MEC 411 Tribology of Machine Elements

Surface Examination and Characterisation

Tribosystem Analysis
In most applications it is possible to identify two types of tribosystem, a microtribosystem
and a macrotribosystem. A microtribosystem is a system defined relative to a specific wear
point or wearing contact. A macrotribosystem is a system defined relative to the mechanism
in which wear takes place. This concept can be illustrated by consideration of the schematic
shown illustrating a valve drive system from an automotive engine.
MACROTRIBOSYSTEM
Several microtribosystems can be ROCKER ARM
identified, including the those for the VALVE SPRING RETAINER

wear between valve and seat insert,

rocker arm and valve tip and the cam
SPRING COLLET
and rocker arm etc. The macrosystem PUSH ROD

in this case would be the whole VALVE SPRING

assembly. Microsystem parameters are

CAM FOLLOWER
related to macrosystem parameters.
For example, a change in the cam CAM
VALVE GUIDE
profile alters the valve closing velocity CAMSHAFT

and hence wear of the valve and seat.

VALVE STEM
VALVE HEAD
When carrying out a wear analysis
both micro and macrotribosystems VALVE SEAT INSERT

should be included. There are two

reasons for this, both related to the fact
MICROTRIBOSYSTEMS
wear can be affected by macrosystem
conditions. First the wear relationships used in wear analysis are based on the parameters of
the microsystem, these parameters, as well as the location of wear points within the
macrosystem, are generally determined by conditions associated with the macrosystem. The
second aspect is that wear problems can be resolved or avoided by the appropriate selection
of both micro and macrosystem parameters.
When examining the tribosystems, it is desirable to identify what are nominal and typical
operating conditions and the possible extremes and exceptions associated with those
conditions.

Macrotribosystem
The focus in this examination should be identification and determination of conditions for
operation and use, and the understanding of the interrelationships of the various components
and their effect on microsystem parameters.
In cases where testing is being used it should be carried out for the field and testing situations
as differences will exist.
The relationship between wear and performance should be considered and the failure mode
understood. The amount of wear that can be tolerated should be determined, as well as the
significant aspects of wear, such as wear depth, material loss, or change in shape. It is also
useful to identify what life or improvement is required.
Reviews should be carried out of assembly, maintenance and testing procedures. Performance
data needs to be examined and correlation between different factors and performance
explored.
The techniques used for this type of examination are generally those associated with
mechanical engineering and design. They may be experimental and analytical, and include
the following:

Visual observations of the operation of the machine and device

Visual examination of hardware
Part inspection techniques
Dynamic analysis methods
Finite-element models
CAD simulation
High speed photography
Accelerometry
Strain gauge measurements
Low power optical examination

Microtribosystem
This is basically a study of the wearing components and their interaction and the
determination of the microsystem parameters.
Examination of the microtribosystem should include:

Environment Contact geometry

Lubrication Parts
Loading Wear
Motion

Both contacting parts should be examined even if wear is only evident on one. Contact
stresses should also be determined.
Typically the information on environment, loading and motion of the microsystem and the
nominal geometry and location of the contact will come from the macrosystem analysis.
The use of device-level macrosystem information for determining microsystem parameters is
shown in the figure below of a computer chip placement device. The microsystem of interest
is the contact between the needle and the bushing. Wear here will affect placement accuracy.
The load between the two parts and the nominal contact geometry can be determined by
studying the operation of the probe and the various tolerance and dimensions of the device.
The amount of sliding can also be determined in this manner. Specific details of the contact
are the radii of the needle and bushing, roughness values, edge geometry of the bushing and
the materials.

New and used parts should be examined and it is generally desirable to examine more than
one set of parts to look for common features. In-situ examinations should be carried out if
possible.
In examining contact configurations, three conditions should be identified:
1. the configuration that is actually occurring between the worn parts
2. the intended configuration
3. the range of contact conditions that can occur or is allowed by the design and assembly
method.

Other examination will involve mechanical inspection to determine contours, dimensions and
surface roughness, as well as tests to characterise material conditions, such as hardness.
Wear scars must be examined, using qualitative and quantitative techniques, to establish wear
features and the magnitude of wear. This can be achieved using optical techniques and
profilometer techniques. Other techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDX) can also be used if more detailed analysis is required.

Wear Analysis
Both mating parts should be examined for wear, and wear scars found examined in close
detail. In addition to identifying qualitative features of wear scars, which are typically
indicators of wear modes and mechanisms, these examinations should also include measuring
the wear.
Wear scars for different stages of life, or after different amounts of usage, as well as for
different operating conditions should be examined to establish if different wear mechanisms
or regimes are apparent.

Wear Scar Features

There are three wear features that need to be examined:

1. location of the wear scar

2. appearance of the wear scar
3. magnitude of the wear scar

Various aspects of the wear scar appearance are important. They can provide information on
the contact conditions and information useful in developing a wear model, such as significant
wear modes and selection of wear relationships.

There are two attributes that are

significant. They are the shape of the Load
wear scar, the morphology of the wear variation
scar, which is an indicator of the wear
mechanism occurring. The wear scar
shape should be assessed to see if it ties Separation
in with what is expected from the
operation of the device. It should also be
examined for uniformity and continuity.
Lack of uniformity and continuity are Edge stress
typically caused by misalignment, non- concentration
uniform loading over the contact, edge
conditions, load variation over the wear
path, or loss of contact. These conditions Misalignment
are illustrated to the right.
The morphology of the wear scar should be examined to identify a general classification of
the wear situation to be made. Comparisons can be made with pictures of wear scars
generated under known conditions (such as those shown in the lecture on wear mechanisms).
It should then be possible to identify desirable and undesirable material characteristics and
relevant wear databases and relationships.
The determination of wear mechanism by wear scar examination is based on the observations
of damage features and alterations to the near surface regions that are associated with
different mechanisms. Significant wear scar features are listed below:

Location of the wear scar

Size and shape of the wear scar
State of lubrication
General morphology (as representative of sliding, rolling, impact or abrasion)
Scratches and other indications of abrasion
Corrosion
Adhesion and transfer
Type of deformation, brittle or ductile (fracture and cracks; plastic flow)
Thermal damage (particularly with polymers)
Flaking or delamination of coatings
Sliding marks in rolling and impact situations
Gross plastic deformation

The remaining element of examination is the quantification of the wear. This does not have to
be the volume of wear, and usually is not. However, it should normally be related to volume,
depth or cross-sectional area. This is because wear coefficients used in wear relationships
typically use one of these measures of wear.
It is sometimes desirable to collect wear debris for analysis, as this may provide additional
information about the wear. Specifically, the size and shape of the debris, as well as its
composition and chemical nature, may help in characterisation of the wear situation.

Examination Techniques
The examination should start with unaided visual observation followed by the use of low-
power optical microscopy, as outlined below. This, combined with measurement of wear is
usually sufficient.

Macro level Micro level

Unaided visual examination or low power optical Low power optical microscopy
tools (e.g. magnifying glass)
Magnification of two to three times Magnification of 5 to 100 times

Wear scars should examined in two ways. One examination should be before the parts are
cleaned and the wear scar region is disturbed in any way. The second should be after
cleaning, to remove loose debris, contamination, oil and grease. Before cleaning, the
examination should focus on debris accumulation, signs of contamination and the state of
lubrication. Observation after cleaning should focus on wear scar features and surface
damage. Sub-surface examination can be carried out to identify deformation etc. This, as well
as the surface examination can be carried out using optical microscopy.
Scanning electron microscopy is frequently used to supplement optical microscopy. The
improved depth of field, imaging techniques, range of magnification and auxiliary tools
associated with SEMs have made them a very useful tool in wear examination. Typically,
magnification in the range from several hundred to several thousand times provides useful
information in wear studies, although much lower will often suffice.
The images shown below show the range of picture quality available from different imaging
techniques:

Digital camera image Optical microscope image SEM image

Some elemental surface analysis methods, which can also be used to study wear debris and
surface contamination are outlined below:

Method Resolution Sampling Sensitivity Information Uses

Depth Obtained
Energy dispersive 50/1m 100/1m 0.1% Elemental analysis, Examining wear
x-ray analysis mapping of debris or
(EDX) elements, contamination
quantitative
analysis
Auger 3m 20 0.1% Elemental analysis, Thin oxide layer
analysis/scanning mapping of analysis, thin
auger microscope elements corrosion layer
(SAM) analysis, depth
profiling of elements
Electron scanning 0.2mm 20 0.1% Elemental analysis, Thin oxide layer
for chemical chemical bonding analysis, thin
analysis (ESCA) corrosion layer
analysis, depth
profiling of elements
Secondary ion 3m 2 ppm Elemental analysis, Thin oxide layer
mass spectroscope mapping of analysis, thin
(SIMS)/ion probe elements, chemical corrosion layer
bonding, analysis, depth
quantitative profiling of elements
analysis

With a wear analysis, it is generally necessary to determine the depth of wear. This is usually
a more appropriate way of quantifying the amount of wear. There are several reasons for this.
Wear depth is often the most significant in applications and changes in wear behaviour can
occur as wear progresses through a surface into the bulk. Wear depth is also easier to measure
than wear volume.
Typical direct methods for obtaining wear depth involve the measurement of a depth, change
of dimension, or a change in profile (as shown below). Common tools used are for measuring
depth are dial indicators and profilometers. Changes in dimension can be measured by height
gauges, micrometers or calipers.
 Depth
Unworn Worn Unworn

Worn Depth

The use of profilometry has advantages over the other methods because of its sensitivity to
height change and its ability to provide profiles of wear scars. As well as general information
they can also be used to determine roughness and magnitude of transferred material and
plastic deformation. Measurements can be taken using a 2D stylus (contact) profilometer.
These can cost as little as 1000. 3D imaging is also possible using non-contact
profilometers, which would cost about 50,000. This however, can provide much more
information, including wear volume.

Characterisation Methods
General classification
Fundamentally, characterisation is describing or classifying the wear situation in a generic
manner that is useful for identifying relevant wear information. It uses information on the
microtribosystem to describe the wear situation in terms of operational and mechanistic
aspects.
A mechanistic description is based on the wear mechanism. The operational description
should include at least:

Number of bodies involved (one or two)

Predominant motion
Lubrication?
Abrasive exposure

Operational
A simplified operational classification is shown on the following page. Basically it divides
wear situations into one- and two- body situations and sub-divides these into generic
situations, which can be related to the dominant types of wear mechanisms and general trends
for those situations.
Another example of an operational classification system is the Tribological Aspects Numbers
(TAN) system, outlined on the page after next. This sytem is for two-body wear situations
and was developed for selecting tests to evaluate materials for use in different wear
situations. Ideally the TAN description of the application and the test used for evaluation
should be the same. In practice, however, it is generally sufficient to match the first two
digits.

Mechanistic
Mechanistic classification processes involve describing the wear situation in terms for
different wear mechanisms and processes. The table below the TAN diagrams contains a list
of many such terms, which are organised based on the wear situations in which they are most
often used.
Mechanistic Classification of Wear Mechanisms for Different Wear Situations

Typical Mechanisms1
Motion With or Lubed or With or Adhesive Single-Cycle Repeated - Chemical Thermal
Without Slip Unlubed Without Deformation Cycle
Particles Deformation
Rolling2 With slip Lubed Without
Unlubed Without
Lubed With
Unlubed With
Without slip Lubed Without
Unlubed Without
Lubed With
Unlubed With
Impact3 With slip Lubed Without
Unlubed Without
Lubed With
Unlubed With
Without slip Lubed Without
(compound Unlubed Without
impact) Lubed With
Unlubed With
Sliding4 Unidirection Lubed Without
Unlubed Without 5 6
Lubed With
Unlubed With 5 6
Reciprocating Lubed Without
(large Unlubed Without 5 6
amplitude) Lubed With
Unlubed With 5 6
Reciprocating Lubed Without
(small Unlubed Without 5
amplitude) Lubed With
Unlubed With 5

1
Except in hostile environments, where thermal and chemical wear mechanisms can be
significant and dominate the wear behaviour.
2
Mildest wear situation; repeated-cycle deformation mechanisms tend to be dominant; wear
increases with slip and particles; with particles and slip abrasive wear can be dominant;
smooth surface particles preferred.
3
Repeated-cycle deformation mechanisms tend to be dominant; gross plastic deformation
generally unacceptable, unless in short life applications; stresses should be in the elastic
range for lives greater than 106 impacts; wear increases with slip.
4
Repeated-cycle deformation mechanisms tend to be dominant, but chemical mechanisms
can be significant; with particles, abrasive wear can be dominant; mild to severe wear
transitions with load and speed common in unlubricated situations; lubrication generally
required for metal and metal-ceramic pairs; galling and fretting are forms of sliding wear.
5
With metals.
6
With polymers.
Tribological Aspect Number System
General Operational Classification of Wear Situations for use in Wear Analysis

Non- Non- Non- Abrasive Erosive

abrasive abrasive abrasive situations situations
sliding rolling impact
Abrasion
Abrasion corrosion
Abrasion erosion
Abrasive wear
Adhesive wear
Atomic wear
Brinelling
Brittle erosion behaviour
Brittle fracture
Burnishing
Catastrophic wear
Cavitation wear
Checking
Chemical wear
Compound impact wear
Corrosive wear
Craze checking
Deformation wear
Delamination
Diffuse wear
Droplet erosion
Dry sliding wear
Ductile erosion
Electrical discharge wear
Electrical pitting
Erosion
Erosive wear
Erosion corrosion
False brinelling
Fatigue
Fluid erosion
Fracture
Fretting
Fretting corrosion
Fretting fatigue
Fretting wear
Galling
Goughing abrasion
Heat checking
High-stress abrasion
Impact wear
Impingement corrosion
Lapping
Liquid impact erosion
Liquid impingement erosion
Low-stress abrasion
Lubricated impact wear
Lubricated rolling wear
Lubricated sliding wear
 Mechanical wear
Metallic wear
Mild wear
Oxidative wear
Peening wear
Pitting
Ploughing
Polishing wear
Ratchetting
Repeated-cycle deformation
wear
Ridging wear
Rolling-contact fatigue
Rolling-contact wear
Run-in
Scoring
Scouring abrasion
Scratch
Scuffing
Selective transfer
Severe wear
Shelling
Single-cycle deformation wear
Sliding wear
Slurry abrasion
Slurry erosion
Smearing
Solid impingement erosion
Spalling
Stress Fracture
Surface Distress
Thermal Wear
Three-body abrasion
Transfer
Tribofilm wear
Two-body abrasion
Wedge formation

Further Reading
Bayer, R.G., Wear Analysis for Engineers, HNB publishing, ISBN 0-9664286, Chapter 3.