MSc.

Gastn Loyola Puma

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE SAN AGUSTIN

2017
Geochemical prospecting includes any method of mineral
exploration based on systematic measurement of one of more
chemical properties of a naturally occurring material. The chemical
property measured is most commonly the trace content of some
elements or group of elements.
The naturally occurring material may be rock, soil, gossan, glacial
debris, vegetation, stream or lake sediments, water or vapor.
The purpose of the measurements is the discovery of abnormal
chemical patterns, or so called GEOCHEMICAL ANOMALIES, related
to mineralization
Scales and Sampling Media
Geochemical surveys are usually classified as reconnaissance and
detailed surveys
Reconnaissance Surveys, the purpose is to search a relatively large
area for indications of ore.
Detailed Surveys, the purpose is to outline mineralized ground and to
pinpoint the mineralized source with the greatest possible precision,
preparatory to physical exploration by trenching, drilling or
underground work. 2
3
The Geochemical Environment

Geochemistry, as originally defined by Golsdchmidt and summarized

by Mason (1958) is concerned with:
a) the determination of the relative and absolute abundance of the
elements in the earth, and
b) The study of the distribution and migration of the individual
elements in the various parts of the earth with the object of
discovering principles governing its distribution and migration.
Geologically and geochemically, the earth is a dynamic system, in
which material s are moved from place to place and changed in
form and composition by a variety of processes, including melting,
crystallization, erosion, dissolution, precipitation, vaporization and
radioactive decay.
On the basis of gross differences in pressure, temperature and
chemistry, the geochemical environments on the earth can be
classified into two major groups: deep-seated and surficial

4
The Geochemical Environment
The Deep-seated Environment, extends downward from the lowest
levels reached by circulating surface water to the deepest levels at
which normal rocks can be formed. Magmatic and metamorphic
processes predominate in this environment. This is characterized by
high temperature and pressure, restricted circulation of fluids and
relatively low free-oxygen content.
Synonyms found in literature are hypogene, primary or
endogenic, the latter from Russian literature.

The Surficial Environment, is the environment of weathering, erosion

and sedimentation at the surface of the earth. It is characterized by
low temperature, nearly constant low pressure, free movement of
solutions and abundant free oxygen, water and CO2. The terms
supergene, secondary and exogenic are also used in the
literature, but surficial is preferred when considering environments
(secondary is used mostly for processes acting on already formed
orebodies).

5
6
Geochemical Characteristics of the Elements

Geochemists have long recognized systematic behavior

amongst certain element group and established classification
schemes based on observed natural groupings (Goldschmidt,
1923 and 1954):
Siderophile, affinity with iron, concentrated in the earth
core,
Chalcophile, affinity to sulfur, concentrated in sulfides,
Lithophile, affinity for silicates, concentrated in the earths
crust,
Atmophile, present as gas in the atmosphere,
Biophile, occurring as biological material

7
Geochemical Characteristics
of the Elements

(Smith & Hallberg, 1982)

8
Characteristic Element Abundances and Associations
Individual rock types display characteristic average element
abundance levels and associations. For instance, ultrabasic rocks
generally contain relatively high Co, Cr, and Ni and low Ba, F, Ga, Pb,
Ti and Tl compared to other common rock types; whereas basic rocks
are characterized by relatively high Ag, Cu, Ti, and V.
The contrast between the element abundance levels in adjacent
major rock units is sometimes so pronounced that regional
geochemical concentration patterns related to bedrock, or even
derived surficial material (e.g. soils and stream sediments), closely
reflects local and regional geology.
Background and Threshold
In Exploration Geochemistry, the normal element abundance level in
an unmineralized earth material is commonly referred to as the
geochemical background for that particular material.
However, as element distribution in specific earth material (e.g. rock,
soil, stream sediment) is rarely uniform, even when it is derived from
an apparently homogeneous source, it is more realistic to visualize
background as a range rather than an absolute value.
.
9
Relationship between Geology
and Geochemical Patterns

10
AVERAGE ABUNDANCE OF MAIN ELEMENTS

11
12
Background and Threshold
Any departures from normal ranges, be they positive or, more rarely,
negative, are viewed as anomalous. The upper and lower limits,
above or below which, respectively, values are considered to be
anomalous, are defined as thresholds.

13
The Geochemical Anomaly
By definition, an anomaly is a deviation from the norm. A
geochemical anomaly, more specifically, is a departure from the
geochemical patterns that are normal for a given area or
geochemical environment. Then, an ore deposit, by itself, constitutes
a geochemical anomaly.
In addition, the recognizable patterns of geochemical dispersion
related either to the genesis or to the erosion of the ore deposit are
anomalies.

The threshold is the concentration of an indicator element above

which a sample is considered anomalous. In the simplest case, the
threshold is the upper limit of the normal background fluctuations;
any higher values are anomalies and any lower values are
considered background.
Recognition of regional and local thresholds can be extremely
important in prospecting as it may be possible to limit the detail
search for peak anomalies to the plateaus of high values defined by
preliminary wide-spaced regional sampling.
14
15
CHAPTER 2 GEOCHEMICAL DISPERSION
The chemical, mechanical and biochemical processes involved in
the movement of material between different locations in the natural
environment result in geochemical dispersion.
Nearly all dispersion occur in dynamic systems in which earth material
are undergoing changes in chemical environment, temperature,
pressure, mechanical strain or other physical conditions.
Purely mechanical processes, apart from alluvial sorting, usually
involve mixing, but not differentiation. In contrast, chemical and
biochemical processes commonly create fractions of widely different
chemical compositions due to the enhancing mobility of specific
elements.
The response of an element to geochemical dispersion processes is
governed by its mobility in the physical and chemical characteristics
of the element in question.
The majority of geochemical exploration programs are concerned
with the collection and analysis of samples from the surficial
environment.
16
17
2.1 Primary Environment
In deep seated magmatic environments geochemical dispersion
may result from exclusively mechanical agencies such as magma
injection.
More often, dispersion results from a combination of chemical and
mechanical processes, as for instance as a result of partitioning
during crystallization and the separation of mobile aqueous
solutions.
The mobility of components (H2O, CO2, H2S, So2, F, Cl, B and
sometimes Cu, Pb, Zn and Au, etc.), which enter the aqueous
solution, are significant enhanced and are more likely to undergo
significant dispersion.
Metamorphic environments differ from magmatic in that most
reactions occur in the solid state. No melting in involved except at
very highest pressures.
Pore fluids rich in water furnish mobile phases into which some rock
constituents may be extracted and dispersed by mineral solution or
exchange. Then, both chemical and mechanical processes are
important factors in the development of geochemical dispersion
patterns.
18
2.1 Primary Environment

A wide range of chemical and physical changes occur in

sediments during and after burial, which alter solid mineral phases
and interstitial fluids by a complex series of so called diagenetic
processes.
The diagenetic history of a sedimentary basin is punctuated by
episodic events, such as loss of fluid and dissolved material that may
occur during tectonism. In conjunction with normal basinal fluid
migration, these processes have a major influence on geochemical
dispersion in sedimentary rocks.

2.2 Surficial Environment

Once rocks created at depth are uplifted and exposed to the
surficial environment, dispersion patterns created at depth are
modified and new patterns formed by surficial processes.
The surficial environment is then characterized by low T and low P,
with high concentrations of water, free oxygen and CO2.Most of
the minerals formed at deep-seated conditions are not stable in this
environment

19
2.2 Surficial Environment

In surficial environments, chemical, mechanical and biological

processes all play major roles in geochemical dispersion. Thus, in
arid, arctic and mountainous terrain mechanical processes tend to
dominate, whilst in the humid tropics chemical processes generally
become more important.

2.2.1 Mechanical Dispersion

Mechanical processes play a major role in the dispersion of solid
weathering products in geochemical exploration.
The principal force responsible for mechanical dispersion is gravity,
acting directly or indirectly (i.e. through water or ice movement) on
solid surficial material.
The presence of moisture acts as a lubricant and help accelerate
this movement.
Surface water runoff, in the form of sheetwash (a thin, mobile sheet of water
flowing over the surface of a hillslope, involving the selective erosion and transport of soil fines,
especially clay-type meterial) and stream flow is also responsible for the
dispersion of or large amount of soil material.

20
2.2.1 Mechanical Dispersion

Streams, depending on flow and source materials, can transport

a far wider range of material from boulders on down.
Groundwater movement under the influence of gravity or
hydrostatic head, generally involves dissolved ions rather than
the solid particulate products of weathering.
Large areas, especially at the higher latitudes, have been
subject to periods of intensive glaciation in recent geological
time. The resulting erosion and deposition has involved a variety
of processes which are reflected by extensive glacially derived
surficial cover obscuring bedrock.
Moraine is the geomorphic expression of debris released directly
from the ice, either subglacially as lodgment till or from the
melting body of ice as ablation till.
Lodgement till formes at the base of continental ice sheets from
crushed and pulverized transported material plucked from
bedrock by the ice

21
2.2.1 Mechanical Dispersion

Ablation till, deposited by surficial melting of the ice, commonly

overlies the lodgment till. Ablation till are normally coarser the
lodgment till

Glacial lodgment till derived from

slaty bedrock in central Maine.
The fabric of the till reflects the
subglacial shearing beneath the
glacier and lithology of clasts.

22
Ablation till is typically looser and lacks
the fissility common in lodgement tills
and clasts are less commonly striated.

23
Lodgment Till

24
2.2.1 Mechanical Dispersion

A variety of water-deposited sediments form within and along the

margin of glaciers. Among others:

Eskers are sinuous ridges formed within the glacier in channels that
flowed through stagnant ice.
Kames localized along the margin of glaciers, are formed where
sediment was dumped into depressions.
When the final ice melts, these deposits became positive features;
channels became ridges and depressions became hills.
The large streams flowing out of glaciers often cover extensive
areas with glaciofluvial deposits (outwash)
Erosion and transport by wind action is more important in arid and
semiarid areas where there is little or no protective vegetation
cover.
Wind is also responsible for the dispersion of man-made
contaminants from industrial sites.

25
 Eskers and Kames

Esker south of Millinocket, Maine. Eskers are formed in subglacial meltwater

channels. When the glacier melts the deposit left behind forms a sinuous ridges,
such as that seen here.

26
2.2.1 Mechanical Dispersion

Substantial amounts of sub-surface weathered material are

transported to surface by many burrowing animal species,
especially worms and termites.
This is particularly important in deeply leached areas where
transport of mineralized fragments to surface can significantly
enhance surface geochemical response.

2.2.2 Chemical Dispersion

Chemical dispersion in the surficial environment is dominated by
aqueous solution geochemistry.
The behavior of trace elements in natural aqueous systems is
highly complex, due to large numbers of possible interactions
with ill-defined dissolved and particulate compounds, and non-
equilibrium conditions.
There is a strong influence of pH and Eh on chemical dispersion
in the secondary environment.

27
2.2.2 Chemical Dispersion

Natural conditions are generally far more complex and

influenced by a far greater number of factors than the
controlled laboratory experiments and theoretical calculations
used to construct the Eh-pH diagrams.
The mobility of many trace elements in the surficial environment
is in fact strongly influenced by adsorption, by and ion exchange
onto colloidal particles, especially those of iron and manganese
oxides and hydroxides, organic matter, clays and silica.
Typically, adsorption onto metal oxides and organic substances
increases dramatically with fairly small increases in pH.
Initially, ions adsorbed or surfaces are in active equilibrium with
the host solutions. However, with time, they may move into
crystal lattice sites and become less affected by changes in
local environmental conditions.

28
2.2.3 Biological Dispersion

Uptake of inorganic matter by plant root system results in the

redistribution of this matter throughout remainder of the plant
(which is the basis of the biochemical exploration method).

During subsequent plant decay, the more insoluble components

are concentrated in the upper part of the soil profile, whilst the
more mobile tend to be removed by ground and surface waters
(biogeochemical cycle)

Micro organisms (bacteria, algae, fungi, etc.), are also important

factor in metal dispersion as they are intimately involved in many
redox reactions. Microorganisms also often appear to be
capable of assimilating and concentrating certain metals.

29
2.3 Geochemical Mobility
The response of an element to dispersion processes is governed
by its mobility, that is , the ease with witch it may be dispersed
relative to the matrix of other material surrounding it.
In some environments, mobility depends on the mechanical
properties of the mobile phase, for instance viscosity of magmas
and solutions, or the size, shape and density of clastic grains on a
flowing stream.
2.3.1 Dispersion of Elements Under Deep-Seated Conditions
As magma crystallizes, trace elements are partitioned between
the crystals and the silicate melt.
For instance, for a divalent element such as Zn 2+ , the partition
into pyroxene can be expressed as:

.
30
2.3.1 Dispersion of Elements Under Deep-Seated Conditions

Factors affecting the energy needed to replace one element

by other are the relative ionic sizes, ionic charges, coordination
and bonding characteristics.

In this table, the ionic radius,

charge, coordination number
and electronic configuration have
been combined into an index of
ionic replacement

Elements with similar values of this

index tend to have distribution
coefficients close to unity and to
Substitute extensively for each other
In crystals.

Thus, Mn, Zn, Co, and Ni tend to occur in Fe-Mg sites of

ferromagnesian minerals, and U and Th substitute for Zr in zircon.

31
2.3.1 Dispersion of Elements Under Deep-Seated Conditions

If an aqueous fluid separates from a magma, elements are

partitioned between the melt and the aqueous fluid according to
the relative energy with which they are held in the two phases.
CO2 (melt) = CO2 (aq)
The components H2O, CO2, H2S, So2, F, Cl, B and in some
environments Cu, Pb, Zn, Au and other metallic elements become
mobile in this environment, partition strongly to the aqueous phase
The stability of an element in a mobile phase may be greatly
affected by the formation of complex ions or molecules made up of
more than one element. Common complexes include H2S, HCO-3,
CuCl2, MoO4, etc.
In metamorphic processes, a pore fluid rich in water furnishes a
mobile phase into which some constituents of the rock may be
extracted by solution of minerals or by exchange in an out of solid
solutions.

32
2.3.2 Dispersion Under Surficial Conditions
Mobility in surficial environments is dominated by transport in
aqueous solutions.
An approximate guide to mobility in solutions is given by the ionic
potential, which is equal to the ionic charge divided by the ionic
radius.
Elements with low ionic potential (Ca, Na), are soluble as simple
cations;
Elements with very high ionic potential attract oxygen ions and form
soluble oxy-anions; PO4 (-3); SO4 (-2); MO4 (-2).
Elements with intermediate ionic potential are generally immobile
because of very low solubilities and adsorption to surfaces (Al, Ti, Sn)
Transition elements with incomplete inner electron shells, (Fe, Cu, Cr,
Ag and others in the middle of the periodic table) tend to be less
soluble and more strongly adsorbed than non-transition ions of
similar change and ionic radius.

33
34
35
2.4 Association of Elements
In geochemical survey an element measured in order to detect an
orebody is termed an indicator element . In a majority of situations,
the indicator element is the valuable economic component of the
ore being sought, for instance Cu for Cu ores, U for U ores.
If the valuable component is difficult to analyze, immobile, or yields
data difficult to interpret, another element associated with the ore
may be more useful. Such an element is called pathfinder.
Elements tends to associate because of similar mobility in a group of
geological processes.
Within the range of environments in which the elements are
associated, the ratio of the two elements remain relatively constant,
so that high contents of one element are accompanied by high
values of the other, and vice versa.
Useful pathfinder elements are those with more desirable
geochemical or analytical properties than the principal ore metal
being sought.

36
2.4 Association of Elements

For instance, an element with high mobility in the surficial environment may
allow more efficient detection of an ore composed of immobile elements if
it is consistently associated with such ores.
Molybdenum is more mobile then Cu in most surficial environments and can
be used as a pathfinder for porphyry-copper deposits which typically
contain some Mo.
In other cases, the pathfinder may produce clearer and less ambiguous
patterns of high values than more abundant elements of the ore, as in the
use of Cu as a pathfinder for Ni-Cu ores, which typically occur in Ni-rich
rocks that furnish high Ni values whether mineralized or not.
The pathfinder element may be more easily detected than the element
being sought, as in the case of As as a pathfinder for Au deposits.
The essential characteristic is that the pathfinder should have a consistent
relationship to mineralization

37
Association of Elements with Rocks

Some Pathfinders Elements

38
Associated Pathfinders in
Ore-typing

39
CHAPTER 3. WEATHERING
Weathering is defined as the breakdown and alteration of
material near the earth's surface, to form products that are
more in equilibrium with the atmosphere, the hydrosphere
and the biosphere.
The process begins with a progressive disintegration and
decomposition of rock material in situ.
The product of this decay is a mixture of resistant primary
minerals with a suite of new mineral constituents that are
stable in the new environment.
The process of weathering is followed by soil formation,
erosion, transportation and sedimentation.

40
3.1 Weathering Processes
Three main type of weathering can be distinguished:
1. Physical
2. Chemical
3. Biological
3.1.1 Physical Weathering
The first step in the physical disintegration of massive rock
following uplift and erosion is the development of a network of
cracks and joints. These cracks increase in abundance as the
surface is approached.
As soon as the very first cracks are formed in a rock, a number of
forced will work together to increase the width of the cracks and
thus cause further rupture.
Even cracks of microscopic dimensions provide access to
aqueous fluids.

41
3.1.1 Physical Weathering

In temperate and arctic climates, the expansion of water

on freezing leads to further extension of the cracks.
In arid regions, crystallization of salts can widen and extent
cracks.
Roots also grow into cracks and widen them.
Chemical reactions of water and its dissolved solutes can
lead to physical breakdown of the rock.
Volume increase of the rock due to hydrolysis, and other
form of incipient alteration of the minerals adjoining the
cracks, create a disruptive effect on the rocks. The net
effect is overall expansion and the concomitant widening
of the cracks.

42
3.1.2 Chemical Weathering
The chemical agents of weathering are capable of much more
powerful attack on rocks and their mineral constituents.
In extreme cases, the resulting changes in composition,
properties and textures may be such as the rock finishes
completely obliterated, with no relict of its original texture.
Under appropriate conditions, coarsely crystalline silicate rocks
can be reduced to an ultra fine complex of clay minerals.
At all levels and in all environments, chemical weathering
depends on the presence of water, and the solids and gases
dissolved therein.
All minerals are more or less soluble even in pure water.
The presence in water of dissolved oxygen, CO2, and humic
complexes greatly increases the corroding power of natural
solutions.

43
3.1.2 Chemical Weathering

Ground waters can acquire diverse new constituents

liberated from the rocks undergoing decomposition or by
mixing with thermal waters rising from depth.

44
3.1.2 Chemical Weathering

The principal type of chemical reactions associated with

weathering are (a) hydration, (b) hydrolysis, (c) oxidation, and (d)
simple solution.
Hydration and hydrolysis are regarded as the most important
chemical reactions involved in rock decomposition.
a) Hidration implies absorption of water molecules into the crystal
structure of a mineral. A simple example is the transformation of
anhydrite to gypsum;
Ca SO4 + 2H2O -------- CaSO4.2H2O
b) Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction to produce or consume H(+) or
OH(-) ions.
In Hydrolysis, an Al- or Fe-bearing silicate is typically converted to a
clay or Fe-oxide, accompanied by release of cations and
incorporation of H(+). An example is the reaction of albite with
weak acid to form clay, silica and Na(+) ions:

45
3.1.2 Chemical Weathering

c) Oxidation reactions are characteristics of the aerated

environments of the weathering zone.
The elements most commonly affected are Fe, Mn, and S, which
occur as Fe (2+), Mn(2+), and S(2-) in most deep-seated and some
sedimentary rocks, but can be oxidized to Fe(3+), Mn(4+) and (S6+),
in the surficial environment.
Other oxidizable elements include C, N, V, Cr, Cu, As, Se, Mo, Pd, Sn,
W, Pt, Hg, and U. Oxidation reactions tend to be slow.
Products of oxidation are new minerals (Fe and <mn oxides), and
dissolved constituents SO4 (-2)
d) Simple Solution of many minerals in the water of the surface
environment can be an extremely important factor under some
conditions. The most spectacular example is the solution of calcite
in CO2(-)-bearing waters to form soluble calcium bicarbonate.

46
3.1.3 Biological Agents of Weathering

Organic processes not only constitute the principal

genetic factor ion soil formation but also play an important
part in rock decomposition and weathering.
These processes involve plants, worms, termites, rodents,
etc. activities helps out disaggregating the rock
enhancing its permeability and so facilitating the entry of
air and water, whereby promoting more intense chemical
weathering.
3.2 Factors Affecting the Weathering Process
The main factors that condition the process of weathering
are: (1) the resistance to weathering of the primary rock-
forming minerals, (2) the grain and texture of the primary
rock, (3) climate, and (4) topography.

47
3.2 Factors Affecting the Weathering Process

1. Resistance of Minerals to Weathering,

Mineral species differ widely in their relative resistance to weathering

processes. The minerals that crystallized at the highest temperatures
under the most anhydrous conditions, are more readily weathered than
those that crystalized last from the lower T, more aqueous magma (see
table)

48
1. Resistance of Minerals to Weathering

Generally speaking, the order of increasing susceptibility to

decomposition by weathering appear to be:

oxides < silicates < carbonates < sulfides

Sulfide minerals are particularly vulnerable to oxidation and

solution. The oxidation of pyrite and marcasite results in the
formation of sulfuric acid, ferrous ions and limonite by reactions
such as the followings:

49
3.2 Factors Affecting the Weathering Process

2. Permeability
The rate of weathering of a rock depends on how easily the
reactive solutions can get to the sites of reaction within the body of
rock.
The more higher the permeability, the more the susceptibility of the
rock to be decomposed the most.
3. Climate
The main climatic element bear on weathering are rainfall and
temperature.
Rainfall controls the amount of water available for chemical
weathering, while temperature influences the rate of chemical
reactions and, in particular, the rate of decomposition of organic
matter.
Chemical weathering in in general most intense in tropical areas of
high rainfall and high temperature.

50
3.2 Factors Affecting the Weathering Process

4. Relief and Drainage

In mountainous terrain, physical erosion may cause the rock

debris be removed farter then it can be decomposed
chemically.

Chemical weather here is confined largely to decomposition or

eroded fragments as they are carried away, first by soil creep
and subsequently by stream waters.

Flat-lying terrane, by contrast, is characterized by less active

erosion and by relatively slow ground water movement,

Swamp conditions are common where the precipitation is

enough to maintain a high water table.

51
3.3. Products of Weathering
The products of weathering of both rocks and ores take three forms: (a)
residual primary minerals from the parent rock, (b) secondary minerals
resulting from the processes of weathering, and (c) soluble material that
can be removed by circulating water.
3.3.1 Residual Primary Minerals
As discussed earlier, most igneous and metamorphic minerals are unstable
in the zone of weathering, where pressure and temperature are much lower
than when they were formed, and where water, carbon dioxide, and
oxygen are more abundant.
If water is percolating through the weathering rock, no minerals are truly
stable because all minerals are soluble in at leads trace amounts.
However, quartz and many accessory minerals (zircon, Ti-oxides, tourmaline)
are dissolved very slowly and persist while other elements decompose more
readily.
Of the ore minerals, Au, Pt, cassiterite, columbite-tantalite (Fe-Mn-Nb oxide-
Fe-Mn-Ta oxide), chromite and beryl are among the most representatives of
the residual category. Wolframite, scheelite and barite tend to persist in the
regolith as residual products of weathering, but are quickly pulverized by
abrasion during erosion and transport.

52
3.3. Products of Weathering

3.3.2 Secondary Minerals

On weathering, primary rocks-forming silicate minerals tend to

undergo both, leaching and hydrolysis to form a characteristic
suite of minerals, characterized by extremely fine size particle.

Among these secondary weathering products are included clay

minerals, Fe-Al oxides, secondary ore minerals and gossans.

Clay minerals.

A clay is simply a material of a certain specified grain size

(<2um) with no implication of its mineralogical composition.

However, a clay mineral refers to a very specific group of

clay-sized aluminosilicate minerals, as distinguished from clay-
sized oxides and bauxitic minerals.

53
3.3.2 Secondary Minerals

Almost all of the clay-sized weathering products are either

silicates or oxides, hence the terms silicate clays and oxide
clays, used in the terminology of soil science for the two
principal groups.
The silicate clays are mainly composed of clay minerals
(kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, smectite, etc.), and the oxide
clays of Fe, Al, and to a lesser extent Mn.
Kaolinite formation (Al2Si2O5 (OH)4) is favored by an acid
environment, with free drainage leading to a thorough leaching
of Na, Ca, Ma and K, as well as many trace elements.
Montmorillonite formation ((Na,Ca)(Al, Mg)2(Si4O10)(OH)2.nH20) is
favored by neitral to alkaline conditions and by the incomplete
leaching of Na, Ca, Mg, K and trace metals. Characteristic is it
property to expand on wetting, and thereby assist in maintaining
a poorly drained environment.
Illite, also known as hydrous mica, is similar structurally to
montomrillonite, but as the interlayered bonk by K+ is stronger
than in montmorillonite, expansion do not occur.

54
55
3.3.2 Secondary Minerals

Iron and Aluminum Oxides,

The oxides of Fe and Al are widely distributed among the products
of weathering.
The most important representatives of this groups are:
- Limonite (Fe2O3-nH2O)
- Hematite (Fe2O3)
- Goethite (Fe2O3.H2O)
- Diaspore (Al2O3.H2O)
- Gibbsite (Al2O3.3H2O)
Most limonite is probably a mixture of goethite, hematite and
jarosite (KFe(SO4)2(OH)6) occurring in the presence of
oxidizing pyrite.

56
57
3.3.2 Secondary Minerals

Secondary Ore Minerals

On weathering, sulfide ores yield a characteristic suite of
secondary oxidized minerals.
Different secondary minerals of the same metal may be formed
under a variety of chemical conditions, thereby leading to a
great diversity of mineral species.
Thus, under certain conditions, of Eh, pH CO2 pressure Cu
concentration, etc., malachite (Cu2CO3 (OH)2) would be the
principal product of weathering, whereas under other
conditions, other oxidized Cu minerals may be dominant.
Gossan
Massive, residual hydrous Fe-oxide derived the oxidation of Fe-
bearing sulfides and carbonates has long been of significance in
mineral exploration.

58
Gossan

Gossans are formed most commonly from the weathering of

pyrite, marcasite, pyrrhotite, Cu-Fe sulfides, arsenopyrite, siderite
and ankerite (Ca, Mg, Fe)(CO3)2)

In all gossans, regardless on whether they were derived from

sulfide or carbonate ores, the predominant minerals are
limonites, quartz and secondary silica.

59
Soluble Products

The soluble products of weathering consists on those

constituents that are released by the decomposition of
primary minerals and that are not required in the formation
of insoluble secondary minerals.
Most of this material is removed in solution from the site of
weathering.
In the general case the soluble constituents reflect the
composition of the parent rocks.
Ca 2+, Mg 2+ and CO3 2- are the principal soluble
products derived from the weathering of calcareous rocks.
In contrast, siliceous rocks yields alkalis, alkaline earths, and
colloidal silica resulting from hydrolysis of the primary
silicates.

60
61
CHAPTER 4. SOIL FORMATIOIN

Soil is a natural body of mineral and organic constituents

differentiated into horizons of variable depth, which differs from
the material below on morphology, physical development,
chemical properties and composition, and biological
characteristics (Joffe, 1949)

4.1 Soil Profile Development

Soils are characteristically organized into layers differing from

each other and from the parent material in their properties and
composition

Apart form differences in color and texture which aid

recognition in the field, the properties of greatest significance
that affect geochemical dispersion of the elements are pH,
organic matter content, clay-mineral type and assemblage,
and the amount of Fe, Al, Mn oxides.

62
63
4.1 Soil Profile Development

The individual layers are referred to as soil horizons, and may range
from few centimeters to a meter or more in thickness.
It is the result of vertical (upward and downward) movement of
material in solution sand suspension, accompanied by a complex
series of chemical reactions, many of which are organic in origin.
Water is the essential medium in which this transfer and
reconstitution takes place.
Soils profiles vary in make-up within wide limits according to their
geographic environment.
Most well-developed profiles, however, can be divided into 4
principal horizons: A, B, C and R.
The A and B horizons together constitute the solum or true soil,
whereas the C horizon is he partly weathered material from which
the solum has been derived, and R is the underlying rock material.
A horizon of nearly pure organic material (O or A0) may lie above
the A horizon.

64
The Solum
The generic
soil
developed
by soil-
forming
processes

65
4.1 Soil Profile Development

The A horizon is characterized by a a process of partial leaching

known as eluviation.
Eluviation is accompanied by the downward percolation of water
through the soil. Some constituents are removed as ions and molecules
in true-solution in the downward-moving water; other are removed as
dispersed colloidal particles.
A major agent catalyzing the leaching of the A horizon and determining
the entire soil profile is humus, which is generically concentrated in the A
horizon.
Humus is the product of decay of surficial organic debris together with
the decomposition of products of roots within the uppermost the soil
horizons.
The organic acids and complexing agents generated in the humus by
bacterial action, and the CO2 generating by the decay of humus
promote the leaching that is characteristic in the A horizon.
Carbonic and organic acids furnishes H+ that contributes to the
decomposition of minerals and displaces bases (Ca, Na, Mg, K) from the
exchange sites of clay minerals, clay-sized oxides and organic materials.

66
4.1 Soil Profile Development

Bases moves downward through the soils as dissolved ions, Fe and Al

move as colloidal particles of clay minerals and oxides, as complexes
with organic groups, or as in the most acid soils, as free ions complexed
with hydroxyl.
Silica is largely dissolves as silicic acid (H4SiO4) or moved as colloidal
silica.
The relative thickness of the A horizon vary considerably according to
the supply of organic debris, the rate at which it is decomposed, the
effectiveness of leaching and eluviation, and the age of the profile.

Under moist conditions and free drainage, the more soluble

constituents leached from the A horizon will descend to the
water table and eventually pass with the ground water into the
surface drainage. Some suspended water may follow the same
course.
The B horizon also called the illuviation zone, is the zone where
colloidal silicates, oxides, and organic material, as well as some
dissolved constituents derived from the A horizon are locally
redeposited.

67
4.1 Soil Profile Development

In many soils, organic matter is likely to be completely broken down

to CO2 and H2O in the A horizon.

The level at which illuviation takes place is dependent on the

decrease of in the acidity of the soil water as it reacts with soil during
downward percolation, and on increases contents of dissolved
solids. These changes flocculate the colloidal material and
precipitate the oxides.

The C horizon consists more or less weathered parent

material for the overlying A and B horizons.
It is important to note that the parent material can be rock in situ,
transported alluvial, glacial or wind-blown overburden, or even soil
of a past pedological cycle.

Organic matter is at a minimum in the C horizon, which usually

contains less clay and is lighter in color than the B horizon.

68
Metal indigenous to the parent material varies in their
response during the development of soil horizons.
Soluble metals and those incorporated or adsorbed on
clays and colloids are liable to be removed from the A
horizon, whereas those contained in resistant primary
minerals are liable to be enriched in that horizons.
Metals taken up by the deep-rooted plants will be
returned to the surface in the organic debris, and their
subsequent fate will depend on the stability of their
organic compounds in the A1 horizon.
Some of the metals which are removed from the A horizon
may then to accumulate along with hydrous Fe- and Mn-
oxides, or clays in the B-horizon.

69
 Depth (cm)

70
4.2 Factors Affecting Soil Formation
In nature, soil profiles may differ widely. Their diversity arises from the fact
that the direction and rate of horizon differentiation is governed by:
1. Parent material
2. Climate
3. Biological activity
4. Relief
5. Time
4.2.1 Parent Material
The parent material contributes the raw material of the soil and is therefore
a factor controlling the nature of the resulting soil.
Parent material is more obvious in areas where the surface horizons have
been eroded away.

71
4.2.1 Parent Material

The composition, texture and structure of the parent material have a

general influence on the rate at which weathering and soil formation takes
place.
So, soils are developed more rapidly from permeable or readily
decomposed rocks than from those which are relatively impermeable or
resistant to decay.
Fortunately, even under conditions of the deepest weathering, and diversity
of soils type, it is often possible to detect variations in the underlying rocks,
providing the overburden material.
Furthermore, the relative concentrations of trace elements in the soil may
also provide a clue as to the bedrock geology. This approach is the basis of
geochemical soil surveys, because ores are a special type of parent
material.
4.2.2 Climate
Temperature and rainfall are of utmost importance in soil formation.
In general terms, soils from humid regions tend to be more thoroughly
leached and to possess Fe-rich B horizons.
Arid climates tends to preclude from the formation of well-elluviated A
horizons, while calcareous soils are characteristics of semi-arid warm regions.
72
4.2.2 Climate

The interrelations between rainfall and temperature govern the

precipitation/evaporation ratio, which affects not only the
amount of water and the depth to which it may percolate
through the soil, but also the direction of movement.
A high ratio of precipitation to evaporation favors downward
percolation, whereas a low ratio favors evaporation of moisture
from the soil, and an upward rise from the underlying water table
by capillary forces.
Ca, Mg and other soluble salts precipitated as carbonates and
sulfates or sulfates by evaporation thus may be a feature of soil
formation under the influence of relatively dry climates (e.g.
caliche).
Colloidal material (e.g. iron oxides and colloidal silica) may
likewise may rise toward the surface and coagulate to form a
concretionary horizon near the upper level reached by the
water table.
As a result of incomplete leaching, the soils of arid and semi-arid
regions tend to be alkaline and thus favor the formation of
montmorillonite-type clays with high exchange capacity.
73
Effect of rainfall on soil pH

74
4.2.3 Biological Activity
The biological factor on soil formation is largely a function of
vegetation plus the activity of microorganisms in decomposing
the plant debris. This process is climate-dependent.
In general terms, dry climate means less vegetation and less raw
material for the formation of humus, and hence less soil-forming
activity.
Warm climates means increased biologic activity that more
rapidly destroys the plant litter and hence restrict the
accumulation of humus, but accelerates the action of the
organic acids that are generated during the decay of the litter.
Then, the maximum accumulation of humus is given in cool
humid climates.
Vegetation tends to protect solid from erosion and to limit
disturbance by soil creep.
Finally, horizon differentiation is retarded when the soil is mixed
with by root an animal activity.

75
76
4.2.4 Relief
Topographic relief influences soil formation through its
relationships with ground-water levels, drainage and erosion.
The A and B horizons are better differentiated in regions of
moderate to high rainfall where there is free drainage and
effective leaching. Such profiles develo most readily on the
interfluves in undulating terrane.
In low-lying areas, the terrain may be saturated with water,
almost to the surface.
In such environment, an organic-rich surface layer develops, overlying a
pallid of mottled subsoil in which reducing conditions prevail and leaching is
at minimum.
If water stands at the surface, peat may form.

The angle of slopes affects drainage and erosion.

Steep slopes favors more rapid erosion, a greater volume of water runoff and
less percolation, whereby soils on these environments tend to be shallower,
whith a higher content of stony material than those of gentler slopes.

77
4.2.5 Time
The accumulation of parent material by weathering takes longer then
its differentiation in soil profiles.

Given a moderate humidity and free drainage, faint A horizons may

become apparent in weathering parent material after some decades.

The development of a distinct B horizon normally needs a much greater

length of time often measures in centuries or even tens of thousands of
years.

78