1

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Copyright 1980 by ASME

Closed-Cycle Gas Turbine Working

J. C. Lee Fluids
Characteristic requirements of a closed-cycle gas turbine (CCGT) working fluid
J. Campbell, Jr were identified and the effects of their thermodynamic and transport properties on
the CCGT cycle performance, required heat exchanger surface area and metal
operating temperature, cycle operating pressure levels, and the turbomachinery
D. E. Wright design were investigated. Material compatibility, thermal and chemical stability,
safety, cost, and availability of the working fluid were also considered in the study.
Rockwell International/Rocketdyne This paper also discusses CCGT working fluids utilizing mixtures of two or more
Division, pure gases. Some mixtures of gases exhibit pronounced synergetic effects on their
Canoga Park, Calif. characteristic properties including viscosity, thermal conductivity and Prandtl
number, resulting in desirable heat transfer properties and high molecular weights.
Typical examples of such synergetic gas mixture are helium-xenon and helium-

carbon dioxide.

INTRODUCTION The content of this paper is based principally

From the thermodynamic standpoint, all permanent
gases can be candidate closed-cycle gas turbine (CCGT)
working fluids, because the only requisite for the
thermodynamics of the Brayton cycle is that the work-
ing fluid be operated in the gaseous region obove its
critical temperature throughout the entire cycle. Ob-
viously, practical considerations such as thermal sta-
bility, chemical inertness, inflammability, and toxi-
city will eliminate almost all organic gases, and
only a few of the inorganic fluids have been con-
sidered suitable for the CCGT applications. Among
them, air has been the most common working fluid used
in stationary CCGT powerplants (Ref. 1 and 2). For
CCGT space power systems (Ref. 3), weight and size
optimization has generally narrowed the selection of
working fluids to monotomic gases with medium molecu-
lar weights including neon, argon, and mixtures of
helium and xenon.
With the advent of gas-cooled nuclear reactors
during the past decade, both carbon dioxide and helium
gases have been used successfully as working media for
reactor cooling and steam generation. Design studies
have been carried out in the United States (Ref. 4),
Germany (Ref. 5), and France (Ref. 6) on utilizing
helium gas turbines for high-temperature, gas-cooled
reactors (HTGR). A fossil-fueled pilot helium CCGT
powerplant was completed in 1976 and has since been
in operation in Germany (Ref. 7) to test nonnuclear
components and to acquire the necessary background
experience leading to the eventual development of
large-scale helium HTGR-CCGT powerplant.
Contributed by the Gas Turbine Division of The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers for presentation at the Gas Turbine Conference &
Products Show, New Orleans, La., March 10-13, 1980. Manuscript received at
ASME Headquarters January 2, 1980.
Copies will be available until December 1, 1980.
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upon the CCGT working fluids study conducted under
the DOE sponsored program to evaluate advanced coal-
fired heat exchanger design concepts for closed-cycle
gas turbine power generation systems. The purpose
of the working fluids study is to identify the char-
acteristic requirements of a CCGT working fluid; to
select candidate working fluids to be used in the
coal-fired CCGT powerplant; and to investigate the
effects of their thermodynamic and transport proper-
ties on the cycle performance and on the size, com-
plexity and cost of the equipment. Material compati-
bility, thermal and chemical stability, safety, cost,
and availability are also major factors of considera-
tion in the study.
EFFECT ON CYCLE PERFORMANCE
If there is no pressure loss in the heat exchangers
and the lines, the CCGT cycle thermal eff^cieacy should
theoretically be independent of the working fluid and
should remain the same with any perfect gas operating
at the same temperature levels, although the pressure
ratio will be different for gases having different
specific heat ratios, y.
With finite pressure loss in the circuit, the com-
pressor will be required to deliver a higher pressure
ratio than the turbine experiences. The pressure
ratio factor defined as the ratio of the overall tur-
bine pressure ratio to the overall compressor pressure
ratio has a significant effect on the CCGT cycle effi-
ciency, as shown by the plots of the optimum cycle
efficiency and optimum pressure ratio versus pressure
ratio factor for a recuperated CCGT cycle with reheat-
ing and intercooling in Fig. 1. The steep decline of
the cycle efficiency with the decrease in pressure
ratio factor indicates the importance of minimizing
the pressure losses in the CCGT cycle circuit.
The adverse effect of pressure loss also depends
upon the relative magnitude of the pressure loss to
the overall operating pressure ratio. Thus, with a
fixed pressure ratio factor, the performance degrada-
tion by the pressure loss will be less severe with
 7
recuperated, reheat, and intercooled CCGT cycle at a
fixed pressure ratio factor of 83.3%. The dotted
curve gives the optimum efficiency versus the optimum
compressor pressure ratio with varying y values. At
10 fixed pressure ratio factor, an approximate differ-
OAT
M^ ence to 1.6 percentage points is noted along the curve
between the optimum efficiency value for diatomic
MFFF,c^^NCf- gases of y = 1.4 and the optimum efficiency value for
monatomic gases of y = 1.67, because of the higher
40
/
8 optimum operating pressure ratio of the diatomic
/
/ gases.

ap EFFECT ON TURBOMACHINERY DESIGN

30
Specific heat, C p , and molecular weight, M, are
the two primary physical properties of the working
fluid affecting the turbomachinery design and perform-
/
20 4 ance. With fixed gas temperature levels across the
turbine or the compressor, the total enthalpy drop is
proportional to the specific heat. The number of
turbine or compressor stages, n, required is then
Y 1.67
TURBINE INLET AND REHEAT TEMP. 1750 F
given by:
2
' COMPRESSOR INLET - 100 F C AT
REGENERATOR IT = 50 F
n =- --- (1)
TURBINE '1=90%
COMPRESSOR 11- 85%
where AT is the gas temperature difference across the
o I I I I I I
7
turbine or compressor and AH is the design enthalpy
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55
PRESSURE RATIO FACTOR, % change across each turbine or compressor stage. With
I 1 I I I 1 low molecular weight gases such as helium and hydro-
11.4 21.7 31.0 39.4 46.9 gen having high sonic velocities, the maximum design
TOTAL PRESSURE LOSS PARAMETER ,% stage enthalpy change in the turbine is usually
I I I I I limited by the blade centrifugal stress while with
2 4 6 8 10 gases having low sonic velocities, the maximum stage
A P/P PER HEX PASS OF 6 PASSES, %
enthalpy change is generally sonic velocity limited.
Fig. 1. Effect of CCGT pressure drop on optimum Table 1 shows the comparison of the sonic velocities
CCGT cycle efficiency (regenerative, for the three working fluids, air, He/CO2 (0.6/0.4 by
reheating, and intercooling) mole) mixture, and He at various temperatures. The
sonic velocity of the helium gas is almost three times
gases requiring higher optimum operating pressure
that of the other two gases. For impulse turbines,
ratios even though the temperature ratio may be the
the design blade tangential velocity is approximately
same. In other words, diatomic gases such as air,
half of the nozzle exit velocity. The helium gas
N2, etc., will give higher CCGT cycle efficiencies
than monatomic gases (He, Ar, Xe, etc.) with higher Table 1. Comparison of Sonic Velocities
y values, because the optimum operating pressure for Air, He/CO 2 , and He
ratios for diatomic gases are generally higher than
those for monatomic gases. M 28.96 M=20.006 M-4.003
AIR He/CO He
Figure 2 shows the effect of the specific heat
T F CP Y v fps CP Y v fps CP 7 v fps
ratio, y, of the working fluid on the efficiency of a
1500 .276 1.331 2116.4 .4155 1.314 2530.3 1.240 1.667 6371.5

1000 .2635 1.352 1841.1 .375 1.360 2221.8 1.240 1.667 5498.9

Y- 1.2

I
I i

13 500 .2505 1.377 1506.6 .364 1.375 1811.4 1.240 1.667 4458.7
GASES

80 .238 1.405 1053.4 .33 1.430 1385.3 1.240 1.667 3343.5

M - MOLECULAF WEIGHT, C -SPECIFIC HEAT, BTU/LB-F, Y SPECIFIC HEAT RATIO, ^ SONIC VELOCITY, FPS
1.67 MMCG
1.7 ASES
turbines can be run up to its stress limited tip speed
without exceeding its sonic velocity at the nozzle
LL 30 exit, while the turbine speed with working fluids
4 RATIO FACTOR 83.3
such as air or He/CO2 mixture would probably be limited
NLET AND REHEAT TEMP - 1750 F by the sonic velocity at the nozzle exit before the
20 OR INLET TEMP- 100 F
-50 F
limiting blade stress is exceeded. Hence, the maxi-
OR ,- 85% mum allowable tip speed and the design stage enthalpy
'r 90%
GENERATOR 098% change can be higher for helium turbine than for air
or He/CO 2 turbine. Higher tip speed means higher
rotative speed for helium turbine.
fl
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 A larger number of turbine or compressor stages is
OVERALL COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO also expected with helium working fluid than with air
or He/CO 2 mixture from Eq. (1), although the ratio of
Fig. 2. Effect of 'y on CCGT cycle performance the numbers of stages (helium relative to air or
(regenerative, reheat, and intercooling)

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He/CO2) will be less than their relative ratio of spe- walls is very much affected. At the same AP/P, helium
cific heats, due to the higher design stage enthalpy cooling will result in significantly lower metal tem-
drop of helium. peratures than air cooling. For the "in-bed" surface
of a fluidized bed combustor/heat exchanger, however,
Since the compressor is driven at the turbine
a change from helium-to-air cooling may make less than
shaft speed, the limiting tip speed criterion does
10% difference in the total surface required, but will
not exist because its blade tip diameter is substan-
not seriously affect metal temperatures.
tially smaller than those of the turbine. The limit-
ing factor in the compressor design, however, usually The relationship between the working fluid heat
lies in the blade annular flow area which is equal to transfer coefficient and the pressure drop can be de-
the blade height times the pitch circle circumference. rived as follows:
Because of large variations of gas density and volume
GD 0.8
flow, as the gas undergoes changes of its pressure and hD CU 1/3
temperature along the compressor stages, the required K e = 0.023 ( K
annular flow area or blade height will often exceed \ u e 1 (2)
the maximum limit at the compressor inlet stage or be- where
comes exceedingly small at the last stage, particular-
h = heat transfer ciefficient on the working
ly for working fluids operating at high pressure
fluid side
ratios.
D = equivalent diameter = 4 x flow Cross-
It is to be noted that the optimum operating pres- e
sectional area/wetted perimeter
sure ratios for air and He/CO 2 mixture are higher than
that for helium gas. Therefore, with a fixed design K = thermal conductivity of the working fluid
turbine inlet pressure, the air or He/CO 2 compressor
C = specific heat of the working fluid
inlet stage will operate at significantly lower pres- P
sure and will be more likely to encounter the blade p = viscosity of the working fluid
height limitation than the helium compressor inlet
G = mass flow velocity of the working fluid
stage. This may result in even lower rotative speed
than is allowed in the turbine design. The pressure drop across the tubes in the turbulent
regime is given by:
A design option such as splitting the turbine and
the compressor into high-pressure and low-pressure
0.25
units and operating them at different speeds is
4P = 0.3164 (3)
usually taken to circumvent this limitation. The com- (^D
'_ pe)G2
e^ (2pD
plexity associated with this option must be weighed
where
in a tradeoff against the reduced efficiency with
lower operating pressure ratio for lower molecular AP = frictional drop across the tubes
weight gases. However, it appears that adequate tur-
AL = length of the tubes
bomachinery can be designed for any of the common
candidate CCGT gases. p = mass density of the working fluid
Combining Eq. (2) and (3) by eliminating G leads to:
HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP
-0.667
0.086
e\
A number of heat exchangers, including fired gas 0
IC K }1 I
h = 0.0534
heaters, recuperators, coolers, unfired bottoming
cycle economizers and boilers, are employed in the
0.457
CCGT cycle. The cost and sizes of these heat exchan- D
e
gers are dependent upon the heat transfer coefficients (4)
PAP 0 4L Cp
of the CCGT working fluid and the allowable pressure
drops across these heat exchangers. Since the pres- Substituting the perfect gas equation p = (M/R)/(R/T)
sure drop is critical to the CCGT cycle thermal effi- in Eq. (4) gives:
ciency, it is desirable that working fluids with high
heat transfer and low flow friction characteristics -0.667
be selected.
C u )
h = 0.0543 1 p . u 0.086 , D 0.371
K e
In general, the required surface area for the un-

(
fired heat exchangers including the recuperator,
0.457
bottoming cycle heater or boiler, and the cooler is
almost directly proportional to the working fluid heat
p2 AP l
(C M
1 0.457 . C 0.543
(5)
RT P. AL / \ p / p
transfer coefficient (mainly because the controlling
thermal resistance is on the working fluid side). where
With fired heat exchangers, however, the combustion
M = molecular weight of the working fluid
gas side usually exerts the controlling influence on
the overall heat transfer coefficient. Hence, the R = universal gas constant per mole of work-
required surface area for the fired heat exchanger is ing fluid.
less strongly affected by the working fluid heat
transfer coefficient than for the unfired heat exchan- Pure Gases
ger. The effects of variation of CCGT gas side heat
For pure perfect gases containing equal numbers
transfer coefficient with the composition of the gas
of atoms, the molal specific heat (C 11 M) and the
are felt differently in various types and regions of
Prandtl number (Cjj p/K) are approximately constant.
the combustor/heat exchanger. In the radiant section
With constant values of tube diameter (D e ), operating
of a pulverized coal furnace, the heat transfer rate
pressure (P), temperature (T), and constant pres-
and wall surface required is only slightly affected
sure drop parameter per unit tube length, AP/PAL,
by variations in CCGT working fluid side heat trans-
the heat transfer coefficient of the working fluid
fer coefficient, but the temperature of the tube

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 will vary with Cp 543 The term (p0.088) in Eq. (5) 9 09
has negligible effect due to its small power index. s B9
Figure 3 shows the log plots of comparative heat 6 .06
.O6
transfer coefficient versus Cp for various pure per- 5 \

4 a
fect gases using helium coefficient as the reference,
and based on constant pressure, temperature, tube

diameter and pressure drop parameter. The three lines
3X105
m E
m
2%10 5
having slopes equal to 0.543 represent families of Nm __
monatomic, diatomic, and triatomic gases. Obviously LL

from the standpoint of heat exchanger surface require- 3:

ment, the low molecular weight gases such as hydrogen E 1X10 5

a
E

0
.1
.09
.0B
.01
.00
.00 i
m
and helium are preferred. The heat transfer coeffi- z .07 .00 I Y
E

cient of helium is more than three times that of argon z .06 .00
.05 .00
and more than twice that of air, oxygen, or nitrogen at .5X10 Q

.04 o0
constant pressure drop parameter and constant tube
length. .03 .00

.02 00

I 111111 15
= 2 4 5 0 1 6 816 LU SI {U 50 60 08) 1(08
U 100% H. MOLECULAR WT, Mm, OF H./X. MIXTURES 100% X.

Fig. 4. Thermal and transport properties

of He/Xe mixtures
.9
^ a .B conductivity K m , and Prandtl number Pr m of the mix-
LL .7 ture of helium and xenon versus the mixture molecular
Z .6 weight M m .
a C .s
4 The specific heat, C p , density, p, and the molecu-
lar weight, M, of a mixture generally follow the rela-
.3 tionship of the molal mean values of those of the
$i
constituent gases. As can be seen from the log-log
.2 plots, the viscosity (}) curve is relatively flat
and does not significantly vary with the molecular
.06 .06 .08 .1 .2 .3 A .5 .6 .l .8 1 2 3 4 5 weight of the mixture, while the C pm and K curves
SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES. C,. BTU/LB-F
have rather steep slopes. The Prandtl number (Pr m ) is
thus essentially determined from the ratio of C pm /K m
Fig. 3. Comparative heat transfer coefficients for
which is represented by the vertical distance between
various working gases (based on equal
the two curves on the logarithmic scale.
pressure, temperature, length, and pres-
sure loss ratio in the heat exchanger) Thermodynamic properties of other gas mixtures in-
cluding He/Ar, He/CO 2 , N 2 /CO 2 and H 2 /CO 2 of various
The foregoing analysis is much simplified when
molecular weights (various mixture ratios) were in-
compared against actual conditions, especially in the
vestigated and heat transfer coefficients for these
combustor/heat exchanger. The length of the circuits
mixtures at various temperatures were computed using
and the number of parallel circuits are not fixed but
Eq. (5) in Ref. 8. Figure 5 shows plots of the heat
vary with the fluid and with design options (often in
discrete steps). Also, the operating pressures are
not necessarily the same from fluid to fluid. Thus,
the comparative data presented serve as a guide. TEI.fERATURE PRESSURE TUBE DIAMETER TUBE LENGTH
More rigorous comparisons would require consideration
112-0O2a
62.3 R BOPSIA
IO I INCH 30 FEET
4
of the heat transfer coefficient of the fluid on the GAS MIXTURE

other side of the heat exchanger and will be dis- 2 OP =3%

cussed later in this paper. 1

z GAS MIXTURE

LL 2^
LL I ^L =ax
Mixture of Gases O I y,, ^D ` p,r GAS MI%TUBE

1 ^4'.lTtlC \,C ^^ IY-X. GAS MIXTURE

As shown in Eq. (5), the working fluid heat trans-
fer coefficient varies inversely with 2/3 power of the z BOO
Prandtl number. For all pure perfect gases contain- z
GAS MIXTURE
ing equal numbers of atoms, the Prandtl numbers are
W
approximately equal. This, however, does not hold
true with mixtures of gases. It has been established
that gas mixtures have a pronounced synergetic effect
stemming mainly from the differences in variations L E
I^
of the three physical properties C p , p, and K and of
the Prandtl number Cpu/K with the mixture ratio of the 1 4 8 10 k
2 6 2p ^0 60 90 100 200
component gases. This results in a lower value of the MOLECULAR WEIGHT, LB
Prandtl number than either of the Prandtl numbers of LB MOLE

component gases, as exemplified by the helium-xenon

mixture which has a Prandtl number less than 1/3 of Fig. 5. Gas-side heat transfer characteristics for
that of helium or xenon at a molal ratio of 1:1 or a gas mixtures of varying composition (based on
mixture molecular weight of about 68. Figure 4 shows equal pressure, temperature, tube length,
the plots of specific heat Cp m , viscosity u m , thermal and pressure loss ratio in the heat
exchanger)

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transfer coefficients versus molecular weight of the

mixture for a temperature of 524 R. The curves were
all based on a constant tube inside diameter of 1 inch,

T
tube length of 30 feet, and an average pressure level
of 1000 psia. The gas mass flow velocity (G) through
the tube was varied so as to give a constant pressure
n min
za
loss factor, AP/P, of 3% over the 30-foot tube length. ^

As previously indicated, the data presented in Fig. 5 Z, Z

only serve as a guide because the actual heat exchan- n
ger designs would have varied length of the tube cir-
p
cuits and varied number of parallel circuits with dif- t9
ferent working fluids. 16
1!
It is interesting to note, in Fig. 5, that at a
,z
given value of 4P/P, the heat transfer coefficients ,o
of pure Ile, Ar, and No all fall on a straight line
with a negative slope of 0.543. This is consistent
with the plots shown in Fig. 3 because the molecular
weight is inversely proportional to the specific heat Fig. 7. Thermal and transport properties of
for the three monatomic gases. Same linear relation- various gas mixtures
ships can also be observed with the two pure diatomic
plots of the thermal transport properties, K, p, and
gases H 2 and N2 and with triatomic gases such as CO2.
Pr versus temperature for the 'Ie/CO2 mixtures, air,
Each curve connecting the two end points of the and N2. The synergetic effect of the He/CO2 mixture
straight line, which represent the two pure component stems mainly from its low value of Prandtl number as
gases of the mixture, illustrates the synergetic ef- compared to those of the component gases.
fect on the heat transfer characteristic of the gas
mixture. It is apparent from the curves that the Primary Combustor/Heat Exchanger Tube Wall
wider the difference between the molecular weights of Operating Temperature
the two gases, the greater is the synergetic effect.
In fired heat exchangers, the combustion gas side
In the case of N 2 /CO 2 , there is hardly any benefit
usually exerts the controlling influence on the over-
from the mixing in view of the small difference of
all heat transfer coefficient; so the required surface
molecular weights between the two component gases.
area for the fired heat exchanger is less affected by
He/CO 2 mixtures appear to offer several attractive the working fluid heat transfer coefficient than for
features as a candidate working fluid for. CCGT appli- the unfired heat exchangers, which includes the re-
cation. First, both Ile and 002 have been used suc- cuperator, the cooler, and the bottoming cycle heater
cessfully as heat transfer media in nuclear reactor or boiler. The working fluid heat transfer coeffi-
powerplants, and the cost of the mixture is substan- cient (at the allowable design pressure drop), however,
tially reduced by the addition of 002. has a significant bearing on the fired heat exchanger
tube wall operating temperature and its allowable de-
At a molal ratio of 0.6 IIe/0.4 CO 2 (molecular
sign stress, especially in the high heat flux regions
weight of 20.006), the heat transfer coefficient of
such as in the radiant furnace systems. In the high
the mixture remains at about 80 of that of pure tie
temperature creep range, the rupture stresses of the
as compared to about 46% for the air or nitrogen.
tube materials (on which the allowable design stresses
Figure 6 gives the plots of C p and y versus tempera-
for the tubes are based) become very sensitive to
ture for air, N2, and two mixtures of 0.6 He/0.4 CO2
increment of temperature change. As shown in the
(M = 20) and 0.65 He/0.35 002 (N = 18). Lower C p
plots of rupture stresses at 100,000 hours versus
and y values of the mixtures as compared to those of
metal temperature for the materials Inconel 617, IIS
pure He offer the advantages of higher operating pres-
188, and Incoloy 800 in Fig. 8, a reduction of rup-
sure ratio and higher CCGT cycle thermal efficiency, ture stress by a factor of 1.6 to 1.75 occurs for
and fewer turbocompressor stages than those required
every 100 F temperature increase. The same factors
with pure helium working fluid. Figure 7 shows the
apply to the increase in required tube wall thickness
with increase in temperature. Increased temperature
gradient across the tube wall and decreased fatigue
,.s
life are also associated with increased tube wall
thickness. Increase in wall thickness also raises
t.+s
the outside metal wall temperature and further re-
duces the allowable design stesss. It is, therefore,
important to strive for high working fluid side heat
transfer coefficient so as to maintain the tube wall
operating temperature as close to the working fluid
a ,.>s ml
temperature as possible. This is particularly signi-
1.3

o.x
ficant in high heat flux regions of a radiant furnace,
where the heat source (flame) temperature is well
above the melting temperature of most metals.
to o>s
^^a Since the pressure drop in the working fluid cir-
t^^:^^
o.x cuit is limited by CCGT system performance considera-
tions, increase in mass flow velocity is not deemed
o mo .00 eoo 00o taco ,xao 1400 tom ,000 nm desirable. Other ways to achieve high working fluid
TEIeRATI RE, F
side heat transfer coefficients will be to increase
the operating pressure (or density) in the fired heat
Fig. 6. Thermodynamic properties of various
gas mixtures

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Combining Eq. (2a) and (3a) by eliminating A ff gives:

9
8 -0.667
7 -DESIGN STRESS = 0.65 x AVERAGE RUPTURE STRESS - C p / 0.127 2
6- .6 h = 0.0s89( p ) f u ( A P
6 .5 K D 1 `P AA RT
` e n
4 .4
7
0 )0.291 (CpM^ 0.291 Cp 0.418 (7)
Cm
z .2
8
Since the heat input to the working fluid Q = C pm AT
a where AT is the bulk working fluid temperature rise
INCONEL 617
lx 10 .1 and average heat flux q (over the total heat transfer
B
8
.09
.08 surface area, AA h ) = Q/AAh , Eq. (7) becomes:
D 7 .07

U 6
5
a 4 ==== .0a
! -== INCONEL 617
C 3 RS188
INCONEL 800 \
(CARBON CONTROLLED,
2 SOLUTION TREATED) \ ' 0 2
N.
fi X03 01
1400 1500 1600 1780 1800
Fig. 8. Rupture stresses and required tube wall
thickness vs temperature
exchanger and to employ working fluids with better
heat transfer characteristics such as helium and
helium/CO 2 gas mixtures.
The comparative heat transfer coefficients of
these working fluids shown in Fig. 3 and 5 are based
on constant tube diameter and constant heat exchanger
length (constant tube length) but with different num-
bers of tubes in parallel to give a constant pressure
drop for a fixed total mass flowrate. In fired heat
exchanger designs, the combustion gas side heat trans-
fer coefficient is the controlling factor, and it
would be more appropriate to evaluate the working
fluid side heat transfer coefficient on the basis of
constant average heat flux (constant total quantity
of heat transferred divided by constant total heat
transfer surface area) with both tube length and num-
ber of tubes varied to give a constant pressure drop.
The derivation of the heat transfer equation based on
this assumption is given in the following.
The heat exchanger is assumed to consist of a num-
ber of identical parallel circuits with equal equiva-
lent diameter D e and equal flow path length AL. The
total free flow area, A ff , and the total wetted sur-
face area on the working fluid side (total heat trans-
fer surface area) AA h are related to the D e and AL as
follows:
^ C 4 ^ ^'
06
.05
C p -0.667
0.127
h = 0.0589 1 K /
(D ) (PAT q
.03 e
0.291
.0 0.418 (8)
C M\0291
RT ) ( P ) I
In CCGT cycles using different working fluids, the
bulk working fluid temperature rise, AT, is usually
fixed, and the total heat input to the working fluid
Q is also fixed by varying the mass flowrate m. In
this case, the heat transfer coefficients for differ-
ent working fluids can be compared with equal heat
transfer surface areas AA h and hence equal average
heat fluxes (q = Q/AA h ). Comparison can also be made
[from Eq. (7)] of the surface area required with each
working fluid if the working fluid side heat transfer
coefficient h is fixed. In either case, the heat flux
obtained [through Eq. (7) and (8)] from the working
fluid side must correspond to the heat flux obtained
from the combustion gas side. In addition, the as-
signed AP/P value must also satisfy Eq. (2a).
Figure 9 shows plots of comparative heat transfer
values for various gas mixtures at 524 R (using
helium as the reference) based on constant heat input
and heat flux, and constant AP/P. The curves are
similar to those in Fig. 5, except that the straight
lines joining the points for pure gases have a slope
of 0.418 [from Eq. (7) and (8)] as compared to a
slope of 0.543 [Eq. (5)]. The heat transfer coeffi-
cients for the three candidate working fluids, He,
He/CO 2 (M = 20) gas mixture and air (close to N 2 ) are
I
....................... Lin::
0

De = 4 A ff AAL (6) .5 -mil TRI^T

7t h
^'1'^ rOVi^
Substitution of Eq. (6) and the relationships p = (PM)/ .3 f

(RT) and G = m/A ff , where m is the total working fluid

.mass flowrate,
2 in Eq. (2) and (3) leads to: a

0
RT
PP = 0.1582_ r e^ .25 \4 A^ / =__= m1.75 (2a)
2.75 > > ^ 5 e ^ ^,o sn y, .n .n .n to ^e>to ,m ^a
f
MOLECULAR WEIGHT, (M.), L6/LB-MOLE

C \- 0.667 0.8
0.2 Fig. 9. Comparative heat transfer coefficients for
h = 0.023 1 K I /D 1 C (m 0.8/ (3a) various gas mixtures (based on equal pres-
/ p( / sure, temperature, equal average heat flux
e
Aff
and pressure loss ratio in the heat
exchanger)

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 L

in the proportions of 1:0.87:0.52, respectively, Effect on Duct Size

based on constant heat flux. The size of the duct carrying the gas flow is a
In fluidized bed combustor/heat exchanger, the function of the allowable pressure drop, mass flow-
operating bed temperature is usually limited to rate, and thermal transport properties of the working
1650 F, and the difference between the bed tempera- fluid. The flow friction in a circular duct of diam-
ture and the maximum working fluid temperature is eter D and length AL is given by:
only 100 to 150 F. The AT across the working fluid
film, therefore, amounts to only 20 to 30 F for air 0.25
and 10 to 15 F for helium, because the combustion gas D ^
4P= 0.3164 ^G (2
r)D) G 2 (9)
side heat transfer coefficient is only a fraction of
the working fluid side heater transfer coefficient Substituting
(about 1/4 for air and 1/8 for helium). Hence, the
maximum tube wall temperature is less than 30 F above G = di P = F.T
the maximum working fluid temperature. 7!D M
4
On the radiant furnace wall heat transfer sur-
faces, however, the radiative heat flux is much Eq. 9 becomes:
higher (of the order of 20,000 to 50,000 Btu/ft 2 -hr)
and the AT across the working fluid film could be as 0.25 .1.75
Ar
high as 50 to 125 F with helium working fluid at a 0.2414 R 2 u
M (10)
ALP m4.75
design film heat transfer coefficient of 400 Btu/ft 2 P D
-Fhr.Ifaiwokngluders,thfilmcoe- where m = mass flowrate of working fluid and R = molal
ficient with the same pressure drop would reduce to universal gas constant. Based on constant heat input
208 Btu/ft 2 -F-hr, and the AT across the film would be- and constant operating temperature levels, the mass
come 96 to 240.4 F. The difference in operating tube flowrate of the working fluid m will be inversely pro-
wall temperatures between helium and air working portional to specific heat of the working fluid C .
fluid would be 46 to 115 F and the tube wall thickness Equation (1) then leads to: p
and weight would have to be increased by a factor of
1.3 to 1.9 with air working fluid. In addition, in- 0.25 1
4.75 RT
crease in tube wall thickness can also result in
higher temperature gradient across the tube wall and
D 2 GP C M 1
0.75 (1)
P ( 4LP/ p CP
lower fatigue life.
Figure 10 gives the plots of comparative duct
Effect of Operating Pressure diameter versus C for various working fluids at con-
stant pressure, temperature, and AP/(ALP). Equation
As shown in Eq. (8) , a fixed pressure loss factor (11) shows that D is a relatively weak function of C p
AP/P, the heat transfer coefficient varies with the and the required duct diameters for working fluids
0.6 power of the working fluid pressure. Therefore, CO2, 02, N2, air, and 0.6 Ele/0.4 CO2 are within 8%
increase in operating pressure will decrease the heat of each other. Helium requires the smallest duct size,
transfer surface area and the tube wall temperature. about 25% smaller than air requires, mainly because
The advantage is, however, offset by the increase in helium working fluid requires the lowest mass flow-
tube stress and hence increase in required tube wall rate for constant heat input.
thickness. This is particularly significant in heat-
ers with high design heat fluxes. As the tube wall
thickness is increased, AT across the tube wall and
the maximum tube wall temperature also increase for a
Kr
given design heat flux and given design working fluid ^^ ^ Ne 0.6 Ha/6.<CO 2 AT 1d00 F

temperature. The increase in tube wall temperature,

in turn, reduces the allowable design stress and re-
quires further increase in wall thickness and wall
o '
0.9
o.e
coz o Z Nz
Hz o
HZ _ _ ^
o6
temperature. Thus, at a certain critical point, fur- 0.6
a 0.5
ther increase in operating pressure will be followed o.4
by excessive increase in tube wall thickness and tube 03

wall temperature.
os
The operating pressure levels of the OCGT ._re
to a large extent, dictated by the capacity and design
of the turbocompressor. As discussed in the previous o.a o.w 6.1 04 oA 0.8 1 2 3 1 6 6 1 6 I
001 0.00
section on turbomachinery design, at a given shaft oofi o.i

speed the maximum and minimum ratios of blade height

to the hub radius determine the maximum and minimum
limits of gas volume flow through the turbine or the
compressor. Hence the pressure levels have to be
changed to change the capacity or mass flow beyond
that allowed within the limits of the design blade
height. In general, lower operating pressures (< 500
psia) are required for small capacity turbomachines
(< 50 MW) to maintain reasonably high turbocompressor
efficiencies. Turbomachines with capacity ranges
from 50 to 350 MW are best operated at pressures of
500 to 1000 psia.
Fig. 10. Effect of working gas on required pipe
size (based on constant C pm and AP/ALP)
helium = 1 (ref)
MATERIAL COMPATIBILITY
Compatibility of the working fluid with the mate-
rials of construction, particularly of the heater
tubes, is an important consideration in the selection
of candidate working fluids and candidate materials.
Although it is somewhat obscured by the more critical

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 problem of fireside corrosion, it is nevertheless im-
portant in view of the extreme temperature conditions
intended.
Three candidate working fluids, He, He/CC 2 gas
mixture, and air have been considered suitable for
CCGT applications, with advantages and disadvantages
in various aspects of considerations. In this sec-
tion, the compatibility of these three working fluids
with heater tube materials is discussed.
The corrosion effect of these working fluids on
two candidate ceramic materials for heater tubes,
SiC and SiN , is expected to be minimal for tempera-
ture levels at which the CCGT heaters will be operated
In metals and alloys, however, in addition to surface
oxidation or corrosion occurring in oxidizing atmos-
phere such as air and H 2 0, there can also be a grain
or chemical structure change in the material to affect
the mechanical properties in atmospheres such as CO 2
and fie.
Air Working Fluid
The mechanism of corrosion resistance of most of
the high-temperature alloys is the formation of a
protective oxide layer on the surface which retards
the diffusion of oxygen into the subsurface of the
alloy. Chromium, for instance, forms a protective
surface layer of chromium sesqui-oxide, Cr203, in
oxidizing atmospheres. But, it can also be oxidized
to be volatile oxide Cr03 via Cr203 + 3 02 -- 2CrO3.
The surface corrosion in oxidizing atmosphere is a
rate-controlled process of oxidative volatilization
of Cr 2 0 3 which is dependent on the mass transport of
02 and gaseous Cr03 through the gaseous boundary layer
It, therefore, increases with increases in oxygen
partial pressure, flowrate, and with decreases in
total pressure. Hence in air, surface alloy removal
by oxidation volatilization is the main cause of the
material degradation. Adequate protection against
severe corrosion in a dry air environment is believed
possible with the tube materials normally utilized for
the operating temperature.
Helium Working Fluid
Helium is thermodynamically attractive choice of
working fluid, and its alleged "inert" nature toward
metallic components is often taken for granted. In
nuclear practice, however, the low levels of impuri-
ties inevitably appearing in "pure" helium have led
to problems through selective reaction with alloy
constituents. In the gas-cooled nuclear reactor sys-
tems where the use of helium has been considered, the
level of impurities (CO, 002, CH4, C2, H20) is very
low, and is controlled to some extent by equilibrium
reactions between the impurities and the hot graphite
core of the reactor. At these impurity levels there
are insufficient oxygen-containing species to allow
the formation of complete protective oxide films on
alloys designed to do so. This apparently leads to
the situation where the next most stable reaction
products can form, which in this circumstance are
usually carbides. These tend to be formed by carbon
usually diffusing into the alloy to react with minor
alloying additions such as titanium, niobium, tantalum,
and zirconium.
Creep in impure Is environments has been found to
be accelerated at 1562 F for alloys which carbonized
at this temperature, the degree of increase in creep or from
correlating with the amount of carbon pickup (Ref. 9).
Creep strains at 1472 F and below in air were not
significantly different from those in impure Ife.
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Differences in behavior have been observed for
alloys exposed to laboratory helium-impurity mixtures,
depending critically on the levels of impurities.
For "dry" helium, for instance, the results from the
DRAGON program (Ref. 10) indicate localized carburiza-
tion of a range of alloys, whereas for "wet" helium,
many of the alloys formed almost complete protective
films. Japanese workers (Ref. 11 and 12) on the other
hand, using helium-oxygen at low oxygen partial pres-
sures, reported decarburization of alloys. A fair
amount of accessible data is available (Ref. 13) on
the effect of helium on some alloys (though not cobalt-
base), which should only be considered as useful if
the impurity levels under which the data were measured
are representative of the intended application. As
an example (Ref. 13), after exposure in helium con-
taining 500 patm H 2 , 1.5 H 2 0, 53.1 CH 4 , 32.9 CO, 0 CO 2 ,
and 6.2 N 2 for 10,000 hours, Inconel 617 exhibited
carbide precipitation to mean depths of 2500 p (0.25
p/hr), 180 and 52 p at 1652, 1472, and 1202 F,
respectively.
Unlike the helium gas-cooled reactor systems, the
coal-fired heat exchanger system can tolerate a larger
amount of oxygen-containing impurities without affect-
ing the thermodynamic and transport properties of the
impure helium. A practical solution to this problem
is initially to run the working fluid with sufficient
oxidant (oxygen, carbon dioxide, or water vapor) to
allow the contacting metals to form protective scales,
which will in most cases be chromia (Cr 2 0 3 )-rich.
The helium can then be gettered of oxygen to a level
of 1 mole percent which would represent a compromise
between that required to repair damaged films and that
necessary to reduce the danger of oxidative-volatiliza-
tion of the Cr 2 0 3 -rich scales.
He/CO2 Working Fluid
Since CO2 is the active component in the He/CO2
mixture, its effect on the alloys will be mainly
governed by the concentration of 002. Carbon dioxide
has been employed as a working fluid, particularly in
the British Magnox reactors, so that research data
are available on the effect of 002 on a range of al-
loys at temperatures up to 1700 F, on the effect of
pressure, and for exposure times to 4000 hours (Ref.9,
14 through 21). Because of the relatively low opera-
tional temperatures of the CO2-cooled reactors, how-
ever, the range of alloys for which investigations
are reported is mainly confined to the low-alloy and
stainless steels and Inconel C00. In general, atmos-
pheres rich in carbon dioxide are oxidizing toward
Fe-Ni-Cr alloys and lead to minor amounts of carbur-
ization, whereas carbon monoxide-rich atmospheres are
carburizing. Localized serious carburization has
been observed in carbon dioxide, but this has gen-
erally occurred where carbon monoxide concentrations
have accumulated in stagnant areas or in porous scales.
The main scale-forming reaction in carbon dioxide
oxidation is:
M + CO 2 - MO + CO
Solid carbon deposits, from other scale-forming reac-
tions:
2M + CO 2 = 2 MO + [C',
M + CO = MO + [C]
2 CO = C + 0 2

can lead to some carburization attack but this is gen-
erally slow. Water vapor or hydrogen additions to the
atmosphere tend to reduce its carburizing potential
by reacting with carbon monoxide, and in some cases
could lead to decarburization.
Antill and Warbutron (Ref. 21) have characterized
the behavior of stainless steels in CO2-CO environ-
ments in the following way. For the 20/25/Nb-type
stainless steels in pure CO2, at temperatures up to
1560 F, there is a small pickup of carbon during the
initial stages of exposure, followed by a slow,
steady decarburization up to at least 700 hours ex-
posure at 1560 F. Increased initial carbon pickup
and long-term carburization are favored by large
additions of CO. Similarly, carburization can occur
in the long term if the protective oxide deteriorates,
and CO accumulation can occur in any porous, non-
protective scale that forms. This carburization is
favored by a low Cr and/or Ni content, repeated
thermal cycling, extremely long exposure times, or
temperatures sppreciably above 1560 F. High chromium
levels can apparently buy longer alloy lifetimes, as
in air oxidation.
The detailed processing history can affect the
susceptibility of stainless steels to carburization
in CO2, and the rate and morphology of attack. Anneal-
ing of AISI 316 in nitrogen instead of air, for in-
stance, resulted in increased oxide scale thickness
and greater depths of carbide penetration after expo-
sure to CO2 at 1202 F for 3000 hours (Ref. 19).
Problems of variability in oxidation rates of
2-1/4 Cr-1 Mo and 1 Cr-1/2 Mo steels in CO 2 at 1022 F
have been correlated with the shape, form, and dis-
tribution of MnS particles in the alloys (Ref. 17).
Minor constituents in the CO 2 , especially water vapor,
also exert an effect. Differences in terminal rates
of 0.0044 to 0.0857 mg/cm2/hr have been observed in
exposures ranging up to 7000 hours although accelera-
tion to the rapid corrosion rates can occur after a
few, or 2 to 3000 hours exposure.
It is apparent, then, that the alloy degradation
with He/CO 2 working fluid stems from essentially
similar mechanisms as with the impure He gas. It is
related to localized accumulations of CO for the pro-
tective scale-forming alloys, and to unpredictable
corrosion behavior for the low-alloy steels. Since
He/CO 2 mixture would eventually become a mixture of
He/CO 2 /CO through reaction with the metallic com-
ponents, the ratio CO 2 /CO would have to be controlled
to maintain protective behavior. This could be accom-
plished by maintaining a small percentage of oxygen
(1 mole%) in the mixture to ensure a high CO 2 /CO ratio.
COST AND AVAILABILITY
The cost and availability of a CCGT system working
fluid naturally influences its desirability for appli-
cation to real systems. Previous discussion has
brought out that helium, air, and mixtures of He/CO2
and He/Xe are strong contenders for application from
the viewpoint of heat transfer capability and mate-
rials compatibility.
Xenon is a rare and expensive gas, with a cost/
scf several thousand times that of helium and is not
a practical candidate on that account.
Air, nitrogen, and CO 2 are all available in un-
limited supply and at very modest cost. It should be
understood that air will not be free in that it will
need careful processing to remove moisture and par-
ticulate matter.
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Li
Helium is one of the noble gases and one might
question the adequacy of its supply and price. An in-
vestigation of the helium supply situation with the
U.S. Bureau of Mines at Amarillo, Texas, was conducted.
Helium is controlled by the U.S. government. The
present base price is $35 per 1000 scf. This price
is only remotely related to the cost of production
and storage, has not changed in many years, and is not
expected to escalate with inflation. Purchasers of
helium now pay from about $45 to $65 per 1000 scf de-
pending upon the supplier. The difference from $35
represents the cost of delivery and the cost of doing
business for the commercial suppliers. These differ-
ential costs would be expected to escalate. If one
assumes that the total volumetric capacity of a 350-
MWe CCGT system is on the order of 60,000 actual cubic
feet, the average pressure is 750 psia, and the aver-
age temperature is 1000 F, then the volume of helium
in the system is on the order of 1,000,000 scf. Re-
cent information on the Oberhausen II CCGT installa-
tion projects a yearly loss of one full helium charge.
At a cost of $50 per 1000 scf, the cost of one system
charge with helium would be $55,000. This compares
with a yearly coal cost of $1 per million Btu and 65%
load factor of approximately $17 million. One re-
charge with helium per year would thus cost about
3/10 of 1% of the cost of the coal. As the CCGT sys-
tems provide about a 10% fuel savings over the stan-
dard steam stations, this helium cost would be only
3% of the coal savings relative to steam. If there
were 350,000 MW of helium-cooled CCGT capacity in the
United States, each requiring one yearly helium re-
zewal, the helium consumption would be about 1.33 x
10-9 scf. This consumption rate is roughly equal to
the yearly consumption that existed in the United
States during the height of the missile and space
program and would not constitute a serious drain upon
the supply. These facts concerning the costs and
availability of helium lead one to conclude that
helium would be a viable CCGT system working fluid,
provided that the system's helium integrity were such
as to avoid excessive helium losses.
SAFETY
The choice of working fluid influences the CCGT
system safety because of the possible hazardous effects
of leakage, and possible explosions of pressure parts
due to metals embrittlement.
The three leading working fluid contenders: 0.99
He/0.01 02; 0.6 He/0.39 CO2/0.01 0 2 ; and air are
safe in that they are nontoxic, nonflammable, and non-
embrittling. Hydrogen has very attractive heat trans-
few and fluid transport properties, but was not
seriously considered as a working fluid because it is
so flammable, and embrittles many metals.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Helium, air, and helium/carbon dioxide (0.6
He/0.4 CO2 by mole) gas mixtures were selected as pos-
sible candidate working fluids for coal-fired, closed-
cycle gas turbine power generation and cogeneration
systems. Both helium and He/CO2 gas mixture may re-
quire the addition of small percentage (1 mole percent)
of oxygen to safeguard against carburization of the
alloy tube materials.
2. Air and He/CO2 working fluids having higher
optimum operating pressure ratios, give slightly
higher thermal efficiencies than helium working fluid
at equal design pressure loss factors (AP/P).
 C
3. Closed-cycle gas turbine using helium working 6 Tilliette, Z. P., Pierre, B., and Jude, P.,
fluid can be designed to operate at higher rotative
"Description, Output and Development Prospects of a
speeds with smaller blade tip diameters than those
750 C Helium Direct Cycle Nuclear Power Plant With a
using air and He/CO 2 mixture, because of the lower
Single Turbomachine and Intermediate Cooling," ASME
operating pressure ratio and higher sonic velocity of
Paper 77-GT-2, Mar. 1977.
helium working fluid. But helium turbines and com-
pressors will require many more stages than air or 7
Zenker, P., "The Oberhausen 50 MW Helium Tur-
He/CO 2 turbines and compressors.
bine Plant," Combustion, Apr. 1976, pp. 21-25.
4. Mixtures of gases, particularly those with
8
widely different molecular weights, have pronounced Anon, "Advanced Coal-Fuelded Combustor/Heat
synergetic effect on heat transfer coefficients, main- Exchanger Technology Study," Final Report RI/RD78-212A,
ly due to decreased Prandtl numbers of gas mixtures, DOE Contract No. EF-77-C-01-2612, Mar. 1977-June 1978,
0.6 He/0.4 CO2 mixture appears to offer attractive Rockwell International/Rocketdyne Division, Canoga
features of substantially higher molecular weight and Park, California.
fewer turbine compressor stages with only about 13
9
percent decrease in heat transfer coefficient as com- Noden, J. D., Knights, C. J., and Thomas, M. W.,
pared to the pure helium working fluid. "Growth of Austenitic Stainless Steels Oxidizers in
C- and O-Bearing Gases," Brit. Corr. J., 3, 47 (1968).
5. Based on equal heat fluxes and equal AP/P,
the film coefficients of heat transfer for the three 10
Gray, P. B. and Watts, C., "Operating Exper-
candidate working fluids of He, He/CO 2 and air are in
ience With the Dragon Reactor," Proceedings of the
the proportions of 1:0.87:0.52. The heat transfer
Symposium on Advanced and HT Gas Cooled Reactors,
surface areas required for the unfired heat exchangers
IAEA, 1969, p. 197.
would also be approximately in this order with the
three working fluids. The required heat transfer sur-
11 Sekino, Shozo, "Studies of Heat Resistant Mate-
face area for the fired heat exchanger is largely de-
rials for High Temperature Gas Reactors," NASA TTF-15,
pendent upon the controlling combustion gas side heat
576, May 1974.
transfer coefficient. But the tube wall operating
temperature and its allowable design stress are signi-
12 Yuzo, Hosoi and Abe Seizabuyo, "The Effect of
ficantly affected by the working fluid side heat
Helium Environment on the Creep Rupture Properties of
transfer coefficient particularly in the high heat
Inconel 617 at 1000 C," Metallurgical Transactions A,
flux regions of a radiant furnace. An increase in
Vol. 6A, June 1975, pp. 1171-1178.
tube wall thickness by a factor as much as 1.9 is re-
quired when air working fluid is used instead of 13
Rosenwasser, S. M. and Johnson, W. R., "Gas Tur-
helium in a radiant furnace system.
bine and Advanced HTGR Materials Screening Test Program,
6. In this paper, only the characteristic require- 10,000 Hour Results and Semiannual Progress Report,"
ments and the effects of the working fluids on the GA-A14407 UC-77 on Contract EY-76-C-03-0107, July 1977.
CCGT cycle performance and the various component de-
signs were covered. These effects will vary in extent 14 Martin, W. R. and Weir, J. R., "Influence of
according to the selected cycle and component designs. Chromium Content on Carburization of Cr-Ni-Fe Alloys
Therefore, overall tradeoff between various working in CO2," J. Nuclear Materials, 16, 19 (1965).
fluids will have to be based on the final criterion
of either cost of electricity or return an investment 15 Jepson, W. B., Antill, J. E., and Warburton,
which would require an extensive and detailed design J. B., "The Oxidation and Carburization of a 20/25/Nb
study of each CCGT system. Steel in CO 2 . in CO and in CO -CO Mixtures," Brit.
Corr. J., 1, 15 (1965). 2
REFERENCES
16 McCoy, H. E., "Type 304 Stainless Steel vs Flow-
ing CO2 at Atmospheric Pressure and 1100-1800 F,"
1 Bammert, K. and Groschup, "Status Report on
Corrosion, 21, 84 (1965).
Closed-Cycle Power Plants in the Federal Republic of
Germany," Journal of Engineering for Power, Jan. 1977,
17 Harris, R. J. and Menzies, J. A., "Variability
pp. 37-46.
in CO Oxidation Resistance of 2-1/4Cr-lMo and OCr-1/2
2 Mo Steels," Brit. Corr. J., 3, 34 (1968).
Bammert, K. and Bohm, E., "Nuclear Power Plants
With High-Temperature Reactor and Helium Turbine,"
18 Cribb, R. J. P., Summerling, R., and Dobing, E.,
ASME Paper 69-GT-43.
"Corrosion of a Vented Stainless-Steel Tube Exposed to
CO2 Containing 1% CO in a Nuclear Reactor," Brit.
3 Harrach, W. G. and Caldwell, R. T., "System
Corr J., 3, 1976 (1968).
Optimization of Brayton Cycle Space Power Plants,"
ASME Paper 63-WA-87, Nov. 1963. 19
Board, J. and Winterbourne, R., "Oxidation of
4 Austenitic Stainless Steel Boiler Tubing in CO2, Brit.
McDonald, C. F., Fortescue, P., and Krase,
Corr. J., 4, 86 (1969).
J. M., "Primary Systems Preliminary Designs for Gas
Turbine HTGR Power Plant," ASME Paper 76-GT-92, Mar 20
Stevens, C. G. and Board, J., "Effect of Mois-
1976. ture on the Ocidation of Mild Steel and Low Alloy
5 Steel in CO 2 ,' Brit. Corr. J., 4, 80 (1969).
Kramer, H. and Schlenker, H. V., "The Develop-
ment of the HTR-Gas Turbine Cycle in Germany," pre-
21 Antill, J. E. and Warburton, J. B., "Behavior of
sented at the 1976 ASME-ANS International Conference Carbon During the Corrosion of Stainless Steel of CO ,
on Advanced Nuclear Energy Systems, Pittsburg, PA, Corrosion Science, 7, 645 (1967).
Mar. 1976.

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 Li

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT program manager was Mr. C. Kinney, who provided the

The working fluids study was conducted under the
DOE sponsored program "Advanced Coal-Fueled Combustor/
Heat Exchanger Technology Study," Contract No. EF-77-
C-01-2612, March 1977 through June 1978. The DOE
overall direction of the program and helpful sugges-
tions in the preparation of the paper. Acknowledgement
is also due to Dr. I. Wright of Battelle Columbus Labor-
atories for his contribution in the material compatbil-
ity study.

11

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