Varible Freqency Drive

VFD 101
Lesson 1
Functions of an Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
This lesson covers the basic functions of a Variable

Frequency Drive (VFD) as it applies to fans.
10/2/2003
Here is the basics outline for this lesson.
Outline:
A. 3-phase AC Motor
B. Functions of an VFD
1. Start/Stop
2. Change Speed
3. Constant Speed
4. Limits
5. Ramping
6. Forward/Reverse
7. Save Energy
1
VFD 101
Lesson 1
This lesson covers the basic functions of an Variable Frequency

Drive (VFD) on a 3-phase AC (alternating current) motor.
Pictured above is an AC motor.
10/2/2003
The 3-phase motor pictured above is for commercial use, but in your home, AC motors
are used as well. A vacuum cleaner uses an AC motor to clean the carpet; a blender uses
an AC motor to process food; and the clothes dryer uses an AC motor to dry clothes. In
each of these examples, how is the AC motor controlled?
When controlling motors in the home we control them by applying AC power, and
removing it, usually through a switch. Obviously when power, 120 or 240 VAC, is applied to
the motor it runs. With no power, the motor stops.
With the use of a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) not only can the AC motor be
started and stopped as in the home, but more sophisticated controls are accomplished. A
VFD can send a modulating signal to the motor, which allows a variety of speeds to be
delivered not just an ON/OFF signal. This variety of speeds can be used to match the motor
to a particular task. There are a number of functions that the VFD accomplishes with
commercial 3-phase AC motors, which are covered in the pages that follow.
Motors in the home are almost always single-phase motors which require additional
electric parts to rotate the magnetic field. Because of these extra parts, single-phase motors
do NOT operate correctly with a VFD.
2
To understand the functions of an VFD better,
an example of cooling tower fans is used.
What must the fans do?
10/2/2003
The cooling tower in the picture above must maintain a certain temperature perhaps
30C (85F) for the condenser water temperature. Looking at this example, see if you can
identify some of the functions that must be performed by the VFD, AC motor and fans? In
other words, what must the fans be able to do? Take a couple of minutes to jot down the
functions.
The fans must
_____________________ ______________________
_____________________ ______________________
A few of the basic functions of an VFD in controlling the AC motor and fans are
covered on the pages that follow.
3
Function #1 Start and Stop
The VFD must be able to START and STOP

the cooling tower fans.
10/2/2003
Function #1 Start and Stop

START
One function of the VFD is to start the fans. This could be done locally off the keypad
of the drive or remotely from a switch. This remote switch could be a continuous single-
pole-double-throw (SPDT) switch or a momentary (push button) switch.
STOP
In the picture above, the SPDT switch is used to stop the pump. If there are 2
separate push button switches, one to Start and one to Stop, this arrangement is known as a
3-wire Start/Stop. If only one switch, a continuous switch, is used, then it is referred to as a
2-wire Start/Stop. In the picture above, since there is one switch, so this is a 2-wire
Start/Stop.
4
Function #2 Change Speed
The VFD must be able to Change the Reference, Hz.

The Reference could also be temperature or PSI if a
transmitter were attached to the VFD.
10/2/2003
Function #2 Change Speed

The speed of the cooling tower fans must be variable to allow for a slower speed when
there is little demand for cooling and a higher speed when more cooling is needed. This
allows the operator to match the speed of the fans to a particular demand. The setting of
this speed is known as the Reference. In most examples, reference refers to speed in Hertz
(Hz), maximum reference of 60Hz, and minimum reference of 6Hz for fans and 18Hz for
pumps. It could also be used in regards to a pressure setting, maximum reference of 100psi
(690kPa), minimum reference of 40psi (275kPa), if a transmitter were attached to the VFD.
In the picture above, the display of an VFD, a Danfoss VLT 6000, is shown. Speed in
Hz is the reference. The plus (+) key is used to increase the reference making the fans go
faster and the minus (-) is used to decrease the reference point slowing the fans down.
5
Function #3 Maintain a Constant
Speed
Light load or heavy, the drive should

maintain the same speed.
10/2/2003
Function #3 Maintain a Constant Speed

Another function of the VFD is to maintain the speed of the fans regardless of the
temperature and humidity in the air. The VFD automatically compensates the current and
torque to accommodate changes in the load.
6
Function #4 Limits
Limits on current, torque, speed, heat and

voltage and others protect the VFD & motor.
10/2/2003
Function #4 Limits
It is important that limits be placed on an VFD. Speed limits can be placed in the
program of the VFD so an operator can not go beyond a maximum speed or less than a
minimum speed. The maximum speed of the fans should not exceed 60Hz, due to
excessive power consumption. Because of the possibility of overheating, fans should not be
run less than 6Hz. For the same reason as the fans, pumps should not be run more than
60Hz. For lubrication purposes a pump should have a minimum speed of at least 18Hz.
If the fans gets stuck, there are torque limits that the VFD monitors stopping the motor
if they are exceeded. Current limits are also important for protection of the drive and motor.
In the picture above the maximum reference is set to 60 Hz. Notice that in the diagram there
is a minimum reference of 6Hz.
7
Function #5 Ramping
To reduce mechanical wear, it is important to

control the acceleration, ramp up and
deceleration, ramp down.
10/2/2003
Function #5 Ramping
The VFD also ramps the fans up and ramps them down. When the fans starts,
acceleration, it is important that there is no sudden jump to the reference speed, or there can
be stress on the gear boxes. In the example above, a ramp-up slowly increases the speed
from stopped or 0Hz up to the reference, 34Hz, over a certain amount of seconds perhaps
10. If this ramp up is too short, the drive can trip on an over current alarm or torque limit. If
the VFD is tripped, the fans stop and it might require an operator to manually reset the VFD.
Many VFDs have an automatic reset setting of 1 time to infinite times. Ramping is very
important for pumps, to avoid water hammer.
8
Function #5 Ramping
All ramp times are based on motor speed,

60Hz in Western Hemisphere, 50Hz in the
Eastern Hemisphere.
10/2/2003
A ramp is also present on the stop side. This is referred to as a ramp down or
deceleration. It is important that the fans do NOT stopped abruptly. A ramp-down of 60
seconds might be entered into the program for this application. If the ramp is too short, the
drive can trip on over voltage.
All ramp times are based on the motor speed, 60Hz in the Western Hemisphere. This
means if the the ramp time is set for 60 seconds as in the picture above, but the reference is
set to 30Hz (1/2 of 60Hz), it takes 30/60 x 60seocnds ( the time) or 30 seconds to ramp up.
In the rest of the world 50Hz is used for the motor speed. Using the same ramp up time (10)
and reference (30), the motor then takes 30/50 X 60seconds or 36 seconds to ramp up to
30Hz. Calculations for the ramp down time would be the same.
A special feature of the Danfoss VLT 6000 is automatic ramping. The VFD
automatically extends the ramp times, during ramp up and ramp down, to avoid tripping of
the drive.
9
Function #6 Forward/Reverse
Change of Direction
Forward to cool water
10/2/2003
Function #6 Forward/Reverse Operation

FORWARD
One function of the VFD is to operate the motor in a forward direction, to move the
air through the cooling tower and out the top. In its default (factory set) condition the VFD is
only allowed to go forward. Some fans if driven backwards may have problems.
10
Function #6 Forward/Reverse
Reverse to defrost cooling tower

10/2/2003
REVERSE
In the cooling tower example the fans need to operate in Reverse in order to
complete a defrost cycle, when the outside temperature is very cool. Power going to the
motor must be changed to move the fans backwards (Reverse). If there were no VFD, 2 of
the 3 leads of the 3-phase motor would be switched in order for the motor to change its
direction and go backwards. This switching of the motor leads is done inside the VFD.
11
Function #7 Saving Energy
The most important function for the VFD

with this fan application is to save energy.
10/2/2003
Function #7 Saving Energy

In many applications, particularly involving fans and pumps, the major function of the
VFD is to save energy. Before VFDs, cooling tower fans might have been cycled On at full
power, when a temperature setting in condenser water of 32C (90F), was reached. When
the water cooled to 28C (82F) the fans were turned OFF coming back ON when the
temperature rose again to 32C (90F). This arrangement uses a great deal of energy and
the frequent cycling causes a great deal of wear on equipment.
A drive is placed on the fans, which slows the fans down to perhaps 30Hz to
constantly maintain the required condenser water temperature. The fans speed up or slow
down following demands. On the chart above, if the fan is running at 30Hz, half of the full
speed, assuming no friction losses, the energy level is 1/8th the HP at full speed. This same
energy savings is seen on pump applications.
This concludes Lesson 1. There is a Post Test to review this information.
12
VFD 101
Lesson 2
Control Arrangements for a VFD
This training covers the major control arrangements for a VFD, starting with
the simplest arrangement then moving to the more complex.
Many of the control arrangements shown in the previous lesson (Lesson 1:
Functions of an VFD) were Closed Loop Control. There can be other
arrangements which are covered in detail in this lesson.
1) Local or Hand Control
2) Remote or Auto Control
3) Multi-motor
4) Master/Slave
5) Closed Loop
6) Cascade Control Fixed Stages
7) Cascade Control Variable Stages
8) Build Automation System (BAS) - Enable
9) BAS Enable and Reference
10) BAS Serial Communications
1) Local (Hand) Control
Local or Hand control means controlling the system

through the keypad on the VFD.
1. Local (Hand) Control

In the picture above, a VFD, motor and fan are operated from the
keypad on the front of the drive. Local (Hand) control of the VFD means that
operation of the VFD is completed strictly through the keypad on the front of
the drive, or Local Control Panel (LCP). An operator monitors the readings
and controls the VFD by using this keypad. Even if the keypad, LCP is
remotely mounted away from the drive, maximum of 3m (10), the control
arrangement inside the program of the VFD is still considered as LOCAL. If
any line is labeled as LOCAL in the program, think KEYPAD.
1) Local (Hand) Control
HAND START key starts the drive in Hand (local

control) speed set by + and - keys
OFF STOP key stops the drive locally
AUTO START key ends manual control
RESET clears the drives from an alarm
condition.
In the picture above there are 2 VFDs, each being controlled by its
own LCP or keypad. The one on the right uses a remote keypad kit to place
the keypad in a convenient location. The operational site on both VFDs is
considered as LOCAL or HAND.
The Hand Start key starts the VFD, assuming safeties have been
enabled. The display on the keypad changes as seen on the last page. This
allows the operator to increase (+ key) or decrease (- key) the speed of the
motor. Other start commands are ignored.
The OFF Stop key stops the drive. The display starts to flash to
indicate that this key has been pressed. Other start commands are ignored.
To remove this stop command, the Hand Start or Auto Start must be
pressed.
The Auto Start key ends Local or Hand control. This means that
remote controls, which are described in the pages that follow are in control.
The Reset key clears an alarm from the VFD, assuming that the
alarm has been corrected and is set for manual reset. Some alarms require
that power be removed (Disc.Mains) before they can be reset.
2) Remote Control
Remote signals are wired into the control section of the

VFD. They come in 4 types:
Digital Inputs (DI), Analog Inputs (AI),
Analog Outputs (AO), Digital/Relay Outputs (DO).
2. Remote (Auto) Control

Other arrangements are possible including remote signals. If there is
a problem with the fan and it must be stopped immediately, it might be time
consuming to run back to the VFD to stop it. Stop switches can be placed at
key positions to stop the VFD, AC motor and fan. It is important that the
VFD accept these stop signals as well as other remote signals. These
remote control signals come in four types:
1) Digital Inputs (DI) are 2-position (ON/OFF) signals sent into the VFD.
These commands check safeties, then tell the VFD to Start, to Stop, etc. A
DI requires 24Vdc which is supplied by a terminal on the drive.
2) Analog Inputs (AI) are proportional or modulating signals sent into the
VFD. These commands tell the VFD what the reference speed should be or
tell the VFD what a feedback signal is doing such as static pressure. These
signals are usually from 0-10Vdc or 4-20mA.
3) Analog Outputs (AO) are modulating signals sent by the VFD to a device
such as a meter which could display feedback, speed or current.
4) Digital/Relay Outputs (DO/RO) are 2-position (ON/OFF) signals sent by
the VFD to a device such as a light to indicate an Alarm, or when the
feedback signal has reached a certain limit. Digital Outputs have power
24Vdc attached and Relay Outputs do not have power, which are known as
dry contacts.
2) Remote Control
Above, connectors are shown for remote signals. These

signals are divided into 4 types Digital Inputs,
Analog Inputs, Analog Outputs and Digital/Relay
Outputs. The terminal numbers are listed on the
cover plate shown above.
Besides stop switches, other signals can be sent into the VFD. These
could be a reference pot to change the speed, increase and decrease
buttons which would also change the speed, remote Start and Stop switches,
or other signals. All the different options for remote signals are considered
as control wiring. In the program of the drive, if the Hand keys are used,
remote signal except for safeties are ignored. On the VFD shown above, all
the control wiring terminals are shown on the black plastic cover just under
the LCP keypad.
The amount of connections for the control wiring is a means of
comparison between manufacturers of VFDs. As an example, the Danfoss
drive shown above has the ability to accept the following signals:
8 Digital Inputs
3 Analog Inputs (2 are setup for 0-10Vdc; 1 for 0-20mA)
2 Analog/Digital Outputs (0-20mA or 4-20mA signals or these can be
programmed as Digital Outputs with 24Vdc attached)
2 Relay Outputs (dry contacts)
3) Multi-Motor Operation
One VFD is used to operate 4 separate fans. The

VFD must be able to handle the maximum current
for the 4 motors. Some features of the VFD in this
arrangement are restricted.
3. Multi-Motor Operation
The multi-motor arrangement is usually done because of strict cost
considerations. Not only must the VFD have the current capacity for all the
motors, but each individual motor must have overload protection. In the
picture above, one VFD operates 4 AC motors, which in turn operates the 4
cooling tower fans together. They operate at the same speed or close to the
same speed.
When this arrangement is used some VFD features are restricted.
First the motors and fans must all run at the same speed. Another restriction
is that the VFD can not be tuned to a individual motor. Motor Tuning is
where the VFD is tuned or matched to an individual motor for better
performance and energy savings. The last restriction given here is that the
slip compensation (calculating the difference between the field speed and
rotor speed) should be set to OFF.
3) Multi-Motor Operation
In the example above each of the 4 AC motors is the

same size and has a maximum current rating, Full
Load Amps (FLA) of 15 amps. The VFD must be
sized for 60 amps. Note individual overload
protection on each motor.
If the cooling tower fans were operating with a very light load but
motor 3 got jammed. The amp draw on motors 1,2 and 4, might be low, say
5 amps each, but the amp draw on motor 3 would need to surpass 45 amps
before the drive saw any problem. This would cause damage to motor 3. As
shown in this example, individual overload protection, such as thermal
overloads are needed to protect each motor. Motors in this arrangement
operate close to the same speed.
4) Master/Slave (Leader/Follower)
In the Master/Slave arrangement a Master or Lead

VFD monitors the pressure sensor and operates a
single fan. It sends a corresponding signal to
another following supply fan. Features of the VFD
which were restricted in the multi-motor can be used
in this arrangement.
4. Master/Slave (Leader/Follower)
This arrangement allows motors to operate closer together than in the
multi-motor application. Each VFD also provides safeties for its own motor.
One VFD is selected as a Master or Leader drive. It is setup to send
a reference signal and ON/OFF commands to the Slave or Follower drive. In
the example above, 2 fans are used for Supply Air on a Variable Air Volume
(VAV) system. The VFD operating the top fan is considered the Master or
Leader. It varies its speed to match the static pressure needs in the supply
duct. The bottom fan and VFD, follows the top supply fan and is known as
the slave or follower. The slave can match the speed to within 0.3Hz of the
master, over the operating range from about 6Hz to 60Hz.
Rather than always matching the speed of the master VFD, the slave
VFD can operate at a percentage of the reference. If a positive pressure
needs to be maintained in a zone, the slave VFD on a return fan can be
slightly behind (-10% of reference) of the master VFD on the supply fan.
The supply fan always runs faster than the return fan causing a positive
pressure in the zone. In this last application using a volumetric sensor
comparing the CFM (L/s) from supply and return to control the return fan
would give a much greater accuracy than the Master/Slave arrangement.
4) Master/Slave (Leader/Follower)
A Static Pressure sensor sends a signal to the

master/ leader. Using a 4-20mA signal from its AO
the Master sends a signal to the AI of the Slave.
In the picture above, the VFD on the first supply fan is the
Master/Leader and it generates a reference signal for one of its analog
outputs (AO). The VFD on the second supply fan is the Slave/Follower, and
it monitors this 4-20mA reference signal from the master using the slaves
analog input (AI).
It is possible with Danfoss drives to use a Digital Output (DO) as a
pulsed reference. The follower uses a Digital Input (DI) to follow this pulsed
reference signal. These 2 fans must run closely together, the greatest
variance between drives using the pulsed signal is around 0.2Hz along the
entire range of frequencies (6 to 60Hz). There is a time delay in this
arrangement. The master drive starts going to its reference before it sends
the signal to the slave drive. Usually this delay is very small, in milliseconds,
and of no consequence in this application.
5) Closed Loop/PID Control
In this arrangement a 4-20mA static pressure

transmitter is wired directly into the VFD. This is a
Feedback signal and is always referred to as
Closed Loop. The VFD monitors its own signal
and result.
5. Closed Loop/PID Control

Up to this point most of the previous control arrangements have been
closed loop, which means that there is feedback signal monitoring the
controlled variable, going directly to the VFD. Closed Loop is used for stand
alone control. In the example above, the VFD monitors the signal coming from
the 4-20mA static pressure sensor in the supply duct. In a variable air volume
(VAV) system it is important to maintain Static Pressure in the duct for proper
operation of the VAV boxes.
In all closed loop applications, additional parameters must be
programmed. These include a setpoint, and PID settings. In this application,
the VFD is constantly comparing the static pressure setpoint, 2.5wc, (625
pascals) with the actual feedback value coming from the pressure transmitter.
The VFD modulates the speed of the supply fan to maintain that pressure.
Controller action is one of the parameters that must be checked in the
VFD. There are 2 selections which are as follows:
Normal Control (Reverse Acting) which increases the speed of the fan
when the signal decreases from the pressure sensor, as in the example above.
Inverse Control (Direct Acting) increases the speed of the fan when the
signal increases from the sensor.
5) Closed Loop/PID Control
In the picture above, Static Pressure in the supply

duct is maintained by modulating the speed of the
supply fan. Proportional gain, and integral settings
must be setup in the VFD, along with a setpoint
and proper controller action.
There is always a difference between the setpoint and the actual

feedback pressure. This is referred to as Offset,off the setpoint or
error. PID settings attempt to reduce this error. P stands for
Proportional Gain which can be considered as a multiplier of the error.
The higher the gain the more accurate, but if it is set too high, the control
can become unstable and jittery. With too high of a gain setting, the
VFD oscillates between maximum speed and minimum speed, hunting
for the correct speed. The gain must be high enough to be sensitive but
not too high to cause hunting. Each application is different, but a proper
starting setting for pumps is 4.0 and 2.0 for fans.
I stands for Integral which looks at the error over a certain
amount of time. The lower the number the more frequently it checks the
error. If the I setting is too low, the motor again appears to be hunting.
Based on most applications, a pump has its I setting for 20 seconds and
30 seconds for fans.
D stands for derivative which, if used, compensates for
momentary changes in the load. In most HVAC applications, this
parameter is not used, keeping it OFF.
6) Cascade Control Card
Fixed Stages
There are occasions where a group of pumps or fans

must work together. There is an optional Cascade
Card that may be placed inside the VFD. This card
operates up to a maximum of 5 motors together.
6. Cascade Control Card Fixed Stages

There are some applications where multiple pumps or fans must
operate together. It is desired to only operate the number of pumps
necessary to achieve the load requirements, keeping other pumps off to
save energy. A separate Cascade Controller card which can be mounted
inside the VFD, can be used to coordinate the operation of up to a maximum
of 5 pumps. One way to operate these pumps is to have the first pump be
varied by the VFD and the fixed stages using soft starts. When it reaches
100% output, a fixed stage is started. Each time the 1st pump reaches
100%, another stage is enabled.
In the example above, the variable pump is the first pump to start.
When this variable pump goes to 100% or 60Hz, a relay on the Cascade
Card is enabled which starts a soft-starter on Pump #1. Since soft-starters
do not modulate, pump #1 goes to 60Hz. The variable pump then drops its
output. When the load requires more output, and the variable pump again
reaches 100% then the soft-starter on Pump #2 is enabled.
6) Cascade Control Card Fixed Stages
The diagram above shows the operation of the fixed

stages. Notice that every time the VFD signal
reaches 100%, a fixed stage comes ON and every
time the VFD drops to minimum, a fixed stage goes
OFF.
The diagram above shows the operation of the variable pump, VFD at
the bottom of the chart and how it relates to the fixed stages, which are
shown at the top. Notice that every time the VFD reaches 100% or 60Hz, a
fixed stage on the Cascade Controller card is enabled. When the fixed pump
is running, this causes the VFD to drop its signal. With an increase in
demand the VFD goes to 100% again causing the second fixed stage to
come ON.
When the demand drops and the VFD goes to 0% or minimum speed,
20Hz, the fixed stages go OFF. With a loss of a fixed pump, the VFD then
increases its signal. Every time the VFD drops to minimum speed, a fixed
stage is turned OFF. It is possible to use 4 stages, but only 3 stages are
shown here.
Variable Stages
Rather than having pumps come ON as fixed stages, it

is desired to modulate all the pumps. In the example
shown, pump #1 has the VFD with the Cascade
Controller and pumps 2-4 each have a VFD.
6. Cascade Control Card Fixed Stages

There are some applications where multiple pumps or fans must
operate together, but the operator wants each pump or fan to have a VFD.
The same Cascade Controller card discussed in the last arrangement can be
used to coordinate the proportional operation of up to a maximum of 5
pumps. When the lead pump reaches a certain output, say 75%, the second
VFD is enabled and now they both modulate using the same reference. As
the first VFD has its output go progressively higher say to 80%, an additional
VFD is enabled. A further explanation of this operation is shown on the chart
on the next page.
Variable Stages
The diagram above shows the operation of the variable

stages. The lead VFD which has the Cascade
Controller, on pump #1, enables the other stages as
the demand is increased from 75% up to 85%.
The diagram above shows the operation of the variable pump, VFD at
the bottom of the chart and how it relates to pumps 2-4. When the 1st pump
reaches 75%, pump 2 is enabled and quickly follows the same signal that
goes to pump 1. If the demand for both pumps continues to increase to
80%, pump 3 is enabled. Pump 4 is enabled when the demand goes to
85%.
When the demand drops all the pumps start to slow down. Although
this is NOT shown above, when the demand drops to 30%, pump 4 is
disabled. When the demand drops to 20%, pump 3 is disabled; and pump 2
is disabled at 10%. Pump 1 then continues to monitor the demand.
Remember that 0% is still a minimum speed of 20Hz.
8) Building Automation Enable
Building Automation Systems (BAS) coordinate the

use of the VFD with numerous other schedules and
commands. In the picture above, a local Direct
Digital Controller (DDC) enables/disables the VFD
by use of a Digital Output.
8) Building Automation - Enable

On numerous occasions a VFD works with a Building Automation
System or BAS. The BAS coordinates the VFD with more information and
commands such as occupancy schedules, holidays, energy optimization,
electric demand limiting to name a few. There are a few ways to wire the
VFD with the BAS; three arrangements are covered in this lesson. In the
example above, a local area controller, also known as a Direct Digital
Controller (DDC) which monitors and issues commands to an AHU, enables
and disables the VFD based on BAS schedules. This is done with a DO
coming from the DDC controller wired to the DI of the VFD which issues the
Start and Stop commands. Any wire attachment to the DDC controller, other
than communications, is known as a point. On some DDC controllers,
points or certain types of points, can be restricted. Here only one point is
used on the DDC which saves on wiring costs.
In this arrangement, the pressure sensor is wired directly to the VFD.
The closed loop inside the VFD modulates based on a setpoint to keep the
proper pressure in the AHU. The BAS system only enables or disables the
VFD. The DDC controller can not monitor or control the setpoint for the
pressure, which makes this arrangement the least desirable for the BAS
system.
8) Building Automation Enable
A Start/Stop command from a DO of the DDC Controller

goes to a DI of the VFD. The signal from the
pressure sensor is wired into the VFD.
Notice in the example above, a DO on the DDC controller, a relay

output, which has no power of its own, completes the circuit between
terminal 12, +24Vdc and terminal 18 of the VFD which is the start/stop input.
The pressure transmitter is wired directly to the VFD, which saves a point on
the DDC controller, but limits the operational use and adjustments by the
BAS for this air handling unit. The operator must go to the VFD through its
keypad, to monitor the pressure in the duct and to change the setpoint.
Other information from the VFD, such as speed, temperature, alarms, etc.
displayed through the keypad would also be done locally at the VFD. In this
control arrangement, the BAS system can only indicate if the VFD had been
enabled or disabled.
9) BAS Enable & Reference
A local DDC of a BAS sends an enable/disable

(Start/Stop) command to the VFD by use of a Digital
Output (DO); and it sends a reference (speed)
command to the VFD by use of an Analog Output
(AO).
9) BAS Enable and Reference

On the example above additional connections or points are used to
gather more information and send more commands from the DDC controller.
Notice that the DDC Controller sends a Start/Stop command and also sends
a reference. The pressure sensor monitoring the static pressure in the AHU
is sent to the DDC controller. A closed loop inside the DDC controller
monitors the pressure and adjusts the reference to maintain the pressure
setpoint.
The VFD, programmed for open loop, receives the reference and
Start/Stop commands from the DDC controller. In this arrangement, the
static pressure and setpoint can be monitored and modified by the BAS
system. Additional connections can be made from the VFD back to the DDC
controller to confirm commands and monitor alarms. Each connection
requires an additional hard-wire point from the DDC controller.
9) BAS Enable & Reference
A Start/Stop command from a DO of the DDC Controller

goes to a DI of the VFD. A Reference or Speed
command from an AO of the DDC Controller goes to
a AI of the VFD.
In the example above, the DO of the DDC controller is wired to the

VFD as in the previous example. Now, however, an AO from the DDC
controller which sends a 4-20mA signal, is wired directly to the current input,
AI of the VFD. The 4-20mA pressure transmitter is wired directly to the DDC
controller, which is not shown above. More information and adjustments can
be accomplished through the BAS system using this control arrangement.
For each piece of new information such as alarm status, current going to the
motor, and energy usage, wires are needed between the VFD and DDC
controller.
10) Serial Communications
Here serial communications is used to enable the VFD

and to give it a reference or speed. Verification of
the VFD speed and status is sent back to the DDC
Controller through the serial connection. This
connection is usually an RS-485 connection.
10. Serial Communications

Here is the last interface with a BAS system. A serial
communications protocol is used inside the VFD to talk directly on the Local
Area Network or Bus. With this arrangement numerous bits of information
can be see at the DDC controller and the BAS. This information includes the
start/stop command, static pressure, and reference, as in the previous
example; but it also includes information about energy usage, alarming,
running hours, input status, internal temperatures, and motor information.
This information is sent over a 2-wire, RS-485 connection.
In the example above, it can be seen that the VFD is wired directly to
the same bus that connects the Local Area controllers. This bus connection
could be a LonWorks protocol. Local Area controllers operate specific
devices in a building, such as a cooling tower, chiller, boiler and air handling
unit.
The Local Controllers are in turn connected to a Global Area
Controller. These Global Controllers operate individual buildings or large
parts of a building. Global Controllers are wired together to form a Global
Network. This connection could use an Ethernet protocol. Both LonWorks
and Ethernet are popular within the HVAC market. Notice that a PC is wired
to the Global Network. This PC has a Graphic User Interface program which
is also known as a GUI.
10) Serial Communications
The Start/Stop command and reference command

along with numerous other bits of information travel
through the 2-wire, RS-485 connection.
In the example above, the 2-wire, RS-485 connection goes between a

local controller and the VFD. Normally this 2-wire bus connection must be in
a Daisy Chain arrangement. This arrangement only allows 2 ends. All the
positive or + connections are wired together and all the negative or
connections are wired together. Addressing of each device must be unique,
and can be accomplished with hardware switches or programmed in
software, which is the case with this VFD.
This concludes Lesson 2. There is a Post Test to review this information.

August 04
VFD 101
Lesson 3
Parts of a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
This lesson covers the parts that make up the

Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) and describes
the basic operation of each part.
Outline:
Parts and Operations of a Drive
1. VFD part of a Larger System
2. Rectifier
3. Soft Charge Circuit
4. Intermediate Circuit (DC Link)
5. Brake Circuit
6. Inverter
7. Pulse Width Modulation
8. Control & Regulation Section
Note: Other names are used for this device, such as Adjustable Frequency
Drive (AFD), Variable Speed Drive (ASD), Frequency Converter and
Inverter, but Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) or just Drive is used throughout
this lesson.
Danfoss Drives - Loves Park, IL USA 1

August 04
VFD 101
Lesson 3
This lesson covers the basic parts and operation of a Variable

Frequency Drive (VFD). These parts are divided into 4
sections: Rectifier, Intermediate circuit (DC Link), Inverter and
Control & Regulation.
1. VFD in a Larger System

This section covers the parts and operation of the Variable Frequency
Drive (VFD). It is important to keep in mind that the Drive is just one part of
a system. In the diagram above, notice the disconnect switch, fuses, bypass
switch, thermal overloads, BAS, etc. all play an important part in making an
application work correctly.
Inside the VFD there are 4 major sections: rectifier, intermediate
circuit (DC Link), inverter and control/regulation. This fourth section, control
and regulation, interfaces with the other 3 sections.
In very general terms the operation of the drive is as follows. Power
first goes into the rectifier, where the 3-phase AC is converted into a rippling
DC voltage. The intermediate circuits then smoothes and holds the DC
Voltage at a constant level or energy source for the inverter. The last
section, the inverter, uses the DC voltage to pulse the motor with varying
levels of voltage and current depending upon the control circuit. The pattern
of the pulses going to the motor makes it appear similar to an AC sinusoidal
waveform.
Each one of these sections is reviewed in some detail in the pages that
follow.

August 04
To understand the parts of an VFD better, an example

of a 450kW (600Hp) drive is used.
Fuses
Disconnect
In the picture notice the fuses and disconnect switch.
As each part is explained pictures of these parts on a 450kW (600Hp)

drive are displayed. This large drive is used in this lesson for the size of the
parts are easy to identify.
One of the options for these large drives 315 450kW (350 600Hp) is
to have fuses and a disconnect switch mounted inside the drive. With
smaller size drives fuses and a disconnect are separate but are still part of
the overall system as described on the previous page.

August 04
2) Rectifier Section
Its function is to change 3-phase AC into DC.
2. Rectifier
The 3-phase AC voltage goes into the rectifier section which is made up
of a group of gated diodes (silicon rectifiers or SCRs). In most VFDs, these
diodes are in a group of 6 as diagramed above. One VFD manufacturer has
stressed that there should be more sets of diodes, 12, 18, even 24. Reasons
for/against this are covered in lesson 5.
Diodes (D1 through D6) allow current to flow only in one direction when enabled by
the gate signal. In this diagram, the AC power on L1 goes into Diodes D1 and D2. Because
of the position of these diodes, current flow can only go up. The D1 diode conducts when the
AC is positive and D2 conducts when the AC goes negative. This drives the top line (+) more
positive and the bottom line (-) more negative. Diodes D3 and D4 convert L2 power to DC
and Diodes D5 and D6 convert L3. A volt ohmmeter or VOM can be used to measure this
DC voltage. In this type of circuit, the DC voltage is 1.35 times the AC line voltage.
If 240 Vac is coming in, 324 Vdc is generated.
If 380 Vac is coming in, 513 Vdc is generated.
If 460 Vac is the line voltage, 621 Vdc is generated.
If 575 Vac is the line voltage, 776 Vdc is generated.
Because of line (power coming in) and load (power to the motor) changes,
the DC Voltage level is constantly moving above and below this expected
value.

August 04
2) Rectifier Section
SCR
Heatsinks
Incoming Power
The Rectifier section contains terminals for incoming

power, silicon rectifiers (SCR) and heatsinks
The picture above highlights the rectifier section of the drive. Six SCRs
are used to change the incoming power from AC to DC. This rectification
can generate a considerable amount of heat, so the SCRs are mounted onto
a gold-colored heatsink. The fins of the heatsink are facing the other way
inside a special ductwork where the air flow removes the heat. Four fans
mounted across the top of this VFD pull the air across the heatsink.
Remember that heat is the enemy both to the drive and to the motor. Any
practice which makes either run cooler makes them last longer. Because of
the high amperage (750A for this unit) there are bus bars connecting the
rectifiers to the incoming power. Even the largest wire size is too small for
this unit.

August 04
3) Soft Charge Circuit
On large drives, 22kW (30Hp) and larger, a soft

charge circuit is added in helping charge the cap
banks before main power is applied to the rectifier.
3. Soft Charge Circuit

On larger drives, 22 450kW (30 600Hp), a part of the rectifier section is
known as the soft charge circuit, which is used to power up the drive. With this
circuit, when power is applied, the inrush of current is restricted going to the large
capacitors in the DC Link, so that they may charge up slowly (within a couple of
seconds). If this circuit was absent, line fuses would be blown every time the VFD
was started. The soft charge circuit on some of the VFDs has a resistor or two in
line with the current to slowly allow charging of the capacitors. This current
resistor even has its own safety, a thermal switch, which shorts out if the current
rush is too high in the soft charge circuit. The shorted thermal switch blows fuses
on the soft charge circuit preventing the drive from starting.
Once main power is applied to the drive, the SCRs in the main rectifier
section remain off. The much smaller rectifier section in the soft charge circuit
starts, applying DC power through the current resistors charging up the
capacitors in the DC Link. When these capacitors are charged to the DC voltage
minimum value, the control section starts the firing of the SCRs in the main
rectifier. Because of the amp draw through the current resistors in the soft charge
circuit, time is needed to cool them off, so the 22 450kW (30 - 600 Hp) drives
are limited to 2 start per minute.

August 04
Soft Charge Circuit

Soft Charge-
Snubber Fuses
Here is a picture of the soft charge circuit in the

450kW (600Hp) drive.
In the picture above, the soft charge circuit card is shown. This circuit
card on the 450kW (600Hp) drive is in the upper left corner, just above the
rectifier section. Notice that the soft charge fuses are just to the right of the
circuit card. The soft charge circuit card on the 315-450kW (350-600Hp)
drives uses small IGBTs instead of resistors to limit power going to the
capacitors. This is referred to as an active soft charge.

August 04
Current Resistors
Soft Charge-
Resistor Fuses
Soft Charge Fuses
Soft charge circuit in the 160kW (200Hp) drive.
On the 160kW (200Hp) drive, shown above, the soft charge circuit is
exactly like the schematic diagram shown on the previous page. Notice the
2 large black current limiting resistors used to limit power going to the
capacitors in the DC Link section.

August 04
4) Intermediate Circuit (DC Link)
Using a large bank of capacitors and DC reactors the

rippling DC voltage becomes more stable.
4. Intermediate Circuit (DC Link)

The Intermediate Circuit also known as a DC Link, can be seen as a
power storage facility for the next section, the inverter section. There are 2
major components to the DC Link section, capacitors and coils. In the
diagram above only one capacitor is shown but it is always a series of
capacitors. With Danfoss VFDs, this intermediate section always uses DC
coils also known as DC Line Reactors or DC chokes. For cost
considerations, most other VFD manufacturers do not offer these DC Line
Reactors as standard equipment. Danfoss regards these coils as essential
for two main reasons; one is the ability to reduce harmonic noise
(interference) by 40% and the other is the ability to ride through a temporary
loss of power. This allows this drive to avoid numerous nuisance shut downs.
In the diagram above, notice that the rippled DC voltage coming in has
now been filtered to a relatively constant voltage. Remember that this DC
Link Voltage is 1.35 times the input voltage. The value of the DC Link voltage
can be read from the display on the front of the drive. When ever working
around the drive always be careful and give it a healthy respect. The largest
drive produces 620Vdc at 750 A.

August 04
Cap Banks
The blue capacitors banks (black on newer units) are

a major part of the DC Link and store a great deal
of energy.
When looking at a drive, some of the most striking components are the
2 devices that make up the DC link. The 3 banks of blue capacitors on the
450kW (600Hp) drive, shown on the left, are quite prominent. On newer
units these blue capacitors have been replaced with black ones. They are in
the center of the drive, just to the right of the rectifier section. There are 3
banks of 12 capacitors in each bank for a total of 36 capacitors. Capacitor
numbers vary with each size of drive. This 3-bank arrangement is to allow
for easier service. The plate on the right side of each capacitor bank has full
voltage.

August 04
DC Reactors
There are 2 sets of coils shown above. The DC Link coils are
always the ones with 2 terminals, shown here on the left.
In the picture above there are 2 sets of coils. The coils on the left at the
bottom center of the drive, the ones that have 2 connections (DC +, DC -)
are the DC Coils, also know as DC Reactors or DC Chokes. The other set of
coils to the right, with 3 terminal connections, are discussed in the pages that
follow.

August 04
5) Brake Circuit
When drives are ordered with dynamic braking, the drive comes
with Brake IGBTs. When the voltage gets too high on the
DC Bus, the brake IGBT activates sending power to the
brake resistor. This is NOT an option with HVAC drives.
5) Brake Circuit
This Brake Option, also known as Dynamic Braking, is used with
devices that need to stop or change directions quickly, such as conveyors,
hoists and centrifuges. On drives that have the brake option, an additional
IGBT transistor is used to remove extra power coming back into the drive
when the motor, which has a large inertia, is stopping or changing direction.
The only HVAC related application that might use dynamic braking is for
some fans for boiler combustion. This option is not required for the vast
majority of HVAC applications.

August 04
6) Inverter Section
The Inverters take the voltage from the DC Bus and

using Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) sends a
signal which appears to the motor as an AC signal.
6) Inverter
The next part of the VFD is the Inverter section. This section takes the
DC voltage from the intermediate section and, with the help of the control
section, fires each set of IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) to the U,
V and W terminals of the motor. This firing of the IGBTs is known as Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) and is described in the next couple of slides.
Notice in the diagram above that sensors monitor the current going to
each terminal of the 3-phase motor. Unlike some other manufacturers,
Danfoss monitors all 3 phases continuously. There are some manufacturers,
who in an attempt to cut costs, only have 2 sensors and guess on the output
to the 3rd. There are others that only monitor the outputs when the first run
command is given.
Another component that Danfoss insists on including are the motor coils
on any drive larger than 18.5kW (25Hp). These coils smooth the waveform
going to the motor. The smoother the waveform the less heat is generated
at the motor and the longer the motor lasts. The standard distance used by
Danfoss between its drive and the motor is 300m (1000 feet) using
unshielded cable. There are other manufacturers that are limited to shorter
distances 100m (330 feet) or less. Some end users have used distance as a
sign of quality. The longer the distance, the better the drive.

August 04
6) Inverter Section
Current Sensors
Terminals
Motor Coils
Motor coils, current sensors and motor terminals are

located in the lower right corner of the 450kW
(600Hp) drive.
The current sensors monitor the current going to the 3-phases of the
motor. These sensors detect and alarm when a short circuit or grounded
circuit is discovered. Some manufacturers only check for short circuits or
grounding on the first run command, but Danfoss monitors for these faults all
the time. This allows Danfoss to place a motor disconnect between the drive
and the motor. If the motor is disconnected from the drive during operation,
the drive might trip, but because of this constant monitoring, it suffers no
damage.
A disconnect switch between the motor and drive is not allowed by
many other manufacturer. If a disconnect switch is used on a few drives, it
causes severe damage in other words the smoke is let out.

August 04
6) Inverter Section
IGBTs IGBT snubber card
The inverters, IGBTs and snubber card, are mounted

on heatsinks under each of the 3 cap banks.
The IGBTs are mounted on the heatsinks behind the capacitors in the
middle of the 450kW (600Hp) drive. The picture on the right shows two
IGBTs with the circuit card which is used to help control them, know as a
snubber card. The picture on the left shows the IGBTs without the snubber
card. The correct mounting pattern for the 6 screws (done in a rotating
manner) on each is critical, so that there is proper contact between the IGBT
and the heatsink.

August 04
7) Pulse Width Modulation
All manufacturers of drives use PWM, but there are

differences when it comes to the shape of the
pulses going to the motor.

In the diagram above, a close up view of the waveform that goes to the
motor shows the switching frequency of the IGBTs. The switching-pattern
shown above is known as pulse width modulation or PWM. As the length of
time is increased for the IGBT to be ON and then OFF, the motor responds
to it as a sinusoidal waveform. The positive IGBT fires first in the diagram
followed by its negative counterpart. Only one motor terminal (U) is shown
but the same type of activity would appear on V and W.
In the diagram above only 7 pulses are shown on each side, but
actually 1750 pulses or more should be shown. This PWM frequency can
vary from 3.5KHz to 15 kHz, which means it is audible. It is also known as
the Carrier Frequency, which is Variable by most VFD manufacturers. A
low carrier frequency can have an annoying noise, but a higher carrier
frequency generates more heat in the drive and motor. If the carrier
frequency noise is too loud particularly with supply fans, LC filters can be
placed between the VFD and motor and the noise stops at this filter.

August 04
Without a drive, the motor can go full speed or OFF;

With a drive, the motor can go to a number of
different speeds.
At first glance the function of a drive might look rather confusing.

Taking 50Hz or 60Hz power input then changing it to DC only to change it
back to look like AC to the motor. Due to the electronics in the drive, the DC
voltage can be manipulated in a much easier and adaptable fashion. In the
example, without the drive, the only signal the motor sees is ON
(50Hz/60Hz) or OFF (0Hz). With a drive the motor can operate with 20Hz,
40Hz, 60Hz, 90Hz or any frequency in between, making it much more
adaptable to any application.

August 04
8) Control & Regulation
The control and regulation section monitors the

other 3 sections, making numerous calculations
and adjustments to the outgoing signal.
8) Control & Regulation Section

The control section coordinates and regulates signals inside the drive.
This is where numerous calculations are completed to properly switch the
IGBTs. This control section uses Vector technology, which separates the
torque producing current from the magnetizing current. In the diagram above
the current going to the AC motor is being monitored.
The Danfoss VLT 6000 has a special program, algorithm, called
Automatic Motor Adaptation (AMA), which determines the electrical
parameters for the connected motor while the motor is at a standstill, a feature
introduced by Danfoss in 1996. Many competitors must decouple and spin the
motor for tuning. Because the AMA measures the resistance and reactance
of the motors stator establishing a motor model, the magnetizing current can
be calculated. This motor model is used to calculate the slip and load
compensation.
The control section uses the frequency (f), voltage (V) and phase angle
(theta) to control the inverter. This means that the torque producing current
can be controlled more accurately. This robust sensor-less regulation scheme
Voltage Vector Control (VVC+), which is patented by Danfoss, can
compensate for rapid load changes.
In most HVAC applications where there is a minimum speed greater than
5Hz, the AMA feature is only a minor benefit. It is very important if used on
motors spinning at 5Hz or less.

August 04
8) Control & Regulation
Power Card
Control Card
Gate Card
Three cards make up the control and regulation

section, the control card, the power card and the
gate card. On smaller units the power and gate
cards are combined.
In the picture above, on the 450kW (600Hp) drive, 3 circuit cards make
up the control and regulation section for the drive. These cards are mounted
onto the frame used for the capacitor banks.
The Control Card is the same card used on all drives from 0.75
450kW (1 - 600Hp). The Local Keypad (LCP) fits into this control section.
The LCP is used to program and monitor the drives operation. The next card
is known as the power card, which is specific for a particular size of drives. It
relays signals to the gate card, monitors the current from the current
sensors, coordinates the fan operation and a number of other functions. The
third is known as the gate card, whose major function is to send signals to
the IGBTs. On smaller drives these last 2 circuit cards are together on one
card.

August 04
Summary
The function of all the parts of the drive, Rectifier,

DC Link, Inverter and Control/Regulation is to
make a clean waveform to the motor.
The operation of the control and regulation section produces a very

clean waveform going to the motor. The picture to the left shows an
oscilloscope trace of a motor phase current provided by a conventional pulse
width modulation system with harmonic elimination. To the right is the output
from the Danfoss VVC+ system. The more sinusoidal the wave form going
to the motor the easier it is on the motor and the less heat resulting in longer
motor life.
Here are some of the advantages of the control and regulation program
that is in the Danfoss drives.
Advantages of Voltage Vector Control (VVC +)
Up to 110% motor torque for 1 minute.
Automatic Energy Optimization
Flying Start
Sleep Function at minimum speed, Wake up speed on demand
PID LOOP with 4-20mA input and/or 0-10Vdc inputs
Fast system response to speed and load changes (3 ms updates)
Disconnect switch allowed between the drive and motor
Sensor calculation: Max of 2, Min of 2, Average of 2, etc.
Long Cable lengths (1000 unshielded) between drive and motor.
This completes this lesson Review Questions in Post-Test

August 04
VFD 101
Lesson 4
Application Terminology for a VFD
This lesson covers the application terminology

associated with a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
and describes each term in detail.
When applying a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) to a particular application,

a number of terms are involved. This lesson attempts to clarify most of
those terms.
Outline: Application Terminology

1. Application Curves
2. Starting Torque
3. Open or Closed Loop
4. Closed Loop and PID
5. Different Types of VFDs
Note: Other names are used for this device, such as Adjustable Frequency
Drive (AFD), Variable Speed Drive (ASD), Frequency Converter and
Inverter, but Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) or just Drive is used
throughout this lesson.
1
August 04
Outline
Application Terminology
1. Application Curves CT, CP, VT
2. Starting Torque HO, Breakaway, NO
3. Open or Closed Loops
4. Closed Loop & PID Action, Setpoint,
Offset, Proportional, Integral, Derivative
This module covers some of the application terminology used with

VFDs. This terminology becomes very important for selecting the correct
VFD and programming the correct settings needed for an application.
Applications include terms such as Constant Torque (CT), Constant
Power (CP) and Variable Torque (VT). Starting Torque is also covered,
which uses High Overload (HO), Breakaway Torque, and Normal Overload
(NO). Terms such as open loop and closed loop are also covered. Terms in
closed loop, also explore action, setpoint and PID terminology.
The last part covers a summary of the different types of VFDs. It
shows the Volts/Hz, Voltage Vector, Flux Vector as they compare to a DC
Servo in terms of response, accuracy and speed range. A more detailed
explanation of each type is scheduled for a later lesson.
2
August 04
1. Application Torque Curves
This part of the lesson covers the application

terminology associated with a VFD, starting with
application torque curves.
VFD Application Terminology

a) Constant Torque (CT)
b) Constant Power (CP)
c) Variable Torque (VT)
2. Starting Torque
4. Closed Loop & PID
3
August 04
1. a) Constant Torque (CT)
CT used on Reciprocating Compressors

Torque stays relatively constant from 5Hz to 60Hz.
AC motors have low torque at slow speeds.
The graph above shows Torque in relationship to Speed. This graph was made when the
VFD and loaded motor, were running at Synchronous Speed, 60 Hz, 1800 rpm on a 4-pole 3-
phase AC motor. The speed of the VFD was slowly turned down to 0 Hz. Notice that the
torque drops down to its nominal rating on an AC induction motor at the lower speeds, 5Hz or
less. Please be aware that this particular CT application, reciprocating compressor, should
never run less than 30Hz.
Constant Torque applications require a constant level of torque throughout a
process regardless of different speeds. The vast majority of constant torque
applications are for industry, which involve conveyors, mixers, elevators,
feeders, hoists, and bottling machines. In HVAC reciprocating compressors,
and positive displacement pumps might be encountered which require CT.
Some VFD manufacturers attempt to apply a CT drive to fans and pumps
used in HVAC, because they do not make a specific VFD for variable torque
applications. More information is given in the pages that follow.
On most CT applications, constant torque must be maintained from 1
to 60Hz. Notice that the torque curve drops when the speed is reduce below
a minimum of 5Hz. To compensate for this drop, some VFDs can perform
Motor Tuning, which matches the VFD settings to a particular motor. This
tuning allows for more precise calculations by the VFD giving more torque
throughout the CT curve, but particularly noticeable is the torque boost at
those slow speeds from 1 to 10Hz. In HVAC, Motor tuning is only a slight
advantage for fans and pumps, saving only a small portion of energy.
Because of motor cooling, most fans and pumps have a minimum speed of
10Hz or greater.
4
August 04
Volts per Hertz Chart
Voltage increases as speed increases

CT linear relationship between volts and hertz
30Hz = 230V; 60Hz = 460V on 460VAC motor
VFDs attempt to generate the correct level of torque needed for its
application. Torque is directly related to current. In CT applications, voltage
going from the VFD to the motor is increased in a linear manner as the speed
increases. In the example above, on a 460Vac motor, 460 Volts is only sent to
the motor when the speed reaches 60Hz and higher.
The chart above displays the Volts/Hz relationship for a CT application.
Constant Torque is achieved because the VFD is increasing the voltage to the
motor as it increases the speed. In this chart, when the VFD sends a signal of
30Hz, it is also sending a 230V signal to the motor. When the VFD sends a
60Hz signal, the voltage is at 460V. This relationship keeps the current and in
turn the torque to the motor relatively constant. The changes seen in the motor
current are based on the load. Notice that when the speed reaches
60Hz, base speed, the voltage going to the motor from the VFD can not go
higher, it has reached its limit, 460V. If the speed is increased above base
speed, to say 90Hz, the voltage from the VFD stays at 460V, but the current and
torque drop. This Volts/Hz chart is different for motors that use different
voltages.
5
August 04
1. b) Constant Power (CP)
CP applications are rare for the VFD, none in HVAC.

CP applications are always above base speed.
Torque drops significantly above base speed (60Hz).
Constant Power applications are run at synchronous speed, 60Hz and

higher. On a CT Curve, the area above synchronous speed is known as the
Constant Power Curve. As speed continues above 60Hz, torque continues
to drop. The few applications that require these high speeds are typically
saws, and grinders, and no applications in HVAC.
A point of clarification between synchronous speed and base speed is

useful.
Synchronous speed, in an induction motor, is the RPM of the magnetic
field when the motor reaches its nameplate voltage and frequency. The
formula for synchronous speed is as follows:
Synchronous speed = (Motor frequency) * 120 / (# poles)
Example: (60Hz * 120) / 4 poles = 1800RPM
Base Speed is the speed in rpm that results when the motor is at its
nameplate voltage, frequency and current. Most Asynchronous 4-pole
induction motors using 60Hz have a base speed between 1725 to 1770rpm.
6
August 04
1. c) Variable Torque (VT)
VT applications save a great deal of energy

Used with centrifugal pumps and centrifugal fans.
Variable Torque (VT) applications almost always involve centrifugal pumps

and centrifugal fans. If a VFD manufacturer has an HVAC drive, it is most
likely designed and programmed for VT applications only, such as the VLT
6000 from Danfoss. The torque required to operate a pump or fan is very
low until it starts to approach its base speed, say 1750rpm at 60Hz. There
are formulas that show the relationship of power to rpm. Ideally, assuming
no friction losses, the pump at half the speed only requires 1/8 the power.
VFDs on VT applications save a great deal of energy and money. Once
above base speed, a fan or pump requires a considerable amount of power,
so they are rarely run above 60Hz.
7
August 04
Automatic Energy
Optimization (AEO)
VT voltage lower at speeds than CT

AEO - Reduces voltage until speed is effected
30Hz = 160V straight VT; 90V with AEO
A couple of VFD manufacturers, such as Danfoss, offer Automatic Energy

Optimization (AEO). This is used in all VT applications. This function
automatically and continuously monitors and adjusts the output voltage to
maximize energy savings. After the motor reaches the set speed, say 30Hz, the
AEO function reduces the output voltage to the motor, if the load allows. When
the load is light, the voltage is reduced perhaps from 160V to 90V. This reduced
voltage not only saves energy, but reduces motor heating, motor noise, and
increases efficiency.
8
August 04
2. Starting Torque
Centrifuge
This part of the lesson covers the application

terminology associated with starting torque.
Outline:
2. Starting Torque
a) High Overload (HO)
b) Breakaway Torque
c) Normal Overload (NO)

9
August 04
2. a) High Overload (HO)
High Overload allows 160% starting current for 1 min.

Most CT applications require High Overload.
If drive exceeds 160% or 1 minute, VFD trips.
High Overload (160%) is used to apply the torque to start a load. The
inertia to start a reciprocating compressor, a positive displacement pump or
in the example above a hoist requires a great deal of starting torque. It can
be as high as 160% of the current for 1 minute. Once started the torque
drops back to 100% or less. If the load does not move and the drive
exceeds 160% or exceeds 1 minute, the drive trips, which means that the
VFD does not move the motor. This trip gives an Over-current or Torque
Limit alarm and for protection sake a reset button must be pressed to clear
the alarm and restart the VFD. Some VFDs have a High Overload limit of
150% for 1 minute. It is possible to use a High Overload or CT Start to get a
fan or pump moving, but most HVAC applications do not require High
Overload.
10
August 04
2. b) Breakaway Torque
High Overload has a breakaway torque that allows

180% starting current for 0.5 seconds.
If drive exceeds 180% or 0.5 seconds, VFD trips.
Breakaway Torque (180%) also known as Starting Torque, usually refers to

the first 0.5 seconds after start. In the example a mixer has a very thick
substance, perhaps a batch of adhesive. When the VFD starts to turn the
motor the resistance of the substance is very high. The VFD increases the
current output up to 180% for half a second to get the mixer started. Once it
starts, the VFD continues at the High Overload setting of 160% for 1 minute.
If it does not move, the VFD trips for protection of the VFD, motor and mixer.
This is rarely needed for HVAC applications.
11
August 04
2. c) Normal Overload (NO)
Normal Overload has a starting torque that allows

110% starting current for 1 minute.
Most VT applications require Normal Overload.
VT VFDs are sized differently 200Hp for CT; 250Hp
for VT
Normal Overload (110%) is almost always used with HVAC applications

basically with centrifugal fans and pumps. When a centrifugal fan is started
it takes very little starting torque to turn the fan against air, so the 110% limit
is adequate. If the 110% for 1 minute is exceeded, the VFD trips. Since the
current output on starting is less for VT applications, smaller VFDs can
operate slightly larger motors. If a 200Hp VFD which is normally Constant
Torque (CT) has a VT setting, the VFD could be used to operate a 250Hp
motor with little difficulty.
12
August 04
All applications fall into 2 categories

Open Loop or Closed Loop
Closed loop has additional settings which include
controller action, setpoint, and PID settings
Outline:
2. Starting Torque
a) Open Loop
b) Closed Loop
A quick definition for Open and Closed Loop is shown here.

Open Loop control does NOT have a direct feedback signal.
Closed Loop has a direct feedback signal coming into the VFD.
13
August 04
3. a) Open Loop
The VFD is programmed for open loop,

because there is NO feedback signal going
to the VFD but the system is closed loop.
Open Loop control does NOT have a direct feedback signal.

In the example above, a static pressure sensor is wired to a Direct
Digital Controller (DDC). Because the feedback signal, pressure, goes to the
Controller, a closed loop must be setup in it to control the static pressure.
This closed loop inside the Controller monitors the pressure comparing it
against a setpoint and then calculates a reference signal. The Controller then
sends this reference signal to the VFD for proper modulation of the fan.
The reference signal is sent to the VFD, which in turn controls the
motor and fan. In this example, the VFD is programmed for Open Loop and
it receives a reference command from the Controller. If the pressure sensor
were wired directly into the VFD, then the drive would need to be
programmed for Closed Loop in order to have proper control of the fan.
The system is a closed loop system because it senses its own action,
its feedback, but because the feedback signal does not go directly to it, the
VFD is programmed for open loop.
14
August 04
4) Closed Loop
Sensor monitors the feedback signal.

Controller, the VFD, gives the sensor a desired value,
action and PID settings and calculates a response.
Controlled Device, the fan, responds to the signal
from the controller, increasing or decreasing in speed.
Closed Loop is where the controller inside the VFD can be used to
modulate the speed of a motor to maintain a process. It is the job of the
sensor or transmitter to measure a variable, in the example above, this is
static pressure. This sensor sends a signal (usually a 4-20mA) to the
controller over a particular range, in this example from 0 to 5wc.
The sensor is wired to the current input of the VFD, the controller.
This signal is programmed in the VFD as the feedback signal. This feedback
signal must be given engineering units, from our example, inches of water
column (wc) or Pascals. Inside the VFD the feedback signal must also be
given the range that matches the sensor. When the sensor sees 4mA it is
0wc (0 Pascals) and when the sensor sees 20mA, the reading is 5wc (1250
Pascals).
The VFD, controller, has a setpoint, action and PID settings
(explained later) to calculate the response necessary to maintain the desired
value seen at the sensor. The VFD sends a signal to the fan to speed up or
slow down to maintain a certain level.
The fan, controlled device, responds to match the signal from the
VFD, controller. It speeds up when the level of the static pressure
decreases and slows down when the level of the static pressure is too high.
15
August 04
4. a) Control Action
Normal Control incoming signal increases; VFD speed decreases.

Inverse Control incoming signal increases; VFD speed increases.
In closed loop applications, such as controlling pressure by monitoring the

volume of return air, shown above, the VFD must always be programmed for
the correct action. There are 2 choices:
Normal Control (also know as Reverse Acting). In the top return fan
example, when the CFM Transmitter sends a signal that indicates it is above
the setpoint, the output from the VFD decreases. The action is correct if the
sensor is down stream from the controlled device, the return fan. As the
CFM sees an increase, the signal to the fan decreases, slowing the fan
down. As the CFM transmitter sees a drop, the speed of the fan increases.
Inverse Control (also know as Direct Acting). In the bottom return fan
example, when the signal from the CFM Transmitter increases above the
setpoint the output from the VFD increases. This action is correct if the CFM
transmitter is upstream from the return fan.
If the wrong action (Inverse) were programmed in the VFD on the top
return fan, it would speed up as the CFM in the duct rose higher. Eventually
the speed of the return fan would go to its maximum. This could put a major
stress on the ductwork. If the incorrect action is programmed in an
application the VFD ends up locked at minimum or at maximum speed.
16
August 04
4. b) Setpoint, Error & Gain
Setpoint or reference is the desired value for a

controlled variable; example: 2.00wc (500pa).
Error (offset) is the amount the feedback is from
setpoint at any given time, example: 0.15wc (38pa)
Proportional Gain is a multiplier times the error
(offset). Example above the Gain starts at 0.3
Setpoint is the desired value or reference of the controlled variable for a

closed loop application. In controlling static pressure, shown above, 2.00wc
(500pa) is the desired setpoint or reference.
Error is a difference between the setpoint, 2.00wc (500pa) and the actual
feedback pressure, 1.85wc (462pa) for this system. This difference is also
known as Offset (or off the setpoint).
Proportional Gain is multiplied by the error to create an output. The larger
the proportional gain, the larger the output change for a given error. If the
proportional gain is too small (0.01) this multiplier times the error has no
effect on the speed of the VFD. If the proportional gain is too large (3.00 or
higher) the system can become unstable, modulating between minimum
speed and maximum speed which is called hunting. A good starting place
for the Proportional Gain is about 1.00 but changes depending on the
application. If Proportional Gain is only used, without I or D (explained on the
next slide), the output is relatively close to setpoint but there is always an
error.
17
August 04
4. c) Integral & Derivative
Integral checks the offset over a period of time and

makes corrections.
Derivative checks the offset and corrects for the
speed of the integral correction.
Integral Gain is based on the history of the error. The integral function
maintains a running total of the error and creates an output based on this
total. The lower the number used for the integral gain the more frequently
the error is checked and the larger its influence. If the integral time is too low
(less than 5 seconds), the system can become unstable and starts to hunt. A
good place to start is 10 seconds, but again this can vary based on the
application. Integral gain eliminates the steady error inherent to proportional
control. As pictured above, integral gain adds overshoot every time the load
changes, but eventually settles close to setpoint. Integral is used frequently
in HVAC applications.
Derivative or differential is based on the rate of change of the error. It is

used to limit overshoot and dampen system oscillation. The larger the
derivative time, the larger the influence. If the derivative time is too large,
the system becomes unstable. Derivative is very sensitive to noise on the
feedback signal and historically seldom used in HVAC closed loop systems.
18
August 04
4. b) PID
Summary: There are many different PID algorithms. All

contain these 3 features, Proportional Gain, Integral,
and Derivative. The ways these terms are combined
may be different.
In some implementations the 3 values operate independently of each other

and in others, changing one value effects the others.
Proportional Gain contributes to the output in a direct relationship to the
error between the feedback and setpoint.
Integral contributes to the output based on the history of the error.
Derivative contributes to the output based on the rate of change to the error.
Setpoint is the desired value for the variable being controlled.
Feedback is the actual value of the variable being controlled.
Error (offset) is the difference between the setpoint and feedback
Hunting is an unstable condition which causes the speed of the motor to
continuously vary from maximum to minimum.
19
August 04
5) Different Types of VFDs
There are different types of VFDs, which are briefly

covered here. They include Volts/Hz, Voltage Vector,
Voltage Vector +, Flux Vector and Servo.
Volts/Hz drives also known as a Basic Scalar drives, are the least expensive
drive with the least features. This drive is usually setup for CT and Open
Loop only.
Voltage Vector drives also known as Space Vector drives have more
features and may have the ability to do both CT/VT and Open/Closed Loop.
Voltage Vector Plus drives have more features than the others and
therefore have more cost than previously mentioned drives. They can
calculate motor characteristics without spinning the shaft of the motor.
These last 3 types of VFD account for 95% of all applications. There are a
few that need greater accuracy which follow.
Flux Vector drives have more calculations which makes them more
expensive and more accurate. Some Flux vector drives require special
motors.
Servo drives are DC and do not operate with AC induction motors. They are
expensive in comparison to VFDs. They are the most responsive to dynamic
changes.
These drive types are explored in greater detail in a later lesson.
20
August 04
5) Different Types of VFDs
Summary:
Type Response Accuracy Speed Range
V/Hz 500 1000ms 10% + 10:1 180rpm
Voltage Vector 200 700ms 2% - 8% 50:1 36rpm
Voltage Vector + 50 300ms 0.2%-2%
Open 100:1 18rpm
Closed 900:1 2rpm
Flux Vector 5 60ms 0.02% - 0.1% 1400:1 1.3rpm
Servo 2 8ms 0.007% - 0.08% 1800:1 1rpm
As a comparison above, each type of motor control shows,

Response to dynamic changes
Accuracy and
Speed Range.
Speed Range indicates how slow the motor can turn but still have proper
operation. Speed Range is always indicated as a ratio. The higher the ratio
the better control at slow speeds. The minimum rpm for each type has been
calculated, assuming 1800 base speed.
Voltage Vector Plus has 2 values, one for open loop and the other for closed
loop.
This completes this lesson.

There are Review Questions in the Post-Test section.
21
August 04
VFD 101
Lesson 5
Power Input Terminology for a VFD
This lesson covers the terminology associated with

the incoming power to a Variable Frequency Drive
(VFD) and the efforts to protect both the VFD and
incoming power.
When connecting a VFD to a system, there are 3 separate connections that

are made: incoming power, motor wiring and control wiring. This lesson
deals with the terminology concerning the first of these three, incoming
power. Here is the basics outline for this lesson.
VFD Power Input Terminology
1. Protecting the VFD
a. Switching on the Input
b. Surge/Sag
c. Transients Spikes
d. Phase Balancing
e. Single Phase
f. Fuses, connectors and voltages
2. Protecting the Supply Line
a. Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
b. Harmonics, IEEE 519
c. Managing Harmonic Distortion

August 04
Incoming AC Power
Inputs labeled L1, L2, and L3.

R, S and T are older designations
Terminals 91, 92 and 93 for Danfoss
This lesson covers the terminology involved in connecting a Variable

Frequency Drive (VFD) to incoming AC power. The terminals used to
connect incoming power to the VFD are labeled L1, L2 and L3. Older
designations label these as R, S and T. In the drive shown above both
labels are shown, along with the terminal numbers for Danfoss which are 91,
92 and 93.
When connecting the drive to incoming power the current needed by
the drive is always the primary consideration. It is important that the
transformer, wires and fuses can handle the full load amps of the drive. It is
also very important that local electric codes are followed. The National
Electric Code (NEC) requires branch protection and UL certification requires
fuses be used with the drive.
There are 2 major concerns when wiring incoming power to the drive.
The first is that the VFD must be protected from any variants from the
incoming supply line. The second is that the supply line must also be
protected from noise made by the drive. Anytime diodes or SCRs are used
to change AC into DC, switching occurs creating a non-linear load. This
non-linear load can have an adverse effect (noise) on the supply power
going to the VFD. In the notes that follow this noise is explained in more
detail.

August 04
1) Protecting the VFD
Numerous Stray Voltages and power changes

from incoming power can effect the VFD.
The first section covers the protection of the VFD from the changes in
incoming power. The first item covered is the switching of power coming into
the drive. There can also be Surges and Sags in the incoming AC power. If
these surges are too high, or the sags are too low, the VFD shuts down for
its own protection. There must also be protection against transients or
spikes in the incoming power. Another item to be covered is a Phase
Imbalance between the 3 phases of power coming into the drive. The last
item to be covered are Fuses, connectors and different voltages which might
be encountered.

August 04
a) Switching on the Input
Maximum switching on input is 2 times per minute

Soft Charge circuit heats up with excessive starts,
and charging and discharging of the capacitors
needs to be limited.
Rapidly and repeatedly switching power on the input to the VFD can
have a very negative effect on the drive. The power going into the drive
requires the capacitors to be charged, which requires power to travel through
a soft charge circuit. If this is started repeatedly, the current going through
the current limiting resistors can cause the resistors to overheat and blow
fuses on the soft charge circuit, disabling the drive for its own protection.
The stress on the capacitors powering up during the ON cycle, then
discharging during the OFF cycle can also shorten the life of the capacitors
and also the life of the drive. For these reasons it is important that the drive
be limited to just 2 starts per minute. If the drive needs to start and stop its
motor repeatedly, it is best to always use the drives control circuitry.

August 04
b) Surge and Sag
Surge is an incoming voltage above its expected level

Sag is an incoming voltage below its expected level
Frequency shifts between 45Hz to 65Hz, can also
occur.
It is important that a VFD be able to operate even though the voltage

is changing coming into the drive. With an increase in voltage, a surge, the
VFD continues to run its load until an upper limit is reached. To protect
itself, once the voltage exceeds this limit, the drive trips into an alarm
condition. In the example above, 7 manufacturers are shown in the
tolerance range for changes in the incoming voltages. Danfoss has one of
the widest ranges concerning incoming voltage shifts. Notice that a 480Vac
drive has a surge trip point of 550Vac.
A drop in voltage, a sag, is far more common, particularly in the
summer. In the example above, using a 480Vac drive, the sag trip point is
342Vac. As the voltage drops from 480Vac down, the VFD starts to drop its
maximum output down from 100%. It continues to operate but at a lower
level during these Brown-Out conditions. Once the voltage drops below
342Vac, the VFD trips to protect itself.
If there is a slight frequency shift away from 60Hz in North America, or
50Hz in the rest of the world, the VFD must continue to operate. In both
cases, if the voltage swings or if the frequency shifts, the wider the range the
drive can handle the fewer nuisance shut-downs. In both cases, no one
exceeds Danfoss in the range of voltage or frequency as indicated in the
example above.

August 04
c) Transients and Spikes
Spikes or Transients
Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV)
Another problem that might be encountered with incoming power is

spikes or transients of voltage, which occur for a very short amount of time.
These spikes may be caused by heavy loads in the main supply being
switched ON then OFF, or even by lightning strikes. A VFD must have the
capacity to handle these spikes in the same way that personal computers
need surge protection.
Some manufacturers, such as Danfoss, use a fast acting Metal Oxide
Varistor (MOV), zenner diodes and oversized DC bus capacitors to provide
protection against high potential spikes. The MOV, which looks like a small
capacitor, is pictured above. When the voltage exceeds 2.3 times the
expected incoming voltage for 1.3 milliseconds, the MOV shorts, protecting
the internal parts of the drive. Danfoss places 4 of these MOVs in its drive,
one on each of the 3 inputs and one attached to the DC Link. Danfoss
drives are designed and built to meet a tough German specification for surge
suppression (VDE 0160).

August 04
d) Phase Imbalance
Voltage Imbalance on one of the Phases causes

excessive stress on filter capacitors, so the VFD
shuts down and sends out an alarm.
The closer to maximum load of the VFD the more
sensitive it becomes to an incoming voltage
imbalance.
Another problem with incoming power can be a phase imbalance

between the 3 phases. A voltage imbalance on one of the phases causes
excessive stress on filter capacitors. When the VFD sees an amount
beyond 2%, the VFD shuts down and alarms the operator letting him know
that there is a problem with the incoming power. This 2% imbalance
becomes more crucial as the drive approaches its maximum load. The
closer to maximum load the more sensitive the drive becomes to an
incoming voltage imbalance.
There are some parts of the world that almost always have a phase
imbalance of at least 2% or more. Some VFD manufactures, such as
Danfoss, allow the turning off of the phase imbalance protection for those
locations. It must be remembered with a large constant phase imbalance,
the expected life of the VFD is reduced.

August 04
e) Single Phase Input
Some small VFDs are designed for single phase

It is NOT recommended to place single phase on
a 3-phase only - VFD
Reduces life of filtering capacitors
Single Phase into the drive is possible with some smaller size drives,
usually 3Hp and under. Notice in the picture above single phase terminals
are labeled N and L1. It is possible to use single phase input on a 3-phase
drive when properly engineered, it is NOT officially recommended or
supported by Danfoss. Performance and long term reliability problems may
result. One of the biggest concerns with single-phase input is the effect it has
on the filtering capacitors.

August 04
f) Fuses, Connectors and Voltages
Fuses
No Power factor correction capacitors
Fuses must be placed between the VFD and the transformer.

Instruction manuals for each size of VFD identifies the correct type and size
of fuses needed for the installation. According to UL, fuses must be used
with a VFD because of the quickness of fuse protection, when compared
with circuit breakers. It should be noted that fuses do NOT completely
protect the drive but do reduce the damage during a short circuit or other
problem.
On a retrofit, if power factor correction capacitors are found with the
motor, and the customer wants them with the new VFD installation, they
must be placed between the transformer and the VFD and never between
the VFD and the motor.

August 04
Quick Connections are needed for quick

replacement.
Cable clamps are very helpful, but must
also have a quick release.
A note in passing is that most drives need quick release connectors to

remove power, motor and control wiring. In the diagram above plugs are
used to remove the incoming power. This is very important particularly in the
industrial market where lost time is measured in the thousands of dollars per
minute.
Cable clamps are another helpful addition to drives. These clamps
relieve the tension from the wire connectors. Incidental pulling of wires on
those drives that do not have clamps can have a very adverse effect on the
drives.

August 04
120Vac used by very small motors in North America

230Vac used by small motors
380Vac used by most motors in Europe
460Vac used by most motors in USA
575Vac used by most motors in Canada
690Vac used by some motors in Germany
There are a number of voltages that may be used by VFDs. In North

America there is a growing demand for small portable drives that use
120Vac. Many small motors worldwide use 230Vac. In Europe, most
motors use 380Vac, but the current standard is 400Vac. On larger motors
throughout the world, but particularly in North America, 460Vac is used.
Canada and some places in South Africa and in the Northeast and
Southeast parts of the USA use 575Vac. Germany has just recently allowed
the use of 690Vac. It is important that VFD manufacturers can handle a
variety of voltage ranges.

August 04
2) Protecting the
Supply Line
Voltage and current distortions caused by the

VFD can effect in-coming power.
High Noise above 450kHz is called Radio
Frequency Interference (RFI) and low noise below
3kHz is called Harmonics.
Not only must the VFD be protected from the incoming power, it is
also important that the main power supply and all other equipment attached
to this transformer be protected from the noise generated by the VFD. All
VFDs generate noise. Noise, as voltage distortion in the supply line, can
cause sensitive equipment such as computers and PLC to malfunction.
Noise as current distortion in the transformer causes heat in the
transformer and associated wiring. This noise can be described as 2
different types:
1) Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and
2) Harmonics.
RFI (frequencies of 450kHz and higher) can travel through the wires
and can also be radiated through the air. Many of these problems can be
corrected by using RFI filters in the drives and shielded (screened) cable.
RFI is a major concern when using drives in Europe.
Harmonics are the noise at low frequencies, less that 3kHz, which are
only generated through the wires and never radiated through the air.
Engineers in North America seem to be more concerned with harmonics.
Both of these and managing harmonics are covered in some detail on the
pages that follow.

August 04
a) Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
Noise RFI
CE EN 55011
1A Filter
1B Filter
Grounded Delta
What is RFI? A child likes to watch the TV on Saturday morning,

which happened to be his mothers cleaning day. She plugs the vacuum
cleaner into the same power outlet that the TV is connected. When she
turns the vacuum on, because of its non-linear load, distortion or snow
appears on the TV. That is RFI or noise. Now with a TV there is little
problems, but with sensitive equipment such as transmitters, PLCs and
computers there could be real problems.
Since this is a major concern for Europe, CE has taken steps to
measure and limit RFI in industrial, scientific and medical area covered in
EN 55011. Under these guidelines, Class 1A filters are used for industrial
areas and Class 1B filters, which filters more, are used for residential. There
is a specific product standard which covers VFDs known as EN 61800-3.
Special RFI filters either 1A or 1B can be ordered with most drives. If
filters are installed on a drive and in those applications where power to the
drive is coming through a delta secondary transformer there are precautions
that should be taken. On these systems which are described as grounded
delta transformers, it is best to disconnect the ground connection of the
drives RFI Filter which is done by using a switch or a jumper.

August 04
b) Harmonic Distortion
Summation of all
harmonic frequencies
Fundamental
Multiples, mainly the 5th and the 7th harmonics of

the fundamental sine wave (60 Hz), caused by
the switching current flow through the VFDs
input rectifiers, causes interference in the
incoming power.
Harmonic distortion has been a hot topic in North America with the
ever increasing use of equipment incorporating rectifiers and similar
switching devices on the input. This noise is low frequencies that appear on
wires coming from the supply transformer.
In the example above, notice that the orange fundamental sine wave,
comes from the main power supply. In a 6-pulse drive, one that has 6
diodes or SCRs rectifying the AC power to DC, the 5th harmonic (300Hz) is
quite large as seen in the blue sine wave. The 7th harmonic (420Hz) is also
quite large as seen in the pink sine wave. The summation of all of these
sine waves is shown in red, and you can see the distortion that exists on the
power supply. The harmonic distortion is related to the number of diodes
used to rectify AC to DC. As the number of harmonics increases, the lower
their amplitude, which means less problems. The 5th and 7th harmonics have
a much greater amplitude than the 11th and 13th which have a greater
amplitude than the 17th and 19th. The reduction of the 5th 7th and 11th
harmonic signals are the greatest concern.

August 04
b) Harmonic Distortion
Harmonic Current Distortion increases the RMS

current and can result in overheating of the supply
transformer and cables.
Harmonic Voltage Distortion can interfere with other
equipment attached to the same line.
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) at the point of
common coupling is discussed in IEEE 5-19.
Harmonic current distortion causes heat and this has an adverse

effect on the supply transformer and cables. Based on the impedance of the
supply line and transformer, current distortion can cause harmonic voltage
distortion, which can interfere with other equipment attached to the same
supply transformer.
Harmonics is discussed by a North American standard which is IEEE
5-19. This harmonic distortion is seen as a system measurement known as
the Total Harmonic Distortion or THD which is measured at a point of
common coupling, PCC, usual where the electric meter is placed. This
standard indicates limits of allowable THD distortion of 3% 5% and 10%
dependant on the sensitivity of the application. IEEE 5-19 is a system
standard not an equipment standard as some claim. There are times where
the THD is high but with the addition of other loads the THD is dropped
because additional rectifiers can cancel out some of the harmonic
frequencies. In the pages that follow a procedure for harmonic remedies is
reviewed

August 04
c) Managing Harmonic Distortion
Analyze system to determine whether

harmonic distortion is an issue.
If it is an issue:
1) Redistribute Sensitive Loads
2) Rewire as Virtual 12 Pulse
3) Add Remedial Hardware
Line Reactors
Filters
Isolation Transformers
If the transformer supplying power to the VFDs and other equipment

is operating hot or if other equipment has noise problems here is a way to
manage harmonic distortion. The first step is to analyze the THD at the
point of common coupling and determine if it is a problem. If it is a problem
then there are some remedies.
To rectify problems with harmonic noise, one way is to more the
equipment that is sensitive to noise on to a different power supply. Another
way to reduce harmonic noise is to use one 30 phase shift transformer to
supply 2 sets of VFDs. The last remedy is to purchase additional
equipment, such as line reactors, filters or isolation transformers. These
remedies are explored in detail on the following pages.

August 04

Remedial Hardware
Input Line Reactor
One of the most common remedies used by many drive

manufacturers is to place an input line reactor (between 3% to 5%) between
the drive and the power supply. This does reduce the harmonic noise, but it
also reduces the voltage going to the drive. This reduced voltage might be a
problem when the drive is used at maximum load and maximum speed. The
motor can become voltage starved. This might require the VFD to be a size
larger to avoid nuisance tripping.

August 04

Remedial Hardware
DC Inductors
Another way to reduce harmonic noise is to use DC inductors or

chokes built in the drive. These eliminate some of the noise, usually about
40%. This method is what Danfoss uses, building DC inductors into all of its
drives. These DC inductors are expense which has caused most VFD
manufacturers to offer them as options.

August 04

Remedial Hardware
Isolation Transformers
Expensive option
Another option to stop harmonic noise is to place an isolation

transformer between the drive and sensitive equipment. Most of the noise if
engineered correctly stops at the isolation transformer. This can be a very
expensive option. In the past, many drive manufacturers required isolation
transformers to prevent ground faults and protect against uneven phase to
ground voltages.

August 04

Remedial Hardware
12 Pulse Drive
Cancels 5th and 7th harmonics
Works with much smaller 11th and 13th harmonics
Must have 30 phase shift transformer
Works best with perfect balance between phases
Another option is to produce VFDs with 12 diodes in the rectifier

section, known as a 12-pulse drive. This theoretically cancels the 5th and 7th
harmonics and only allows the much smaller 11th and 13 harmonics and
higher to interfere. One manufacturer has aggressive pursued this option,
producing 12-pulse drives, and 18-pulse drives. This manufacturer then
uses drive specifications to eliminate competitors.
In order to make the 12-pulse option work correctly, a 30 phase shift
transformer must be included. If both sets of 6-pulse diodes are attached to
the same transformer output, it makes the drive no different that a 6-pulse
drive and its harmonic limitations.
To make the noise reducing features of a 12-pulse drive work best,
the 3-phase inputs from the transformer should be perfectly balanced. In
real life, there is almost always a phase imbalance between the 3 inputs. As
the imbalance increases, harmonic distortion increases.

August 04

Rewire
Virtual (Quasi) 12-Pulse

One phase shift transformer for multiple drives
One way to avoid the more expensive 12-pulse drives is to wire the
drives in a virtual or quasi 12-pulse configuration. Here a large 30 phase
shift transformer is used to power 2 sets of VFDs, one from the standard part
of the transformer and the other from the 30 phase shift part. This allows
the use of the much less expensive 6-pulse drives with the harmonic
cancellation advantages of the 12-pulse.

August 04

Remedial Hardware
Advanced Harmonic Filters (AHF)

AHF 005 & AHF 010 are designed for Danfoss VFDs.
AHF filter is placed between incoming power and the VFD.
Another option is to use a harmonic filter as pictured above. This

device is mounted between the drive and incoming power and it reduces
harmonic noise problems. These filters can be passive or active. The one
pictured above is a passive filter specifically designed to work with Danfoss
drives and their DC inductors.
Active filters have a logic controller that monitors the incoming power.
It then calculates the necessary counter signals to eliminate the harmonic
distortion. These active filters are more expensive.

August 04

Remedial Hardware
AHF Filters
By connecting the AHF 005 or AHF 010 in front of the VFD. The
harmonic current distortion generated back to the mains is
reduced to a minimum.
In the diagrams above the bar chart to the left shows the amounts of
current distortion on a 6-pulse drive that has DC inductors. When the AHF
filters are placed upstream from the VFD, notice in the middle chart and the
chart on the right that the harmonic levels are very small. Another
advantage that the filters have over a 12-pulse VFD is there is only a slight
increase in harmonics on the power when there is a phase imbalance.

August 04
100 200
Current/Voltage THD
80 175
Cost Index
60 150
Drive THiD
40 125
Vthd PCC2
Co s t Ind ex
20 100
0 75
Trap Filter
AccusineTM
VLT + 3% ACR.
Quasi 12 pulse
Broad Band Filter

VLT w/DC link
Active Front end

Basic 6 pulse
12 pulse
18 pulse filter
The Law of Diminishing Returns
Here is a chart showing the reduction of harmonics and the cost of

each remedy. The blue bars show the THD on the supply line. Notice that a
standard 6-pulse VFD has a very large harmonics level. The next remedy,
6-pulse with DC inductors, removes a great deal of harmonics. The index on
the right uses this remedy as the 100% cost level. The next remedy, with
3% line reactor reduces the harmonics slightly and is slightly more
expensive. The next remedy, 12-pulse reduces the harmonics significantly
but the cost has risen by 40%. The next remedy, quasi 12-pulse has about
the same noise level as a 12-pulse drive but only adds 22% cost.
The next remedies use passive filters, the broad band filter and the
harmonic trap. Broad band filters as the name implies covers a range of
harmonic frequencies. The harmonic trap is designed for a specific
harmonic frequency, usually the 5th. The cost jumps significantly when the
18-pulse remedy is used, with only some reduction in the harmonic level.
The new AHF filter is not shown on this diagram.
This completes this lesson.

There are Review Questions in the Post-Test section.

Varible Freqency Drive

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Varible Freqency Drive

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

VFD 101

This lesson covers the basic functions of a Variable

Here is the basics outline for this lesson.

This lesson covers the basic functions of an Variable Frequency

What must the fans do?

The fans must

The VFD must be able to START and STOP

Function #1 Start and Stop

The VFD must be able to Change the Reference, Hz.

Function #2 Change Speed

Light load or heavy, the drive should

Function #3 Maintain a Constant Speed

Limits on current, torque, speed, heat and

To reduce mechanical wear, it is important to

All ramp times are based on motor speed,

Function #6 Forward/Reverse Operation

Reverse to defrost cooling tower

The most important function for the VFD

Function #7 Saving Energy

This concludes Lesson 1. There is a Post Test to review this information.

Local or Hand control means controlling the system

1. Local (Hand) Control

HAND START key starts the drive in Hand (local

Remote signals are wired into the control section of the

2. Remote (Auto) Control

Above, connectors are shown for remote signals. These

One VFD is used to operate 4 separate fans. The

In the example above each of the 4 AC motors is the

In the Master/Slave arrangement a Master or Lead

A Static Pressure sensor sends a signal to the

In this arrangement a 4-20mA static pressure

5. Closed Loop/PID Control

In the picture above, Static Pressure in the supply

There is always a difference between the setpoint and the actual

There are occasions where a group of pumps or fans

6. Cascade Control Card Fixed Stages

The diagram above shows the operation of the fixed

Rather than having pumps come ON as fixed stages, it

6. Cascade Control Card Fixed Stages

The diagram above shows the operation of the variable

Building Automation Systems (BAS) coordinate the

8) Building Automation - Enable

A Start/Stop command from a DO of the DDC Controller

Notice in the example above, a DO on the DDC controller, a relay

A local DDC of a BAS sends an enable/disable

9) BAS Enable and Reference

A Start/Stop command from a DO of the DDC Controller

In the example above, the DO of the DDC controller is wired to the

Here serial communications is used to enable the VFD

10. Serial Communications

The Start/Stop command and reference command

In the example above, the 2-wire, RS-485 connection goes between a

This concludes Lesson 2. There is a Post Test to review this information.

This lesson covers the parts that make up the

Here is the basics outline for this lesson.

Danfoss Drives - Loves Park, IL USA 1

This lesson covers the basic parts and operation of a Variable

1. VFD in a Larger System

Danfoss Drives - Loves Park, IL USA 2

To understand the parts of an VFD better, an example

In the picture notice the fuses and disconnect switch.

As each part is explained pictures of these parts on a 450kW (600Hp)

Danfoss Drives - Loves Park, IL USA 3

Its function is to change 3-phase AC into DC.