath Mt. Mazama and deeper
within the Yellowstone system, may limit the mobility of U
in fluids, although it is important to note that rocks from
Mt. Mazama do require a much lower percentage of
U-excess (up to 9 %) relative to those at Yellowstone (up
to 300 %). In some igneous intrusive rocks, hydrothermal
alteration has been shown to be associated with U depletion
(e.g., Cheang et al. 1985; Cohen 2011), and decreased d18O
values observed in the Yellowstone drill core may be
associated with recycling of deeper, hydrothermally altered
rocks buried by caldera collapse (e.g., Bindeman and
Valley 2000), not with shallow hydrothermal alteration.
This provides an alternative to the direct correlation dis-
cussed above between low-d18O values and U-excess. It is
possible that U-excesses and low-d18O values are gener-
ated at different levels in an upper crustal hydrothermal
system, in which case the U-excess signature observed in
Mt. Mazama samples could be attributable to a shallower
123
580
U-enriched source, not to the low-d18O intrusive rocks
surrounding the climactic magma chamber.
At Crater Lake, the evolved and LSr components have
U-excess, and climactic LSr scoria have the highest per-
centages of U-excess (component A in Fig. 10). This
stands in contrast to the HSr component (component B in
Fig. 10), which has Th-excess. A linear UTh trend is
defined by the various evolved units at Mt. Mazama, which
converges on the equiline at (238U/232Th) = 1.351.40. We
propose that this trend constitutes a mixing line between
the U-enriched LSr component (A) and the HSr component
(B). The Th-excess nature of the HSr component suggests
interaction with lower crust, as previously discussed,
indicating that mixing between HSr and LSr magmas
would have occurred after HSr magmas ascended into the
upper crust. Previous research using independent lines of
evidence shows that the climactic rhyodacite is a mixture
of HSr and LSr components (Druitt and Bacon 1989). The
U-series data support this, and on an A-B mixing line, the
climactic rhyodacite lies roughly halfway between the LSr
and HSr components (Figs. 4, 10). The U-series data
indicate that the preclimactic rhyodacites also trend along
this proposed mixing line and shift along it, roughly
reflecting the relative extents of LSr or mixed LSrHSr
parentage. The two preclimactic dacites (Munson Valley
and Williams Crater) that we analyzed also appear to lie
along this mixing line.
Previous O and Sr isotope work, as well as the lack of
strong evidence for slab fluid fluxing in the Cascades, as
discussed above, suggests that U-enrichment of the LSr
component and its differentiates reflect evolution in the
upper crust (Component C in Fig. 10). The UTh isotope
composition of Component C is an approximation of the
bulk crust. Its U/Th ratio was selected to accommodate the
higher (230Th/232Th)0 values of Mt. Mazama samples in
Th-excess, as well as the need for a third component to
explain the LSr enclaves that lie below the mixing line (A
B). A tie line between components C and A provides a
possible age of U-enrichment of *75 ka, but we note that
this age is only applicable if the (234U/238U) ratios of the
lavas are in secular equilibrium. Because the samples
analyzed represent unaltered examples of their respective
units, they were not analyzed for (234U/238U) ratios. There
is no apparent correlation between loss-on-ignition (LOI)
in major or trace element analyses, where higher values
may indicate the presence of hydrated (altered) volcanic
glass, or d18O, where lower values may be indicative of
hydrothermal alteration, with increasing U-excess (see
supplementary plots). It is therefore unlikely that
(234U/238U) ratios were affected by post-eruptive alteration.
We also recognize that (234U/238U) ratios in the upper
crust may have 234U-excess from hydrothermal alteration
and that assimilation of this crust could result in a magma
123
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
that had (234U/238U) [ 1 prior to eruption. To evaluate this,
the additional 230Th ingrowth from the decay of 234U was
calculated for an initial (234U/238U) = 1.15, which is the
upper limit of 234U-excess recorded in hydrothermally
altered silicic rocks by Sturchio et al. (1987). This shifts the
isochrons so that they are significantly steeper, making the
age of U-enrichment of component A *40 ka. However,
Villemant et al. (1996) note that (234U/238U) ratios may be
unaffected by interaction with a hydrothermal system,
citing the fact that the majority of the hydrothermally
altered rocks analyzed by Sturchio et al. (1987) have
(234U/238U) ratios close to or within error of secular equi-
librium despite having very strong 238U-enrichment rela-
tive to 230Th.
If the (234U/238U) ratios of the climactic magmas were
not perturbed by assimilation of hydrothermally altered
crust, the timing of U-enrichment (*75 ka) coincides with
initiation of a period of voluminous dacite eruptions at Mt.
Mazama (Bacon and Lanphere 2006). It may also mark the
beginning of major hydrothermal circulation in the shallow
crust, which would likely be associated with development
of a large shallow magma chamber. We propose that
U-enrichment from an upper crustal source is most likely to
be found in caldera-related systems, and the paucity of
calderas in the Cascade arc may be one explanation for the
rarity of U-excess in the Cascades, when considered in
light of the relatively small subduction fluid component in
Cascade magmas.
Our model directly ties U-excess to the conditions and
processes associated with development of a caldera-related
magmatic system. Such a model is best evaluated in vol-
canic arcs that have minimal subduction fluid components
in their magmas so that upper crustal U-enrichment can be
distinguished from slab fluid-associated U-enrichment. In
the Cascades, only Mt. Mazama/Crater Lake falls in an age
range suitable for UTh isotope studies relative to the other
Quaternary calderas. Tests of our model may be done for
arcs where fluid fluxes may be low, such as certain seg-
ments of the Alaska-Aleutian arc (e.g., George et al. 2003;
Jicha et al. 2004). A number of young calderas in the
Alaska-Aleutian arc are amenable to UTh isotope analy-
sis; these include Aniakchak (George et al. 2004; Dreher
et al. 2005), Fisher (Bindeman et al. 2001), Katmai (Turner
et al. 2010), Okmok (Finney et al. 2008), and Veniaminof
(Bacon et al. 2007). Some of the Alaska-Aleutian arc cal-
dera magmas have low-d18O values that are indicative of a
component of hydrothermally altered crust (e.g., Bindeman
et al. 2001; Finney et al. 2008). We note, however, that
low-d18O and U-excesses may be generated at different
levels in an upper crustal hydrothermal system, and hence,
there may not be a 1:1 correlation of lowered d18O and
U-enrichment in the same samples, but this has yet to be
determined.
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2013) 166:563585
A B
Fig. 11 Diagrams depicting models for generating 230Th-excess
(a) and 238U-excess (b) in Mt. Mazama magmas. The HSr suite,
which has Th-excess, is envisioned to reflect contributions from
dehydration melting of the lower crust and accompanying production
of garnet. The LSr suite, which has U-excess, is interpreted to record
assimilation of hydrothermally altered upper crust, rather than a
Conclusions
UTh isotope measurements on Mt. Mazama volcanic units
of *36 to 4.8 ka age provide new insights into the evo-
lution and development of the climactic magma chamber
and more clearly identify crustal interaction than previous
work based on Sr, Nd, and Pb isotope compositions,
because of the high sensitivity of UTh isotopes to inter-
action with young crust. A major finding is that interaction
with garnet, likely in the residuum produced by non-modal,
dehydration melting of a mafic lower crustal composition
that was initially garnet free, is necessary to explain the
high percentages of Th-excess observed at Mt. Mazama.
This is applicable to the mafic lavas, as well as the HSr
scoria component in the climactic and preclimactic units,
where the breakdown of plagioclase and amphibole during
melting of the lower crust may account for a portion of the
observed LILE and LREE enrichment, especially in regard
to Sr. We propose that basaltic and HAOT/LKT melts that
rose from the mantle, upon reaching the Moho, provided
sufficient heat to cause significant amounts of melting of
amphibole-bearing, mafic lower crust, resulting in pro-
duction of garnet in the residuum (Fig. 11a). Various
amounts of mixing between melts of a spinel or garnet
lherzolite mantle and mafic lower crust, accompanied by
production of garnet in the lower crust via dehydration
melting, can explain the isotopic variations and LREE
581
subduction fluid component. Special notations: * other lithologies are
likely present in the plutons surrounding the climactic magma
chamber ** as discussed in the text, we note that U-excess and low-
d18O may not occur concurrently in the granodiorite and that
U-excess may be sourced from shallower, lower T parts of the
hydrothermal system
enrichment/HREE depletion observed in the primitive
basaltic andesites. Because Th-excess is a characteristic of
lavas from all Cascade volcanoes where U-series analyses
have been undertaken, we suggest that the influence of
garnet is more common throughout the arc than previously
thought. This influence is potentially also very common in
other arc settings, but higher levels of subduction fluids at
most arcs relative to the Cascades may mask the garnet
signature and produce magmas in U-excess.
In contrast to the Th-excess that is produced in the lower
crust, the upper crust is especially important in terms of its
role in generating the observed U-excess of the LSr com-
ponent and evolved magmas at Mount Mazama. U-excess
is uncommon in the Cascades and is interpreted to reflect
melting and assimilation of upper crust that has been
hydrothermally altered. We propose that the source of
U-excess is assimilation of country rocks that surrounded
the developing climactic magma chamber and were
hydrothermally altered at high temperature. Such rocks
may be similar to, or represented by, granodiorite that
occurs in the climactic deposits that is interpreted to have
comprised the walls of climactic magma chamber
(Fig. 11b). Because U-excess is restricted to units that
reflect the developing climactic magma chamber, we pro-
pose that the onset of U-enrichment is directly related to
development of a large hydrothermal system that was dri-
ven by the pre-caldera magma chamber. If we interpret the
123
582
UTh array as an isochron, development of the hydro-
thermal system beneath Crater Lake began at least 75 ka
ago. This estimate is broadly consistent with that proposed
by Bacon et al. (1994), who noted, based on lowered d18O
values, that major circulation of, and oxygen isotope
exchange with, meteoric hydrothermal fluid began some-
time between 70 and 24 ka.
Acknowledgments We acknowledge Kate Smith for her assistance
in the field and for her help with obtaining the Th isotope analyses.
We also thank Heather Wright for help with fieldwork and discussions
related to this project. Comments on a draft manuscript by Steve
Shirey and Naomi Matthews, and Contributions to Mineralogy and
Petrology reviews by Georg Zellmer and an anonymous reviewer, as
well as additional comments by Jon Blundy, helped us to improve the
quality and clarity of this manuscript. This work was supported by
National Science Foundation Grant No. 1144937, as well as the
National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under
Grant No. DGE-0718123, the Jack Kleinman Grants for Volcano
Research program, and a Weeks Research Assistantship and alumni
gift funds from the University of Wisconsin-Madison Department of
Geoscience.
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