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April 2012
Online 662
John Rutter
tropopause
(mirror image
patterns around the equator as part of Hadley in southern
the tricellular model of atmospheric Ferrel Cell hemisphere)
Cell ITCZ
circulation that operates on a 5
Polar
Cell
global scale (Figure 2). This model
explains how the huge amount of
0
incoming solar radiation (known as North Pole 60N 30N Equator Latitude
insolation) received at the equator High Low High Low Pressure
causes a deep low pressure area to Global winds
Easterlies Warm south- North-east
form. Rising air reaches to the top westerlies trades
of the troposphere (the lowermost
section of the atmosphere) and then Source: Waugh (2009)
flows northwards and southwards,
away from the equator. Together with Figure 3: Average location of theGeofile
ITCZSeries
in January
30 Issueand
3 July
the Ferrel Cell and the Polar Cell, Fig 662_02 Mac/eps/illustrator v15 s/s
the Hadley Cell is responsible for NELSON THORNES PUBLISHING
transferring solar energy from those Artist: David Russell Illustration
areas that have an excess (the tropics)
to those areas, such as the poles, where
much less insolation is received. This
ensures that atmospheric energy is
kept in balance and is essential for life
on earth. July ITCZ
around the globe. This is due to Figure 4: Rainfall bands on a south-north transect through the ITCZ over West Africa
differential heating between the sea
20N 15N 10N 5N
and the land. The land heats up and
cools down much more quickly so, in Hot, dry tropical
Cumulo-nimbus Hot, moist tropical
continental air mass
areas where the ITCZ lies over large thunderstorms maritime air mass
the migration of the ITCZ is also Source: MacLean and Thomson (2005)
a huge influence on local weather
patterns. As the low pressure zone
Figure 5: Rainfall in Lagos andGeofile
Kano,Series
Nigeria
30 Issue 3
moves northwards across the equator, Fig 662_04 Mac/eps/illustrator v15 s/s
the winds which blow into it change NELSON THORNES NIGER PUBLISHING
southern edge of the Sahara. Some Figure 6: Cherrapunjee has around 12 The monsoon affects the lives
years, the ITCZ may bring adequate metres of rainfall a year of one-quarter of the worlds
amounts of rainfall to carry out population and has helped rice
agriculture but, sometimes, it stops the worlds most important staple
short of these regions, the farmers food become the predominant
receive no rainfall, crops fail, and crop in the region. However, as in
survival is very difficult indeed. West Africa, the rainfall brought by
the ITCZ is not completely reliable.
This is the situation in the Sahelian Variations in the northward extent
countries such as Mali, Niger and of the convergence zone means the
Sudan, where rainfall is increasingly rains can fail. Drought and famine
variable as you travel further north. are the result. From the late 1970s
Years of particularly high rainfall to the 1980s there were nine years
in the countries bordering the when the monsoon failed in north-
southern edge of the Sahara during west India. At the other extreme
the 1950s and 1960s coincided with the variations in the ITCZ can also
a period when the ITCZ migrated mean even more extreme rainfall,
further north than its average. Many such as that which brought excessive
subsistence and pastoral farmers flooding to Bangladesh in 1987, 1988
moved into more marginal areas, grew and 1998.
crops and bred cattle in the benign
climatic conditions. Source: R Mehra South America and the
Subsequent years were, however, less Pacific, the ITCZ and El
beneficial to farming. The late 1970s seasonal reversal of wind direction Nio
and early 1980s brought years with that brings huge amounts of rain
much lower rainfall than had been to countries including India and Rainfall patterns associated with
expected. Researchers have shown a Bangladesh. As the thermal equator, the ITCZ over South America are
correlation between these events and and the ITCZ, move northwards similar to those experienced in the
the failure of the ITCZ to reach its towards the tropic of Cancer in June, other parts of the world already
long-term average northerly limit. the high level of solar radiation mentioned. However, as can be
There is also evidence that when the creates a low-pressure zone that seen in Figure 3, the northward
migration of the ITCZ occurred earlier draws in warm moist equatorial and southward migration of the
in the year, a relatively bad rainy maritime and tropical maritime air convergence zone is much more
season followed some months later. from over the Indian Ocean. Initially restricted due to the greater
During these periods croplands dried travelling in a northwards direction, influence of the surrounding oceans.
up and animals had no grazing land to Coriolis once again deflects the wind Even so, the effects can be quite
feed on. Drought and famine resulted to the north-east so that it rises over dramatic on a local scale, and the
in starvation and mass migration, the mountain range of the Western ITCZ has to be treated with respect.
often to already overcrowded cities, Ghats (on the western side of India) The rising winds have an influence
leading to an increase in urban and around the windward slopes of on the devastating hurricanes
population problems. the Himalaya. Intense rainfall results that affect both the Pacific and
from the very humid airstreams. the tropical Atlantic oceans. The
The same patterns in the ITCZ Mumbai, on the western coast of fast rising air can also cause other
have been cited as causing the India, receives 2000mm during problems. On 31 May 2009, for
recent widespread drought affecting the four summer months alone instance, thunderstorms along
countries including Kenya and Sudan (compared with Londons annual the ITCZ played a key role in the
in East Africa. The problems have total of around 600mm), while loss of Air France flight 447 flying
been exacerbated by human factors. Cherrapunjee in the foothills of the from Rio de Janeiro to Paris. The
As population has increased over Himalaya in north-eastern India aircraft crashed with no survivors
the last 30 years, farmers have been has a massive 12,000mm during the and, although the exact cause is
forced onto land that has little hope same period, making it one of the still not known, theories include
of sustaining agriculture, using semi- wettest inhabited places on Earth the influence of extreme turbulence
desert patches of land where crops (Figure 6). caused by dramatic updraughts of
will only grow when rainfall totals are air, a lightning strike setting off an
relatively high. It seems likely that this As the ITCZ migrates southwards electrical fault or rapidly forming ice
combination of an unreliable ITCZ over the equator during the northern affecting the aircrafts sensors all
and human changes to the natural winter, it draws down very dry winds being a direct consequence of flying
system will result in continuing and, from the high pressure area located through the towering clouds formed
perhaps, more extreme droughts in the over central Asia (where the source by the ITCZ.
region in the future. is a semi-desert region). These winds
become even drier as they pass On a continent-wide scale the
The ITCZ and the south-east over the Himalaya so that, for the influence of the ITCZ is also
remaining eight months of the year, important, given its short-term
Asian monsoon Mumbai receives an average of a impact on El Nio Southern
Further east, the ITCZ is a major mere 100mm rainfall. Oscillation (ENSO) events. ENSO
influence on the monsoon the events occur every three to four
years and involve a reversal in the ITCZ moving around 5 degrees References
weather patterns found over the of latitude further north than its
Pacific Ocean. Normally pressure current average northern maximum, MacLean, K. and Thomson, N. (2005)
rises over the eastern Pacific and between 3 and 10 degrees north of Higher Geography Second Edition:
falls over the western side, giving the equator, to between 8 and 15 Human and Physical Environments,
clear, dry conditions over western degrees north. Some of the potential London: Hodder Education.
South America and heavy rainfall effects include: Mnnich, M. and Neelin, J. D. (2005)
over Indonesia. In contrast, during Seasonal influence of ENSO on the
ENSO events pressure rises over wet areas in northern Indonesia,
Malaysia and the Philippines Atlantic ITCZ and equatorial South
the western Pacific and falls in America, Geophysical Research Letters
the east, with a direct effect on the receiving less ITCZ rain than
at present, with effects on the 32(21), pp1-4.
ITCZ. The northward migration of
the ITCZ is inhibited and it may potential to grow crops such as Rutter, J. (2010) Higher Geography,
migrate southwards instead. The coffee Edinburgh: Bright Red Publishing.
trade winds weaken in strength and southern Central America,
Ecuador and Colombia would be Sachs, J. P. and Myhrvold, C. L. (2011)
their direction can be reversed. The
drier and, again, crops such as A shifting band of rain, Scientific
collapse of the trade wind system
coffee and banana (which need American, pp60-65.
causes air to descend over Indonesia
and Australia, leading to much drier large amounts of rainfall) may Sultan, B. and Janicot, S. (2000)
conditions than normal and even the prove impossible to cultivate Abrupt shift of the ITCZ over West
possibility of drought. In the 1998 subsistence agriculture would be Africa and intra-seasonal variability,
ENSO event the dry conditions led affected in all these regions and,
Geophysical Research Letters 27(20),
to forest fires over parts of Indonesia even if there is a mass migration
pp3353-6.
and a widespread smoke haze to the cities from rural areas
that covered a number of nearby to compensate, regional food Waugh, D. (2009) Geography:
countries. Meanwhile, in the eastern shortages could cause severe an integrated approach, 4th edn,
Pacific, ascending air brings heavy problems Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
rainfall in Peru and neighbouring there may be droughts in
northern Mexico and the Much of the internet information
countries that normally stay dry. available on the ITCZ is quite
Again, in the 1998 event, areas of southern United States
some countries, including El technical although http://
Peru received the equivalent of six en.wikipedia.org, www.guardian.
months of rainfall every day for a Salvador, would lie in the ITCZ
rainfall belt for the first time and co.uk, www.bbc.co.uk and erpz.net all
12-day period. The extensive flash have more accessible data. For those
flooding that followed caused several would become more humid.
requiring more in-depth research,
hundred deaths and injuries to more www.srh.noaa.gov, orca.rsmas.miami.
than 16,000 people. There are further concerns from
scientists that a northward shift in edu and www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov all
the ITCZ would affect the frequency have research papers and detailed
The breakdown in normal climatic information on atmospheric processes.
conditions brought on by ENSO of hurricanes, monsoons and the
and the disruption to the ITCZ have patterns of ENSO events. More The best place to find an animated
effects much further afield and can research is needed to determine any overview of the ITCZ and some
cause extraordinary conditions on a possible future scenarios. What is fantastic detail on how it changes
global scale, including temperatures obvious is the present and future through the year, affects the weather
just above freezing in Bangladesh importance of the inter-tropical and is influenced by the tricellular
and extremely mild winters in the convergence zone and its influence model of atmospheric circulation can
Canadian Rockies. on weather patterns both within the be found at http://daphne.palomar.
tropics and around the rest of the edu/pdeen/animations/23_weatherpat.
planet. swf.
Climate change and the
ITCZ
Recent research has begun to show
Focus Questions
the effects that any possible future
climate change could have on the 1. (a) Describe the reasons behind the formation of the inter-tropical
weather in countries affected by convergence zone.
the ITCZ. Some of these have (b) Explain why the ITCZ moves northwards and southwards throughout
the potential to be very worrying. the year.
Investigations into past climates
have shown that the position of the 2. With reference to specific examples from around the world, describe the
ITCZ is very sensitive to changes in rainfall associated with the passage of the inter-tropical convergence zone.
the temperature of the atmosphere
and to amounts of incoming solar 3. Outline the influence of El Nio Southern Oscillation events on the
radiation. These results have been migration of the ITCZ and associated weather conditions over South
used to make projections about what America and the Pacific Ocean.
will happen towards the year 2100
if levels of greenhouse gases in the 4. Give examples from specific countries of the possible impacts of climate
atmosphere continue to rise. Some change on weather patterns associated with the inter-tropical convergence
scientists think this may result in zone.