CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The technology of pneumatics has gained tremendous importance in the field of workplace
rationalization and automation from old-fashioned timber works and coat mines to modern
machine shops and space robots. It is therefore important that operated valves and
accessories.
The aim is to design and develop a control system based an intelligent electronically
controlled automotive bumper activation system is called "AUTOMATIC PNEUMATIC
BUMPER". This system is consists of IR transmitted and Receiver circuit, Control Unit,
Pneumatic bumper system. The IR sensor is used to detect the obstacle. There is any obstacle
closer to the vehicle (with in 4 feet), the control signal is given to the bumper activation
system.
The pneumatic bumper system is used to product the man and vehicle. This bumper
activation system is only activated the vehicle speed above 40-50 km per hour. This vehicle
speed is sensed by the proximity sensor and this signal is given to the control unit and
pneumatic bumper activation system.
We have pleasure in introducing our new project "AUTOMATIC PNEUMATIC
BUMPER", which is fully equipped by IR sensors circuit and Pneumatic bumper activation
circuit. It is a genuine project which is fully equipped and designed for Automobile vehicles.
This forms an integral part of best quality. This product underwent strenuous test in our
Automobile vehicles and it is good.

1.1 NEED FOR AUTOMATION:

Automation can be achieved through computers, hydraulics, pneumatics, robotics,

etc., by these sources, pneumatics form an attractive medium fro low cost automation. The
main advantages of all pneumatic systems are economy and simplicity. Automation plays an
important role in mass production.
For mass production of the product, the machining operations decide the sequence of
machining. The machines designed for producing a particular product are called transfer
machines. The components must be moved automatically from te bins to various machines

1
sequentially and the final component can be placed separately for packaging. Materials can
also be repeatedly transferred from the moving conveyors to the work place and vice versa.
Now a days almost all the manufacturing process is being atomized in order to deliver
the products at a faster rate. The manufacturing operation is being atomized for the following
reasons.

To achieve mass production

To reduce man power
To increase the efficiency of the plant
To reduce the work load
To reduce the production cost
To reduce the production time
To reduce the material handling
To reduce the fatigue of workers
To achieve good product quality
Less maintenance

2
 CHAPTER - 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 SAFETY SYSTEM:

The aim is to design and develop a control system based on pneumatic breaking
system of an intelligent electronically controlled automotive braking system. Based on this
model, control strategies such as an antilock braking system (ABS) and improved
maneuverability via individual wheel braking are to be developed and evaluated.
There have been considerable advances in modern vehicle braking systems in recent.
years. For example, electronically controlled ABS for emergency braking, electronically
controlled hydraulically actuated individual brake-by-wire (BBW) system for saloon cars and
electronically controlled pneumatically actuated systems for heavy goods vehicles. The work
of recent years shall form the basis of a system design approach to be implemented. The
novelty of the proposed research programmed shall lie in the design and evaluation of control
systems for achieving individual wheel motion control facilitated by BBW. In the case BBW
the brake pedal is detached from the hydraulic system and replaced by a 'brake pedal
simulator'. The simulator provides an electrical signal for the electronic control system.
Preliminary modeling and simulation work considers a quarter cars initially followed by a
natural progression tot he half car and full four wheel station cases. The model is to be
constructed in modular form thus allowing the replacement / interchange of the various
blocks and their associated technologies. Upon completion of the full vehicle braking model,
sensitivity analyses will be carried out. Once the preliminary simulation model has been
thoroughly benchmarked and existing control system strategies evaluated, an audit of the
technology used is to take place and this will provide a basis for comparison of literative
technologies / techniques.

The final phase of the new modern vehicle shall include:

Development of improved ABS control systems

Development and assessment of an electro-hydraulic-BBW (EH-BBW) system
Individual wheel braking combined with traction control

3
 Assessing sensor failure and fault to learnt control system design
Preliminary studies into an electrically actuated system
Re-engineering using simplified models.

2.2 SAFETY SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure :- 2.2 Safety System Block Diagram

2.3 PNEUMATICS

The word 'pneuma' comes from Greek and means breather wind. The word
pneumatics is the study of air movement and its phenomena is derived from the wond
pneuma. Today pneumatics is mainly understood to means the application of air as a working
medium in industry especially the driving and controlling of machines and equipment.
Pneumatics has for some considerable time between used for carrying out the simplest
mechanical tasks in more recent times has played a more important role in the development
of pneumatic technology for automation.
Pneumatic System operate on a supply of compressed air which must be made available
in sufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of the system. When the pneumatic
system is being adopted for the first time, however it walls indeed the necessary to deal with
the question of compressed air supply.

4
 The key part of any facility for supply of compressed air is by means using
reciprocating compressor. A compressor is a machine that takes in air, gas at a certain
pressure and delivered the air at a high pressure.
Compressor capacity is the actual quantity of air compressed and delivered and the
volume expressed is that of the air at intake conditions namely at atmosphere pressure and
normal ambient temperature.
The compressibility of the air was first investigated by Robert Boyle in 1962 and that
found that the product of pressure and volume of a particular quantity of gas.

Thus usually written as

PV = C (or) P1V1 = P2V2

In this equation the pressure is the absolute pressure which for free is about 14.7 Psi
and is of courage capable of maintain a column of mercury, nearly 30 inches high in an
ordinary barometer. Any gas can used in pneumatic system but air is the mostly used system
now a days.

2.4 BRAKING

2.4.1 TYPES OF BRAKING

The brakes for automotive use may be classified according the following consideration.
1. Purpose
2. Location
3. Construction
4. Method of Actuation
5. Extra Braking Effort
Based on the above consideration, brakes and classified with respect to following
factors.
1. With respect to application

a. Foot brake
b. Hand brake

5
2. With respect to the number of wheels
a. Two wheel brakes
b. Four wheel breakers

3. With respect to the method of banking contact

a. Internal expanding brakes
b. External contracting breaks

4. With respect to the method of applying the braking force

a. Single acting brake

b. Double acting brakes

5. With respect to the brake gear

a. Mechanical brake
b. Power brake

6. with respect to the nature of power employed

a. Vacuum brake
b. Air brake
c. Hydraulic brake
d. Hydrostatic brake
e. Electric brake

7. With respect to power transmission

a. Direct acting brakes

b. Geared brakes

6
8. With respect to power unit

a. Cylinder brakes
b. Diaphragm brake

The foot brake or service brake is always applied by a pedal, while the parking brake
is applied by a hand lever. The parking brake is intended chiefly to hold the car in position.
The parking brake can be set in the 'ON' position by means of a latch while the service brake
remains on only as long as the driver presses down on the pedal.
The hand brake is normally used only after the driver has stopped the car by using the
foot brake. Its other use is an emergency brake to stop the car if the foot braked system
should fail. the hand or parking brakes operates on a pair of wheels, frequently the rear
wheels. When drum type rear brakes are used, the same shoes can be used for both hand and
foot control.
The drum type of brake may either be a band brake or a shoe brake. Berth band hakes and
shoe brakes may be either external or internal. The tend brakes generally are external and
shoe brakes internal. In drum brakes the dram s attached to the wheel and revolves with it.
Friction to slow the drum is applied from inside by this shoes which do not rotate hat me
mounted on a stationary metal back plate. There ate different types of drum brakes such as a
two leading shoe arrangement - which gives an augmented response to pedal effort because of
itself applying arrangement. A leading-trailing shoe is a cheaper and better alternative as it is
equally effective whether the car is going forward or backwards,
Manufacturers design drum brake so that rain, show or ice or grit cannot get inside and
decrease braking efficiency for moisture greatly reduces the friction between the linings and the
drum.
The dissipate quickly the considerable amount of heat generated when braking a fast
moving heavy car large brake drums would be required. Disc brakes do the job more
efficiently, for the coding air can get to the robbing between each piston and the disc, there is
a friction pad held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc, Passages are drilled in the
caliper for the fluid to enter or leave each of the housing. These passages are also connected
to another one for bleeding. Each cylinder eons ins a rubber selling ring between the cylinder
and the piston.

7
 The brakes are applied, hydraulically actuated piston move the friction pads into
contact with the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on the later. On releasing the
Brakes the rubber sealing rings act as return spring and retract the pistons and the friction
pads away from the disc.

Now let us see in detail about different braking systems In automobiles.

2.4.2 MECHANICAL BRAKE:

In a motor vehicle, die wheel attached to an auxiliary wheel called drum The brake
shoes are made to contact this dram. In most designs, two shoes are used with each drum to form
a complete brake mechanism at each wheel The brake shoes have bake linings on their outer
surfaces. Each brake shoe is hinged at one end by m anchor pin; the other end is operated by
some means so that the brake shoe expands outwards. The brake linings come into contact fit
the drum. Retracting spring keep the brake shoe into position when the brakes are not applied.
The dram encloses the entire mechanism to keep out dust and moisture. The wheel attaching
bolts on the drum are used to contort wheel and dram. The braking plate completes the brake
enclosure, holds the assembly to car axis, and acts the base for fastening the brake shoes and
operating mechanism. The shoes are generally mounted to rub against the inside surface of the

8
drum to form as menial expanding brake as shown in the figure.

Figure:2.4.2-Mechanical Brake
2.4.3 HYDRAULIC BRAKES:

The hydraulic bakes are applied by the liquid pressure. The pedal force is transmitted
to the brake shoe by means of a confined liquid through a system of force transmission.
The force applied to the pedal is multiplied, and transmitted to brake shoes by a force
transmission system I Ins swan is based upon Pascal's principle, which stales that "The
confined liquids transmit pressure without loss equally in all directions.
It essentially consists of two main components - master cylinder and wheel cylinder
the Master cylinder is connected by the wheel cylinders at each of the fear wheels. The
system is filled with tie liquid under light pressure when the brakes are not In operation. The
liquid is known as brake fluid, and is usually a mixture of glycerin and alcohol or caster-oil,
denatured alcohol and some additives Spring pressure, and thus the fluid pressure in she
entire system drops is original tow valve, which allows retracting spring on wheel brakes to
9
pull the brake shots out of contact with as brake drums into their original positions. This
causes the wheel cylinder piston also to come back to its original inward position. Thus, the
brakes are released.

Figure:-2.4.3 Hydraulic Brake

2.4.4 AIR BRAKE:

Air brakes are widely used in heavy vehicle like bases and tracks which require a
heavier braking effort that can be applied by the driver's foot. Air brakes are applied by the
pressure of compassed air, instead of foot pressure, acting against flexible diaphragms in
brake chamber. The diaphragms are awaited to the wheel brakes. These diaphragms are
controlled through a hand or loot operated valve. The brake valve controls brake operation by
directing the flow of air from a reservoir against diaphragms in the brake chamber when the
10
brakes are applied and from brake chambers to tube atmosphere when the brakes tire
released. The air compressor, driven by the engine furnishes compressed air to the reservoir
fall below a set valve.

Figure:-2.4.4 Air Brake

2.4.5 ELECTRIC BRAKE:

Electric Brakes are also used in some motor vehicles, although these are not very
popular. Warner electric brake is one of tie examples of such brakes. An electric brake
essentially consists of an electromagnet within the brake dram. The current from the battery is
utilized to energize the electromagnet, which actuates the mechanism to expand the brake
shoe against the brake drum, thus applying the brakes. The severity of braking is controlled
by means of a rheostat, which is operated by the driver through the foot pedal.
Electric brakes are simpler. These brakes do not require complicated operating linkage.
Only cable is required to take entreat from the battery to the electromagnet. Also, these are
very quick in action as compared to otter types of brakes.

11
 Figure: -2. .4 .5 Electric Drum Brake

2.4.6 VACCUME BRAKES / SERVO BRAKES:

A serve mechanism fitted to the braking system reduce the physical effort the driver has
to use on the brake pedal most servo mechanisms are of the vacuum assistance type. A pressure
differential can be established by subjecting one side of the piston to atmospheric pressure and
the other side to a pressure below atmospheric pressure by exhausting air from the
corresponding end of the servo cylinder.

2.4.7 REGENERATIVE BRAKING:

Electricity powered vehicles me regenerative braking for stopping the vehicle. With
regenerative braking pressing the brake pedal does not necessarily activate a conventional
friction brake, "The motor controller controlling the vehicle is treated as a generator which
shows the vehicle and simultaneously provides an output for charging the battery. The
effectiveness of regenerative braking tails of with vehicle speed. Electric vehicles will have to
be fitted with conventional hydraulic friction brakes as well as with regenerative systems.

2.5 COMPRESSED AIR

2.5.1 How Can Air Generate Power?

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 When air is compressed, it is under pressure greater than that of the normal
atmospheric pressure and it characteristically attempts to return to its normal state. Since
energy is required to compress the air, energy is released as the air expands and returns to
atmospheric pressure.

Air compressors were designed to compress air to higher pressures and harness this
potential energy source. Unlike other sources of power, no conversion from another form of
energy such as heat is involved at the point of application. Compressed air or pneumatic
devices are therefore characterized by a high power-to-weight or power-to-volume ratio.

Not as fast as electricity or as slow as hydraulics, compressed air finds a broad field of
applications for which its response and speed make it ideally suited. Where there is an
overlap, the choice often depends on cost and efficiency and air is likely to hold the
advantage.

It is a utility that is generated in-house, so owners have more control over it than any other
utility. In addition, air does not possess the potential shock hazard of electricity or the
potential fire hazard of oils. However, compressed air is under pressure and can cause harm
and bodily damage if not respected. Safety codes and regulations should be followed when
working with compressed air. The advantages of air power will be discussed further in the
proceeding pages.

2.5.2 Where is Compressed Air Used?

Compressed air powers many different kinds of devices. It can be used to push a piston, as in
a jackhammer; it can go through a small air turbine to turn a shaft, as in a dental drill; or it
can be expanded through a nozzle to produce a high-speed jet, as in a paint sprayer.

Compressed air provides torque and rotation power for pneumatic tools such as drills
brushes nut runners, riveting guns and screwdrivers. Such tools are generally powered by
some form of rotary air motor such as the vane or lobe type or by an air turbine.
Equally common are devices producing lateral motion and direct force, either steady or
intermittent. Common examples are clamps, presses and automatic feeds. Air pressure can
also be used to accelerate a mass, which then exerts an impact upon an anvil, as in paving
breakers and pile drivers.

13
Common applications in industrial plants and on construction sites are air-powered nail guns,
staplers, torque wrenches, screwdrivers, paint spraying and conveying of material. In paint
spraying and in air conveying, the dynamic pressure of the air imparts motion.
2.5.3 Advantages of Air Power
When there are a dozen or more forms of energy to choose from, what advantages does air
power offer? Here, compressed air stacks up against two of its competitors electricity and
hydraulics.

2.6 COMPRESSORS
A machine for reducing the volume of something (as air) by pressure.

2.6.1 Types of Compressors

Air compressors in sizes 30 horsepower and below include both reciprocating and rotary
compressors, which compress air in different ways. Major types of reciprocating
compressors include reciprocating single acting, reciprocating diaphragm and reciprocating
rocking piston type. Major types of rotary air compressors include rotary sliding vane, rotary
helical screw and rotary scroll air compressors.

Reciprocating Single Acting Compressors

Reciprocating single acting compressors are generally of one-stage or two-stage
design. Compressors can be of a lubricated, non-lubricated or oil-less design
In the single-stage compressor, air is drawn in from the atmosphere and compressed to final
pressure in a single stroke. The single-stage reciprocating compressor is illustrated in
(Figure 1). Single-stage compressors are generally used for pressures of 70 psi (pounds per
square inch) to 135 psi. Reciprocating Single Stage.

14
 Air Intake Filter

Head

Piston
Valve Plate

Fly Wheel

Connecting Rod

Crankcase

Fig.2.6.1 Reciprocating Single Stage.

Rocking Piston Type

Rocking piston compressors are variations of reciprocating piston type compressors

(Figure 4). This type of compressor develops pressure through a reciprocating action of a
one-piece connecting rod and piston. The piston head rocks as it reciprocates. These
compressors utilize non-metallic, low friction rings and do not require lubrication. The
rocking piston type compressors are generally of a smaller size and lower pressure
capability.

Diaphragm Type

Diaphragm compressors (Figure 5) are a variation of reciprocating compressors. The

diaphragm compressor develops pressure through a reciprocating or oscillating action of a
flexible disc actuated by an eccentric. Since a sliding seal is not required between moving
parts, this design is not lubricated. Diaphragm compressors are often selected when no
contamination is allowed in the output air or atmosphere, such as hospital and laboratory
applications. Diaphragm compressors are limited in output and pressure and they are used
most often for light-duty applications.

15
Rotary Sliding Vane Type
The rotary vane compressor consists of a rotor mounted eccentrically in a housing
(Figure 6). As the rotor turns, the vanes slide out by centrifugal force until they seal against a
thin film of lubricant coating the stator wall. There is no metal-to-metal contact as the blade
tip glides on the surface of the lubricant. Air compression occurs when the volume of the
spaces between the sliding vanes is reduced as the rotor turns in the eccentric cylinder.
Single-stage rotary vanes are oil injected and are most common in industrial applications
ranging in pressure from 60 psi to 200 psi. Multi-stage versions range in pressure from 60
psi to 150 psi, use flow-through lubrication that consumes lubricant and are most typically
used in moving bulk material
i.e., concrete. While there are oil-free rotary vane blowers and vacuum pumps, rotary vane
compressors are not oil free.
Some of the advantages of rotary vane compressors are smooth and pulse-free air output,
low noise, high output volume, low vibrations, prolonged service intervals and long life.

Rotary Helical Screw Type

Rotary helical screw compressors (Figure 7) utilize two intermeshing helical rotors in
a twin-bore case. In a single-stage design, the air inlet is usually located at the top of the
cylinder near the drive shaft end. The discharge port is located at the opposite end of the
cylinder. As the rotors unmesh at the air inlet end of the cylinder, air is drawn into the cavity
between the main rotor lobes and the secondary rotor grooves. As rotation continues, the
rotor tips pass the edges of the inlet ports, trapping air in a cell formed by the rotor cavities
and the cylinder wall. Compression begins as further rotation causes the main rotor lobes to
roll into the secondary rotor grooves, reducing the volume and raising cell pressure.

Rotary Scroll Type

Air compression within a scroll is accomplished by the interaction of a fixed and an
orbiting helical element that progressively compresses inlet air (Figure 8). This process is
continuously repeated, resulting in the delivery of pulsation-free compressed air. With fewer
moving parts, reduced maintenance becomes an operating advantage. Scroll compressors can
be of lubricated or oil-free design.

16
Types of Controls

Controls are required for all compressors in order to regulate their operation in
accordance with compressed air demand. Different controls should be chosen for different
types of compressor applications and requirements.
For continuous operation, when all or most of the air requirements are of a steady nature,
constant speed controls are required. Use constant speed controls whenever the air
requirement is 75 percent or more of the free air delivery of the air compressor or when
motor starts per hour exceed motor manufacturer recommendations. Constant speed controls
include load/unload control for all types of compressors and inlet valve modulation for
rotary compressors.
Start-stop controls are recommended for a compressor when adequate air storage is
provided and air requirement is less than 75 percent of the compressor free air delivery.
Variable speed controls are utilized when energy efficiency is an important criteria in
selecting an air compressor. This type of control is most commonly found in rotary screw
and rotary vane compressor packages. A variable speed drive will control the speed of the
motor and dynamically adjust the speed (increase or decrease) in order to meet the air
demand required by the application.
Dual controls allow for switching between constant speed and start-stop operation by setting
a switch. With dual controls, the operator can select a different type of control to suit his or
her specific air requirements each time the compressor is used. Dual controls are helpful
when a compressor is used for a variety of applications that vary between intermittent and
continuous-duty.
Sequencing controls provide alternate operation of each compressor at each operating cycle
and dual operation during peak demands. Sequencing controls are ideal for operating duplex
air compressors or a group of compressors at peak efficiency levels or when 100 percent
back-up air might be required for critical applications.

Types of Drives
Most compressors are driven by electric motors, internal combustion engines or engine
power takeoffs. Typically, power is transmitted by one of these sources with V-Belt, gear or
direct drive configurations. Alternatively, a compressor can have an engine drive. However,

17
an engine drive must use one of the traditional drive types to transmit power. Three common
types of drives are used with these power sources.
V-Belt Drives are most commonly used with electric motors and internal combustion
engines. V-Belt drives provide great flexibility in matching compressor load to power source
load and speed at minimum cost. Belts must be properly shielded for safety.
Gear Drives are commonly used with electric motors and provide a reduction of the axial
load on the compressed air producing element, extending the operational lifetime. More
working points in the optimal working range provide a reduction in shear force.
Direct Drives provide compactness and minimum drive maintenance. Compressors can be
flange-mounted or direct-coupled to the power source. Couplings must be properly shielded
for safety. Lower horsepower compressors also are built as integral assemblies with electric
motors.
Engine Drives gasoline or diesel engine or power takeoff drives are used primarily for
portability reasons. A gearbox, V-Belt or direct drive is used to transmit power from the
source to the compressor.

2.7 Air Compressor Packaged Units

Air compressor packaged units are fully assembled air compressor systems, complete with
air compressor, electric motor, belt, direct or gear drive and automatic controls. Optional
equipment includes air receiver, dryer, after coolers, automatic moisture drain, low oil safety
control, magnetic starter, water separator and particulate filters and pressure reducing valve.
Air compressor units also come with a variety of configurations:
gasoline or diesel engines, optional direct drive, optional separate mounted air receivers and
more.
Common types of packaged unit compressors include base mount, tank mount, tank mount
duplex and tank mount with integrated or mounted dryer. Electric motors or gas engines
drive the compressors. Typical examples of the packages are shown Most compressors
available in this horsepower range are air cooled. Installation is convenient because the unit
requires only a connection to electrical power and a connection to the Most compressors
available in this horsepower range are air cooled. Installation is convenient because the unit

18
requires only a connection to electrical power and a connection to the compressed air
system.
Base Mounted Packages

Reciprocating Base Rotary Screw Base

Mount Package Mount Package

Rotary Vane Base

Mount Package

Base Mounted/Tank Mounted Package

Units
Base Mounted Tank Mounted
Package Units Package Units

Figure:2.7 (a) Base mounted packages

19
Air Compressor Performance

Delivery (ACFM/SCFM)
The volume of compressed air delivered by an air compressor at its discharge pressure
normally is stated in terms of prevailing atmospheric inlet conditions (acfm). The
corresponding flow rate in Standard cubic feet per minute (scfm) is measured at 14.5 psi (1
bar,) 68F (20C) and 0% relative humidity.
Varying flow rates for more than one discharge pressure simply reflect the reduction in
compressor volumetric efficiency that occurs with increased system pressure (psig). For this
reason, the maximum operating pressure of a compressor should be chosen carefully.
Displacement (CFM)
For a reciprocating (piston) compressor displacement (cfm) is defined as the volume of the
first stage cylinder(s) of a compressor multiplied by the revolutions of the compressor in one
minute. For a rotary screw compressor, displacement (cfm) is the volume at suction per
thread times the number of lobes on the driving rotor.
Accessories
Standard accessories are available to help ensure reliable and trouble-free compressor
operation. Some special purpose devices also are available to meet unusual requirements.
Below is a list of commonly used accessories.
Air Receiver
A receiver tank is used as a storage reservoir for compressed air. The receiver prevents the
compressor from operating in a continuous run cycle. The receiver allows the compressed
air an opportunity to cool. The receiver can be a separate item or can be integrated as part of
the compressor package.

Air Treatment Products

Compressed air treatment products are designed to remove oil and water in a liquid or
gaseous state from the compressed air stream. These products include, but are not limited to,
moisture separators, air dryers, air filters and oil/water separators. The use and
implementation of these products are highly dependent on the specific process and

20
application. Further details can be found in the Air Compressor System section of this
document. A compressed air expert should be contacted or consulted when working through
any compressed air system requirements.
Belt Guard
A belt guards primary function is safety and it is only utilized on belt drive machines. The
belt guard prevents access to fast moving and potentially dangerous components on the
compressor from both sides of the drive. The belt guard is a mandatory feature for all V-belt
driven compressor units where flywheel, motor pulley and belts are used. Compressors 30
horsepower and below are available as direct or gear drive and do not require belts or belt
guards.
Diagnostic Controls

Protective devices are designed to shut down a compressor in the event of malfunction.
Devices may include high air temperature shut down, low oil level shut down and low oil
pressure shut down, preventive maintenance shut down, etc. These protective devices may be
individual sensors or may be monitored by a compressor controller depending on make and
model of compressor
Intake Filter
The intake filter eliminates foreign particulate matter from the ambient air at the intake
suction of the air compressor system.
Magnetic Motor Starters
Magnetic starters provide thermal over-load protection for motors and are recommended for
integral horsepower and all three-phase motors. Many compressors come standard with
starters, however, when a starter is purchased separately from the compressor, local electrical
codes should be checked prior to purchasing and installation.

21
 Figure:2.7 (a) Duplex Tank Mounted Compressor with Alternator
Panel

Starters can be configured as full-voltage or reduced voltage. A common type of reduced

voltage starter is a wye-delta. A wye-delta starter will reduce the amount of in-rush current
to the motor upon initial turn on as compared to a full-voltage starter. A wye-delta starter is
also commonly referred to a star-delta configuration. As a note, the motor must be wired to
support a wye-delta starter; not all motors support this type of starter configuration.
Variable Speed Drives
This type of drive is most commonly found in rotary screw and rotary vane compressor
packages. A variable speed drive will control the speed of the motor and dynamically adjust
the speed (increase or decrease) in order to meet the air demand required by the application.
In addition, this type of drive reduces in-rush currents upon initial start-up below that of full-
voltage or wye-delta starters.
How to Select an Air Compressor
You will need to determine what is most important to you when selecting the appropriate
technology. As we discovered earlier there are many options to what kind of air compressor
you can select. The Compressed Air & Gas Institute members can provide direction after a
review of the job site compressed air applications, conditions and duty cycles. It is always

22
best to consult with a compressed air expert. This is a brief overview of the benefits of each
kind of compressor.
Piston or Reciprocating compressors can, in many cases, provide an economical
compressed air solution. Designs can range from inexpensive consumer duty models to more
rugged industrial products. They are ideally suited for intermittent duty cycles and are simple
in design. Piston air compressors are available as oil-free and oil-lubricated.
Rotary screw compressors provide many application benefits and can operate at 100
perecent duty cycle. Rotary screw compressors are available with lower sound levels, and
can offer higher efficiency for an array of demand profiles. Additionally, rotary screw
systems can deliver various levels of ISO-rated compressed air quality. They are available in
oil cooled and oil-free technologies. Oil-free rotary screw compressors can also offer a
higher quality of ISO-rated compressed air quality that may be required in some critical
applications.
Rotary sliding vane compressors provide 100 percent duty cycle and are low sound level
due to slow rpm and optional enclosures. Rotary vanes have long design life, do not require
bearings, can operate in dirty environments due to forgiving tolerances in their design and
operate up to 200 psi. As lubricated compressors, rotary vanes require downstream filtration
to meet various oil-free air quality standards in some critical applications.
Diaphragm compressors are a variant of a reciprocating compressor. The compression of
gas occurs by means of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element. Diaphragm
compressors are well suited for pumping toxic and explosive type gases and can be limited
in output flow and pressure.
Rotary scroll compressors are oil-less compressors that are available up to 10 horsepower
in a single pump configuration. Multiple pumps can be multiplexed to provide higher
horsepower operation up to 50 HP and can be used in a wide variety of industrial, medical
and laboratory applications.
2.8 Definition
Absolute Pressure Total pressure measured from zero. Gauge pressure plus atmospheric
pressure. For example, at sea level, the gauge pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) plus
14.7 gives the absolute pressure in pounds per square inch (psi).
Absorption The chemical process by which a hygroscopic desiccant, having a high
affinity with water, melts and becomes a liquid by absorbing the condensed moisture.

23
Actual Capacity Quantity of air or gas actually compressed and delivered to the discharge
system at rated speed and under rated conditions. It is usually expressed in cubic feet per
minute (acfm) at compressor inlet conditions. Also called Free Air Delivered (FAD).
Adsorption The process by which a desiccant with a highly porous surface attracts and
removes the moisture from compressed air. The desiccant is capable of being regenerated.
Aftercooler A heat exchanger used for cooling air discharged from a compressor.
Resulting condensate may be removed by a moisture separator following the aftercooler.
ASME National Board (U Type) An air tank made, tested by a third party, inspected and
registered to meet ASME standards. A certificate is supplied with each tank to indicate
compliance and show register number. The ASME certificate is required by law in many
cities and states to pass safety codes. It assures that (1) code-approved materials are used, (2)
the steel plate is without defects and is of specified thickness, (3) proper welding techniques
are employed by experienced operators, (4) openings and support are the correct size and (5)
the tank has passed rigid tests. ASME tanks must be used where OSHA compliance is
required.
ASME Standard (UM Type) an air tank made and tested by the manufacturer in
accordance with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers standards. ASME certificate
of compliance is furnished with each tank.
Atmospheric Pressure The measured ambient pressure for a specific location and altitude.
Automatic Sequencer A device that operates compressors in sequence according to a
programmed schedule.
Booster Compressor Machine for compressing air or gas from an initial pressure that is
above atmospheric pressure to an even higher pressure.
Capacity The amount of air flow delivered under specific conditions, usually expressed in
cubic feet per minute (cfm).
Capacity, Actual Quantity of air or gas actually compressed and delivered to the discharge
system at rated speed and under rated conditions. It is usually expressed in cubic feet per
minute (acfm) at compressor inlet conditions. Also called Free Air Delivered (FAD).
Capacity Gauge A gauge that measures air flow as a percentage of capacity, used in rotary
screw compressors.
CFM, Free Air Cubic feet per minute of air delivered to a certain point at a certain
condition, converted back to ambient conditions.
CFM, Standard Flow of free air measured and converted to a standard set of conditions of
pressure, temperature and relative humidity.
24
Check Valve A valve which permits flow in only one direction.
Clearance The maximum cylinder volume on the working side of the piston minus the
displacement volume per stroke. Normally it is expressed as a percentage of the
displacement volume.
Clearance Pocket An auxiliary volume that may be opened to the clearance space, to
increase the clearance, usually temporarily, to reduce the volumetric efficiency of a
reciprocating compressor.
Compressed Air Air from atmosphere which has been reduced in volume, raising its
pressure. It then is capable of performing work when it is released and allowed to expand to
its normal free state as it passes through a pneumatic tool or other device.
Compression, Adiabatic Compression in which no heat is transferred to or from the gas
during the compression process.

Compression, Isothermal Compression in which the temperature of the gas remains

constant.
Compression, Polytropic Compression in which the relationship between the pressure
and the volume is expressed by the equation PVn is a constant.
Compression Ratio The ratio of the absolute discharge pressure to the absolute inlet
pressure.
Constant Speed Control A system in which the compressor is run continuously and
matches air supply to air demand by varying compressor load.
Cut-In/Cut-Out Pressure Respectively, the minimum and maximum discharge pressures
at which the compressor will switch from unload to load operation (cut-in) or from load to
unload (cut-out).
Cycle The series of steps that a compressor with unloading performs : 1) fully loaded, 2)
modulating (for compressors with modulating control), 3) unloaded, 4) idle.
Discharge Pressure Air pressure produced at a particular point in the system under
specific conditions.
Discharge Temperature The temperature at the discharge flange of the compressor.
Displacement The volume swept out by the piston or rotor(s) per unit of time, normally
expressed in cubic feet per minute.
Efficiency Any reference to efficiency must be accompanied by a qualifying statement
which identifies the efficiency under consideration, as in the following definitions of
efficiency:
25
Efficiency, Mechanical Ratio of power imparted to the air or gas to brake horsepower
(bhp).
Efficiency, Volumetric Ratio of actual capacity to piston displacement.
Filters Devices for separating and removing particulate matter, moisture or entrained
lubricant from air.
Free Air Air at atmospheric conditions at any specified location, unaffected by the
compressor.
Full-Load Air compressor operation at full speed with a fully open inlet and discharge
delivering maximum air flow.
Gas One of the three basic phases of matter. While air is a gas, in pneumatics the term gas
normally is applied to gases other than air.
Gauge Pressure The pressure determined by most instruments and gauges, usually
expressed in psig. Barometric pressure must be considered to obtain true or absolute
pressure.
Horsepower, Brake Horsepower delivered to the output shaft of a motor or engine, or the
horsepower required at the compressor shaft to perform work.
Horsepower, Indicated The horsepower calculated from compressor indicator diagrams.
The term applies only to displacement type compressors.
Horsepower, Theoretical or Ideal The horsepower required to isothermally compress the
air or gas delivered by the compressor at specified conditions.
Humidity, Relative The relative humidity of a gas (or air) vapor mixture is the ratio of the
partial pressure of the vapor to the vapor saturation pressure at the dry bulb temperature of
the mixture.
Humidity, Specific The weight of water vapor in an air vapor mixture per pound of dry
air.
Indicated Power Power as calculated from compressor indicator diagrams.
Isentropic Compression If a compression or expansion of a gas takes place with no flow
of heat energy either into or out of the gas the process is said to be isentropic or adiabatic.
The isentropic (adiabatic) process can be expressed with the Ideal Gas Law.
Isentropic Efficiency Isentropic efficiency is sometimes called adiabatic efficiency. It is
the ratio of the minimum isentopic work to the actual work. Compressors are steady-flow
devices which operate under adiabatic conditions, and the ideal process for these devices is
the isentropic process. Under the ideal conditions, no heat is transferred during the

26
compression process. Isentropic efficiency is the parameter that describes how efficiently a
device approximates a corresponding isentropic device.
Leak An unintended loss of compressed air to ambient conditions.
Load Factor Ratio of average compressor load to the maximum rated compressor load
over a given period of time.
Load Time Time period from when a compressor loads until it unloads.
Load/Unload Control Control method that allows the compressor to run at full load or at
no load while the driver remains at a constant speed.
Multi-stage Compressors Compressors having two or more stages operating in a series.
Piston Displacement The volume swept by the piston; for multistage compressors, the
piston displacement of the first stage is the overall piston displacement of the entire unit.
Pneumatic Tools Tools that operate by air pressure.
Polytropic Compression See Compression, Polytropic.
Positive Displacement Compressors Compressors in which successive volumes of air or
gas are confined within a closed space and the space mechanically reduced, resulting in
compression. These may be reciprocating or rotating.
Receiver A vessel or tank used for storage of gas under pressure. In a large compressed air
system there may be primary and secondary receivers.
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor in which the compressing element is a piston
having a reciprocating motion in a cylinder.

2.9 IR SENSOR

A sensor is a transducer used to mate a measurement of a physical variable. Any sensor

requires calibration to be useful as a measuring device. Calibration is the procedure by which
the relationship between the measured variable and the converted output signal is established
Care should be taken in the choice of sensory devices for particular tasks. The operating
characteristics of each device should be closely matched to the task for which it is being
utilized. Different sensors can be used in different ways to sense same conditions and the
same sensors can be used in different ways to sense different conditions,

27
2.9.1 TYPES OF SENSOR:

Passive sensors detect the reflected or emitted electro- magnetic radiation tarn natural
sources, while active sensors detect reflected responses from objects which are
irradiated from artificially generated energy sources, such as radar. Each is divided further in
to non-scanning and scanning systems.
A sensor classified as a combination of passive, non-scanning and mat-imaging
method is a type of profile recorder; tot example a microwave radiometer. A sensor classified
as passim non-scanning and imaging method, is a camera, such as an aerial survey camera or
a space camera, for example on board the Russian COSMOS satellite.
Sensors classified as a combination of passive, scanning and imaging are classified
farther into image plane scanning sensors, such as TV cameras and solid state scanners, and
object: plane scanning sensors, such as multi-spectral scanners (optical-mechanical scanner) and
scanning microwave radiometers.
The most popular sensors used in remote sensing ate the causes, sold state scanner,
such as the CCD (charge coupled device) images, the multi-spectral scanner and in the future the
passive synthetic aperture radar.
Laser sensors have recently begun to be used more frequently for monitoring air pollution by
laser spectrometers and for management of distance by laser altimeters.

IR TRANSMITTER:

The IR transmitting circuit is used in many projects. Tie IR transmitter sends 40 kHz is
frequency (can be adjusted) carrier under 555 timer control IR earners at around 40 kHz
carrier frequencies are widely used in TV remote controlling and ICs for receiving these
signals are quite easily available,

IR RECEIVER:

The transmitted signal reflected by the obstacle and the IR receiver circuit receives the
signal and giving control signal to the control unit The control unit activate the pneumatic
breaking system, so that break was applied.

28
 CHAPTERS 3

METHODOGY

3.1 OBJECTIVE

3.1.1 Air Power versus Electric Power

Cost: Air tools have fewer moving parts and are simpler in design, providing lower cost
maintenance and operation than electric tools.

Flexibility: Air tools can be operated in areas where other power sources are unavailable,
since engine-driven portable compressors are their source of air power. Electric power
requires a stationary source.

Safety: Air-powered equipment eliminates the dangers of electric shock and fire hazard. Air
tools also run cooler than electric tools and have the advantage of not being damaged from
overload or stalling.

Weight: Air tools are lighter in weight than electric tools, allowing for a higher rate of
production per man-hour with less worker fatigue.

3.1.2 Air Power versus Hydraulic Power

Cost: An air system has fewer parts than a hydraulic system, lowering service and
maintenance costs. Also, the use of a single compressed air supply permits operation of
many separate systems at once. Hydraulic systems require more complex and costly
controls.

Flexibility: Compressed air systems offer simpler installation than hydraulics, particularly
where tools are frequently interchanged. Compressed air systems also offer better
adaptability for automation and flexibility for changing or expanding operations.

29
 .

Maintenance: Air systems have less downtime than hydraulic systems because they have
less complex controls. Less preventive maintenance is required with air, whereas hydraulic
fluids must be monitored and replaced periodically.

Safety: Hydraulic devices operating near open flame or high temperatures present fire
hazards, unless fire-resistant fluids are used. Leakage in hydraulic systems can result in the
presence of dangerous hydraulic fluids and even complete system shutdown. In contrast,
compressed air devices operate with lower system pressures and accidental air leaks release
no contaminants.

Weight: Lighter weight air tools contribute to a lower operating fatigue as compared to
heavier hydraulic tools.

30
 CHAPTER 4

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

4.1 SELECTION OF PNEUMATICS:

Mechanism is broadly defined as the replacement of manual effort by mechanical power.

Pneumatics is an attractive medium for low cost mechanization particularly for sequential or
repetitive operations. Many factories and plans already have a compressed air system, which is
capable of providing both the power or energy requirements and the control system (although
equally pneumatic control systems may be economic and can be advantageously applied to otter
forms of power).

He main advantages of an all-pneumatic system usually economy and simplicity, the

latter reducing maintenance to a low level. It can also have out standing advantages in arms of
safety.
4.2 PNEUMATIC COMPONENTS AND ITS DESCRIPTION:

The pneumatic bearing press consists of the following components to fulfill the
requirements of complete operation of the machine.

1. PNEUMATIC SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER

2. SOLENOID VALVE
3. FLOW CONTROL VALVE
4. IR. SENSOR UNIT
5. WHEELAND BRAKE- ARRANGEMENT
6. PU CONNECTOR, REDUCER, HOSE COLLAR
7. STAND

4.3 PNEUMATIC SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER:

Pneumatic cylinder consists of

A) PISTON B) CY UNDER

31
 The cylinder is a Single acing cylinder one, which means that the air pressure operates
forward and spring returns backward. The air from the compressor is passed through the
regulator which controls the pressure to required amount by adjusting its knob.
A pressure gauge is attached to the regulator for showing the tine pressure. Then the
compressed air is passed through the angle acting; 3/2 solenoid valve for supplying the air to
one side of the cylinder.
One hose take the output of the directional Control (Solenoid) valve and they are attached
to one end of the cylinder by means of connectors. One of the outputs from the directional control
valve is taken to the flow control valve front taken to the cylinder. The hose is attached to each
component of pneumatic system only by connectors,

4 .4 CYLINDER TECHNICAL DATA:

Piston Rod:
M.S. hard chrome plated

Seals:
Nitrile (Buna - N) Elastomer

End covers:

Cast iron graded fine grained from 25mm to 30Qmm

Piston:
-Aluminum.

Media: -
-Air.
Temperature Range:

0y-c to 85*e

Parts of Pneumatic Cylinder

Piston:

The piston is a cylindrical member of certain length which reciprocates inside the
cylinder. The diameter of the piston, is slightly less than that of like cylinder bore diameter

32
and it is fitted to the top of the piston rod, it is OK of the important part* which convert the
pressure energy into mechanical power.

The pistol is equipped with a ring suitably proportioned and it is relatively soft rather
widen is capable of providing good sealing with low friction at the operating pressure. The
purpose of piston k to provide means of conveying the pressure of air inside the cylinder to
the piston of the oil cylinder.

Generally piston is made op of

Aluminum alloy - light and medium work.

Brass or bronze at O - Heavy duty.

The piston is single acting spring resumed type, fee piston moves forward when the
high-pressure air is turned from the right side of cylinder.
The piston moms backward - when the solenoid valve is in OFF condition. Tie piston
should be as strong and rigid as possible. The efficiency and economy of me machine
primarily depends on me working of the piston, it mast operate in the cylinder with a
minimum of friction and should be able to withstand the high compressor force developed in the
cylinder and also the load during operation.

The piston should posses the following qualities.

a. The movement of the piston not creates much noise.

b. It should be frictionless.
c. It should withstand high pressure.

4.5 PISTION ROD:

The piston rod is circular in cross section. It connects piston with piston of other
cylinder. The piston rod is made of mild steel ground and polished, A high finish is essential
on the outer rod surface to minimize wear on the rod seals. 'The piston rod is connected to the
piston by mechanical fastening, the piston and the piston rod can be separated if necessary,
One end of the piston rod is connected to the bottom of tie piston. The other end of the
piston rod is connected to the other piston rod by means of coupling. The piston transmits the
working force to the oil cylinder through, the piston rod. The piston tad is designed to withstand

33
the high compressive force it should avoid bending and withstand shock loads caused by the
cutting force. The piston moves inside the rod seal fixed in the bottom, cover plate of the
cylinder. The scaling management prevent the leakage of air lira) the bottom of the cylinder
while the rod reciprocates through it.

4.6 CYLINDER COVER PLATE:

The cylinder should be enclosed to get the applied pressure front the compressor and act
on the pinion. The cylinder is thus closed by the cow plates on both the ends such that there is
no leakage of air. An inlet port is provided on the top cow plate and an outlet ports on the
bottom cover plate. There is also a hole drilled for the movement of the piston.
The cylinder cover plate protects: the cylinder from dust and other particle and maintains the
same pressure that is taken from the compressor. The flange has to hold the piston in both of
its extreme potions. The piston hits the top plat during the return stroke and hits the bottom
plate daring end of forward stroke. So the cover plates must lie strong enough to withstand
the bad.

4.7 CYLINDER MOUNTING PLATES:

It is attached to the cylinder ewer plates and also to the carriage with the help of 'L'
beads and holts.

4.8 SOLENOID VALUE WITH CONTROL UNIT:

The directional valve is one of the important parts of a pneumatic system. Commonly
known as DCV, this valve is used to control the direction of air flow in the pneumatic system. in
"the directional valve does this by changing the position of its internal movable parts.
This valve was selected for speedy operation and to seduce the manual effort and also for the
modification of the machine into automatic machine by means of using a solenoid valve. A
solenoid is an electrical device that converts- electrical energy into
straight line motion and force. These are also used 10 operate a mechanical operation which
in turn operates the valve mechanism. Solenoids may be posh type or pull type. The push
type solenoid is one in which the plunger is pushed when the solenoid is energized

34
electrically. The putt type solenoid is one is which the planter is pulled when the solenoid is
energized.

The name of fee pars of the solenoid should tie teamed so that they can be recognized when
called upon to make repairs, to do service work or to install them.

Figure:-4.8 Solenoid Valve

4.9 PARTS OF A SOLENOID VALVE:

1. Call

The solenoid coil is made of copper wire. The layers of wire arc separated by insulting layer.
The entire solenoid coil is covered with an varnish that is not affected by solvents, moisture,
cutting oil or often fluids. Coils are rated in various voltages such as 115 volts AC, 230 volts
AC, 460 volts AC, 575 volts AC, 6 Volts DC, 12 volts DC, 24 Volts DC, 11S Volts DC 230
Volts DC. They are designed for such frequencies as 50 Hz to 60 Hz.

35
2. Frame

The solenoid frame serves several purposes. Since >l is made of laminated sheets, it is
magnetized when the current passes through the coil. The magnetized coil attracts,
the metal plunger to move. The frame has provisions for attach die mounting. They are
usually bolted or welded to the frame. The frame has provisions for receivers, the plunger.
The wear strips are mounted to die solenoid frame, and are made of materials such as meal or
impregnated.

3. Solenoid Plunger

The Solenoid plunger is the mover mechanism of the solenoid. The plunger is made of
steel laminations which ace riveted together under high pressure, so that there will be no
movement of the lamination with respect to one another. At the top of the plunger a pin hole is
placed for making a connection to some device. The solenoid n plunger is moved by a
magnetic force in one direction and is usually returned by spring action. Solenoid operated
valves are usually provided with cover over either the solenoid or the entire valve. This protects
the solenoid from dirt and other foreign matter, and protects the actuator. In many applications
it is necessary to use explosion proof solenoids.

4.10 WORKING OF 3/2 SINGLE ACTING SOLENOID (OR) CUT OFF

VALVE:

The control valve is used to control the flow direction is called cut off valve or
solenoid valve, This solenoid cut off valve is controlled by the emergency push button.
The 3/2 Single acting solenoid valve is having one inlet port, one outlet port and one exhaust
port. The solenoid valve consists of electromagnetic coil, steam and spring. The air enters to
the pneumatic single acting solenoid valve when the push button is in ON position.

36
 Figure:- 4.10 Cut Off Valve

1. TECHNICAL DATA:

Size : 1/4"
Pressure : 0 to 7kg / cm2
Media : Air
Type : 3/2
Applied Voltage : 230v AC
Frequency : 50 Hz

37
2. FLOW CONTROL VALVE:
2.1 Technical Data:

Size : 1/4"
Pressure : 0 to 10 kg / eai2
Media : Air

Purpose :
This valve is used to speed up she piston movement and also it acts as an one - way
restriction valve which means that the air can pass through only one way and it can't return
back. By using this valve the time consumption is reduced because of the faster movement of
the piston.

3. IR SENSOR UNIT:

The IR transmitter and IR receiver circuit is used to sense the obstacle. It is fixed to
the back side of the frames stand with a suitable arrangement. The pneumatic cylinder is
controlled by the flow control valve, single acting solenoid valve and control union

4. AT NORMAL CONDITIONS:

The IR trains mi tsar sense is transmitting the infrared rays with the help of 555 IC timer
circuit These infrared rays are received by the IR receiver sensor. The Transistor Tl, T2 and T3
are fixed as am amplifier section. At normal condition Transistor T5 h OFF condition. At that
time relay is OFF, so that the vehicle running continuously.

5. AT OBSTACLE CONDITION:

At Obstacle conditions the IR transmitter and IR receiver, the resistance across the
Transmitter and receiver is high due to the non-conductivity of the IR waves. So the output of
transistor T% goes from OFF condition to ON sage. In that time the relay is ON position. In that
time, the solenoid valve is on sit that the % chide stops.

38
6. WHEEL AND BRAKING ARRANGEMENT:

The simple wheel and braking arrangement k fixed to the frame stand Near the brake
drum, the pneumatic cylinder piston is fixed.

7. PUCONNECTORS, REDUCER AND HOSE COLLAR:

In our pneumatic system Acre are t types of connectors used; one is the hose
connector and the otter is the reducer. Hose connectors normally comprise an adapter
(connector) hose nipple and cap nut. These types of connectors are made up of brass or
Aluminum or hardened steel. Reducers are used to provide inter connection between two pipes or
hoses of different sizes. They may he fitted straight, tee, "V" or other configurations. These
reducers are made op of gunmetal or other materials like hardened steel etc.

8. STAND:

This is a supporting frame and made up of mild steel.

9. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTER:

It is found to drive the roller shaft which fixed on the end of the frame structure, the
free cad of the shaft in Ac motor a large pulley is found around which the belt runs, The other
specification about the motor is discussed ra design pure of die machine.

10. SINGLE PHASE THEORY:

Because it has but a single alternating current source, a single-phase motor can only
produce an alteration field: one that pulls first to one direction, then to the opposite its the
polarity of the field switches. A squirrel-cage rotor placed in this field would merely twitch,
since there would be no moment upon it. If pushed in one direction, however, it would spin
The major distinction between the different types of single-phase AC motors is how
they go about starting the rotor in a particular direction such that the alternating Held will

39
produce rotary motion in the desired direction. This is usually done by some device that
introduces a phase shifted magnetic filed on one side of the rotor.
The figure the performance curves of the four major types of stride-phase AC motors.
They are described below.

11. SINGLE- PHASE THEORY:

Fig:-4.10.11 single phase

12. SPLIT-PHASE MOTORS:

The split phase motor achieves its Marring capability by having two separate windings
wound in the stator. "The two windings arc separated from each other. One winding is used
only for starting and it is wound with a smaller wire mm having higher electrical resistance than
the main windings. From the rotor's point of view, this time delay counted with the physical

40
location of the starting winding produces a field that appears to rotate flit- apparent mutton
causes the motor to start.
A centrifugal switch is used to disconnect the starting winding when the motor readies
approximately 75% of rated speed, Tie motor then continues to am on tie basis of normal
motor principles.

13. PERMANENT SPLIT CAPACITOR MOTOR:

Fig:- 4.10.13 Capacitor-start motor

41
14. CAPACITOR-START MOTORS:

Capacitor start motors form the largest single grouping of general purpose single
phase motors. These motors are available in a range of sizes from fractional though 3 HP.

The wincing and centrifugal switch arrangement is very similar to feat used in a split
phase motor. The main difference being that the staring winding does not have to have high
resistance. In the case of a capacitor start motor, a specialized capacitor is utilized in a series
with the starring winding.

The addition of this capacitor produces a slight time delay between the magnetization
of starting poles and the running poles. Thus the appearance of a rotating field exists. When the
meter approaches running speed, the starting switch opens and the motor continues to run in the
normal induction motor mode.
This moderately priced motor produces relatively high starting torque, 225 to 100% of
full toad torque. The capacitor start motor is ideally stated to hard to start loads such as
conveyors, air compression and refrigeration compressors. Due to general overall desirable
characteristics, it also is used for many applications where high starting torque may not be
required.
The capacitor start motor can usually be re, o gazed by the bulbous protrusion on the
frame where the starting capacitor is located.

15. PERMANENT SPLIT CAPACITOR MOTORS:

The capacitor of this motor is left in series with the starting winding during normal
operation. The starting torque is quite low, roughly 40% of full-load, so low-inertia loads
such as fine and blowers make common applications.

42
 Fig:-4.10.15 Split Capacitor Motor

CHAPTER-5
WORKING OPERATION

The important components our project me,

IR transmitter
IR receiver
Control. Unit with Power supply
Solenoid Valve
Row control valve
Air Tank (compressor)

43
Figure:-5 (a) Pneumatic bumper at obstacle condition.

44
 Figure:- 5 (b) Pneumatic bumper at Normal condition

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The compressed air from the compressor at the pressure of 5 to 7bar is passed through
a pipe connected to the Solenoid valve with one input. The Solenoid Valve is actuated with
Control Timing Unit. The Solenoid valve has two outputs and one input. The air entering
into the input goes out through the two outputs when the timing control unit is actuated. Due
to the high air pressure at the bottom of the piston, the air pressure below the piston is more

45
than the pressure above the piston. So these moves the piston rod upwards which move up
the effort are, which is pivoted by control unit. This force acting is passed on to punch/rivet
which also moves downwards. The IR TRANSMITTER circuit is to transmit the Infra-Red
rays. If any obstacle is there in a path, the Infra-Red rays reflected. This reflected Infra-Red
rays are received by the receiver circuit is called IR RECEIVER. The IR receiver circuit
receives the reflected IR rays and giving the control signal to the control circuit. The control
circuit is used to activate the solenoid valve. The operating principle of solenoid valve is
already explained in the above chapter. If the solenoid valve is activated, the compressed air
passes to the Single Acting Pneumatic Cylinder. The compressed air activates the pneumatic
cylinder and moves the piston rod.

5.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

46
47
 Figure:-5.1 Block Diagram

5.2 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER:

Figure:- 5.2 Pneumatic Cylinder

5.3 HOSE COLLAR (MATERIAL BRASS):

48
 Figure:-5.3 Hose Collar (material brass)
5.4 REDUCER (MATERIAL BRASS):

49
 Figure:-5.4 Reducer (material brass)

If the Solenoid valve is activated, the compressed air -passes the Single Acting
Pneumatic Cylinder. The compressed air activate the pneumatic cylinder and moves the
piston rod.

If the piston moves forward, tied the breaking arrangement activated. The breaking
arrangement is used to break right wheel gradually or suddenly due to the piston movement The
breaking speed is varied by adjusting the valve is called "FLOW CONTROL VALVE.

In our project, we have to apply (his breaking arrangement in one wheel as a model.
The compressed air drawn from the compressor in our project. The compressor in our project.
The compressed air flow through the polyurethane tube to the flow control valve. The flow
control valve is connected to the solenoid valve as mentioned in the block diagram.

5.5 AUTOMATIC PNEUMATIC BUMPER:

50
 Figure :- 5.5 Automatic Pneumatic For Two Wheeler

CHAPTER- 6
LIST OF MATERIALS

6.1 LIST OF MATERIAL USED IN FABRICATION :

S.No. Parts Qty.

1. Single Acting Pneumatic Cylinder 1

51
2 Flow control Valve 1
3 Wheel 1
4 Solenoid Valve 1
5 Compressor 1
6 sensor unit 1
7 pulley 1
8 polyethylene tube 1
9 hose collar and reducer 1
10 stand (frame) 1

52
 CHAPTER- 7

BILL OF QUANTITY

7.1 MATERIAL COST:

S.No. Parts Qty. Amount

1. single acting pneumatic cylinder 1 2000
2 Flow control valve 1 1000
3 wheel 1 1000
4 solenoid valve 1 800
5 Single phase induction motor 1 1200
6 Sensor Unit 1 1500
7 Pulkey 1 500
8 Polyethylene Tube 1 500
9 Hose Collar and Reducer 1 500
10 Stand (Frame) 1 1500

2. LABOUR COST
Labour cost obtained for following operations:

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING

COST
3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by "Manufacturing cost"

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost

Over head charge = 20% of the manufacturing cost

TOTAL COST

Total Cost = Material Cost +Labour Cost + Overhead Charges

53
 6000 +3000 +1500
total cost for this project. = 10500/-

CHAPTER-8

APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES

APPLICATIONS

For automobile application

This system may be applicable in all types of light vehicles like cars, Rickshaws,
Tempos
This system also successfully installed in the heavy vehicles like buses, trucks,
trailers, etc.
Energy absorbing pneumatic crash cushion
Industrial application

ADVANTAGES

* Free from wear adjustment

54
 * Less power consumption
* It gives simplified very operation
* Installation is simplified very much.

DISADVANTAGES
Additional cost is required to install this arrangement in the vehicle.

CHAPTER-9

CONCLUSION

This project work has provided us excellent opportunity and experience, to use oar
limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding, planning, -purchasing,
assembling and machining while doing this project work. We feel that the project wo* is a good
solution to bridge the pies between institution and industries.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time successfully, . The
PNEUMATIC BUMPER FOR POOR WHEELER Is working with satisfactory conditions.
We are able to understand, the difficulties in maintaining the tolerances and also quality. We
have done to oar ability and skill making maximum use of available facilities.

In conclusion remarks of our project week, let us add a few more lines about our
impression project work. Thus we have developed an "-PNEUMATIC BUMPER FOR

55
FOUR. WHEELER* which helps to know how to achieve low cost automation, The
application of pneumatics produces smooth operation. BY using more techniques, they can he
modified and developed according to the applications.

REFERENCES

Journal

[1]Intelligent Mechatronic Braking System,G.V.Sairam, B. Suresh, CH. SaiHemanth, K.

Krishna sai,International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering ,

Volume 3, Issue 4, April 2015 pp.100-105

[2]Collision Control and Collision Avoidance Using Ultrasonic Sensor, Anusha c, Dr.

P. Venkataratnam,

International Journal of Current Engineering and Scientific Research (IJCESR), Volume

Issue-7, 2017 pp.218-223.

[3] Automatic Hydraulic Bumper and Speed Limiting System,Rohit P. Jain,

Dr.V.Singh,IJSRD -International Journal for Scientific Research & Development Vol. 3,

56
 Issue 06, 2017 pp.357-361.

[4]Automatic Braking With Pneumatic Bumper System,Jadhav N. D, Gulmire S.M,

Ghutukade R.S,

Gaikwad A.S, Prof.Fegade S.G,IJSART, volume-1 Issue-5, April 2017 pp.258-260.

[5] International Journal of Current Engineering and Scientific Research (IJCESR),

Issue-7, 2017 pp.218-223.

[6] "How Do Air Compressors Work?". Popular Mechanics. 2015-03-18. Retrieved 2017-01-
12.

[7] "CLASSIFICATION OF AIR COMPRESSORS". www.tpub.com. Retrieved 2017-01-12.

[8] "Air Compressor Types and Controls". Natural Resources Canada.

[9] "Compressor Selection Basics: Positive Displacement versus Dynamic Compression".

Retrieved 2017-01-12 via The 5th Utility.

1. "Types of Air Compressors". The Engineering ToolBox.

2. "Applications for Compressors". www.industry.siemens.com. Retrieved 2017-01-12.
3. "Evaluating True Horsepower and CFM Ratings of Air Compressors".
4. "Air Compressor Fittings". Compressed Air Systems. Retrieved 2017-01-12.

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