Running head: COMPLEMENTATION 1

That Clauses and Complementation

Lauren Porter

Colorado State University

THAT CLAUSES AND COMPLEMENTATION 2

Introduction

This paper focuses on a few aspects of complementation in English via the use of

that clauses. In this paper I first describe different functions of that clauses and compare

instances of that clauses versus zero complementation by looking at their semantic

functions as complementizers. Additionally, I examine the difference between that

complements versus zero complements. After examining function, I move on to describe

two forms in which that clauses are utilized. The first is the extraposition of complements

(extraposed it in English with that clauses). The second form is the use of that clauses

with the pivot construction with double copular be.

Complementation in English

That clauses are one form of complementation in English. The ideas for this paper

originate from Chapter 32 in The Grammar Book (Larsen-Freeman & Celce- Murcia,

2016), which discusses different aspects of complementation in English. Complements

are constituents needed to complete the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or sometimes a

noun (Larsen-Freeman & Celce-Murcia, 2016, p. 679). As Weinert writes, complement

clauses are dependent or related clauses and they typically complement verbs, nouns and

adjectives. Yet the nature of the combination ranges from relatively tight syntactic and

semantic integration to loose discourse-pragmatic relations (2012, p. 234).

Complementation occurs in so many different ways in English. As indicated in

The Grammar Book,

[]There are many clausal complementation options for English verbs and

adjectives (and sometimes nouns). This area is the source of numerous learning

challenges for ESL/EFL students. The students learn the various complement
THAT CLAUSES AND COMPLEMENTATION 3

forms, but they often use the wrong complement with a given verb. Sometimes

this is due to cross-linguistic influence from the learners native language

(Larsen-Freeman & Celce-Murcia, 2016, p. 679).

This paper focuses on that clauses specifically as it attempts to narrow the focus

of not necessarily one aspect of complementation, but on the specific function of that. By

focusing on that, the paper provides additional semantic function and form information to

help students (and teachers) more thoroughly understand the function and forms of that

clauses as complements. This is important because there are many forms of

complementation in English, and learning these structures can present a challenge for

learners.

Examples of that clauses

Chapter 32 in The Grammar Book demonstrates different aspects of

complementation that utilize that clauses in order to complete the meaning of a verb,

adjective, or noun (see Example 1). In this example, taken from Larsen-Freeman &

Celce-Murcia (2016, p. 707), that is being used to complement the adjective glad, and

is also an adjective complement clause.

(1) Im glad [that you passed the examination].

That can also be used to complement noun phrases, as in Example 2 (Larsen-

Freeman & Celce-Murcia, 2016, p. 707). Here, the clause serves to specify information

about some forthcoming news.

(2) The news [that a hurricane is coming] is worrisome.

THAT CLAUSES AND COMPLEMENTATION 4

Larsen-Freeman & Celce-Murcia (2016, p. 707) also provide an example of

extraposition (see Example 3). The topic of extraposition will be covered more in-depth

later in this paper.

(3) It is unfortunate [that he left without any money].

Functions of that clauses

Here, I describe the functions of that clauses, before discussing some specific

forms in which that clauses are found, specifically in the extraposition of it with that

clauses and the pivot construction with double copular be.

Because that clauses are frequent in various forms (or aspects) of

complementation, including subject-to-subject raising, complex-noun phrase

complements, adjective complements, extraposition of complements, and complex

passives (Larsen-Freeman & Celce-Murcia, 2016), it is important to understand how that

clauses function in sentences. As the following information demonstrates, the use of that

is determined by different semantic features and choice of vocabulary.

According to Cacoullos & Walker (2009), that marks the boundary between two

clauses which each contain lexical content and creates conceptual separation between the

two clauses. On the other hand, when clauses function as a single unit, that is not present.

This is known as zero complementation.

Boye (2010), describes the function of that by distinguishing object of

perception and knowledge acquired. In this line of thinking, that is more frequent in

sentences that represent knowledge acquired (see Example 4a below). Boye (2010, p.

393) also states that clauses where that is absent (ones that represent an object of

perception) designate processes construed as ungrounded, whereas sentences with

that clauses (that represent knowledge acquired), designate processes construed as

THAT CLAUSES AND COMPLEMENTATION 5

grounded. Examples 4a and 4b, below, illustrate knowledge acquired and object of

perception.

Both Cacoullos & Walker (2009) and Boye (2010) present examples that use

sentences with that clauses and zero complementation as comparisons to demonstrate the

different functions of that clauses (see Examples 4a and 4b below).

4a.Susan found [that the bed was uncomfortable].

4b. Susan found [the bed uncomfortable].

In the first example (4a), it is likely a case where Susan learned the result of, for

example, consumer reaction tests to the beds. This represents knowledge acquired by

Susan. In this case, the knowledge was acquired by Susan by reading the consumer

reaction tests. However, the second example (4b) is more likely in a case where Susan

tested the beds herself. The represents object of perception, in other words, how Susan

herself perceives the beds. Additionally, this example shows how when the two clauses

are more conceptually distant, that is present. In this case, 4a represents conceptually

distant notions in that: 1) Susan acquired information, and 2) others tested the beds. On

the other hand, 4b is less conceptually distant because it represents a case where Susan

herself tested the beds and created and reported her opinion. An example (see 5a and 5b

below) from Boye (2010, p. 391), shows similar results to examples 4a and 4b:

5a. Paul saw Santa Claus kiss mummy.

5b. Paul saw (that) Santa Claus kissed mummy.

THAT CLAUSES AND COMPLEMENTATION 6

In this example, the insertion of that creates a conceptual distance between the clauses.

The conceptual distance created in 5b represents the distance between: 1) what Paul saw,

and 2) the fact that Santa Claus kissed mummy. Additionally, that represents the

knowledge acquired by Paul.

Weinert (2012), says that the verb that controls the complement clause is the main

predictor of whether or not a complementizer will be present. It has been found that the

two most frequent verbs that do not require a complement (in this case, that do not

require a that clause) are think and say. Weinert (2012) references Biber et al. (1999)

who report that, think and say have unintroduced complements (zero complements)

in over 90% of cases. For example, it is very common in spoken English to find the

following constructions (zero complementation) with think and say. In the two

examples below, the parentheses express the optionality of using that, and the preference

to omit it.

(6) I think (that) you should go to school now.

(7) They say (that) they want to get a puppy.

However, many other verbs strongly prefer a that clause. Examples (8) and (9)

illustrate the preference for using that by replacing think and say with prefer and

tell.

(8) I prefer that you go to school now.

THAT CLAUSES AND COMPLEMENTATION 7

(9) They told me that they want to get a puppy.

Weinert (2012) also references the Thompson & Mulac (1991) study that reports a

similar finding: that the verbs think and guess occur with unintroduced clauses 90%

of the time. This information can be compiled with the understanding that think,

guess, and say are the most common verbs that predict a zero complementizer.

Weinert (2012) says that the studies attribute the absence of that in these cases to the

frequency of the verbs, the use of first and second-person subjects in the main clause, and

the absence of auxiliaries, adverbs, and indirect objects in the main clause.

Forms of that clauses

One sentence form with that clauses is with the extraposition of complements.

Extraposition is, the tendency of heavy or dominant constituents to be placed at the end

of the sentence with the subject slot being filled by nonreferential it (sometimes called

anticipatory or extraposed it) (Larsen-Freeman & Celce-Murcia, 2016). Extraposition

can also occur in the object position, as the examples from Larsen-Freeman & Celce-

Murcia (2016, p. 714) show:

(10) I doubt [that she has the answer] very much.

(11) I doubt (it) very much [that she has the answer].

Example 11 demonstrates how the constituent that she has the answer is located

at the end of the sentence, with the object slot being filled with it. As Gentens (2016, p.

1) describes, English object extraposition constructioninvolves the anticipation of a

THAT CLAUSES AND COMPLEMENTATION 8

complement clause by an expletive pronoun it in object position. [It] is a construction in

which a complement clause is anticipated by the pronoun it in object position, with the

clause itself moved further towards the end of the sentence. An example from Gentens

(2016, p. 1) shows how the that clause is the complement, and is preceded by it:

(12) I appreciate order and control. I like it that everythings done according to

the rules.

Utterances with extraposition differ from the typical subject-verb-object order in

English, as the following example demonstrates. In this case, the complement clause is

placed after the object complement surprising, where it would normally follow

immediately after the main clause verb. It functions as an anticipation of the that

complement clause, which has been moved to the end, in object position. From Gentens

(2016, p. 2):

(13) I find it surprising that figurative art still seems underrated.

Gentens (2016) claims that object extrapositions function is discursive, in that it

is the emphasis that the speaker puts on the main clause prediction. With this discursive

function, the main clause proposition is emphasized, and therefore adds speaker-related

meaning to what would otherwise be mostly descriptive (Gentens, 2016). Another

function of extraposition is that it is used when the extraposed clause is (usually) given or

presupposed (Kallulli, 2010).

THAT CLAUSES AND COMPLEMENTATION 9

Pivot constructions with double copular be

The next section focuses on pivot constructions utilizing double copular be in

English. That clauses appear in pivot constructions with double copular be in English,

as in the following example, taken from Weinert (2012, p. 256):

(14) Thats the other thing about ivy is that it is evergreen.

According to Weinert (2012), the constructions are amalgams of two

constructions. The first part of the construction is a copular main clauseand the second

clause is linked explicitly by BE...[and] a complementiser may follow. In the following

example, that functions as a complementizer. The following example, taken from Weinert

(2012, p. 257), shows the use of the pivot construction with double copular be:

(15) Thats something we tend to forget is that we continue to pay taxes.

(16) Thats something we tend to forget we continue to pay taxes.

In Example 15, the double copular be occurs with thats (because thats is a

contraction between that and is) and is, but that we continue to pay taxes serves as

the complementizer. This is in contrast with Example 16which does not utilize the double

copular be, and also does not utilize the that clause as the complementizer. As Weinert

(2012, p. 257) puts it, The construction is apparently an amalgam of thats something we

tend to forget and something we tend to forget is that we continue to pay taxes.
THAT CLAUSES AND COMPLEMENTATION 10

Conclusion

Overall, I have discussed that clauses in order to explain their function more in-

depth because there are so many different aspects of complementation in English in

which they occur. I have shown how that clauses function semantically in a variety of

aspects of complementation in English. To review, that clauses create a conceptual

distance-marker in sentences, represent knowledge acquired as opposed to objects of

perception, represent processes construed as grounded, and are less common with the

verbs think, say, and guess. Additionally, I have explored that clauses in the forms

of extraposition of complements and also with the pivot construction with double copular

be. Numerous examples have been presented in order to demonstrate the forms

explained and also to exemplify the semantic function of that. This information should

prove itself useful to both English language learners and English language teachers when

learning and teaching the numerous possible aspects of complementation that occur in

English, specifically when focusing on that clauses and their semantic roles.

References

Boye, K. (2010). Reference and clausal perception-verb complements. Linguistics,

48(2). 391-430. doi: 10.1515/LING.2010.013

Cacoullos, R.T., & Walker, J.A. (2009). On the persistence of grammar in discourse

formulas: A variationist study of that. Linguistics, 47(1), 1-43.

doi: 10.1515/LING.2009.001
THAT CLAUSES AND COMPLEMENTATION 11

Gentens, C. (2016). The discursive status of extraposed object clauses. Journal Of

Pragmatics, 96, 15-31. Doi: 10.1016/j.pragma.2016.03.001

Kallulli, D. (2010). Belief will create fact: On the relation between givennuess and

presupposition, and other remarks. Theoretical Linguistics, 36(2/3), 199-

208. doi: 10.1515/THLI.2010.014

Larsen-Freeman, D. & Celce-Muria, M. (2015). The grammar book: Form, meaning,

and use for English language teachers. U.S.: Heinle Cengage Learning.

Weinert, R. (2012). Complement clauses in spoken German and English:

Syntax, deixis, and discourse pragmatics. Folia Linguistica, 46(1). 233-266.

doi: 10.1515/flin.2012.8