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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles

ZIMBABWE

by
J. Gambiza and C. Nyama
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FAO 2006
3

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 5

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 7


Major topographic features 7
Geology and soils 7

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 7


Climate 7
Agro-ecological zones 8

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 9


Commercial production 9
Beef cattle 9
Dairy cattle 10
Smallholder production 11
Dairy cattle 11
Livestock numbers and production statistics in the period of 19962005 12

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE 12


Natural grazing (rangeland) 12
Reinforced (improved) rangeland 15
Planted pastures 16

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE RESOURCES 17

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 17

8. REFERENCES 17

9. CONTACTS 18
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 5

1. INTRODUCTION

Zimbabwe has an area of 390757km2. It extends from latitudes 15o37 S to 22 o24 S and from longitudes
25 o14 E to 33 o 04E. It is landlocked, bordering Mozambique to the east, South Africa to the south,
Botswana to the west and Zambia to the north (Figure 1). Altitude ranges between 197 m and 2592m.
About 80% of the land is higher than 600m and less than 5% is above 1500m, with the highest part
in the Eastern Highlands. The Zambezi, Save and Limpopo are the major rivers. Harare is the capital
city and is situated in the northern part of the country. Bulawayo, the second largest city, is found in the
southern part of the country. Good rail and road networks connect major
towns and cities. The population was estimated at 12236805 in July 2006, Table 1. Beef and hide
with a growth rate of 0.62% (World Factbook). exports (tonnes)
In the late 1990s Zimbabwe had one of the most developed industrial Year Beef Hides
1990 2 605 2 186
sectors in Africa. Agriculture was the most important economic activity
1991 4 082 3 718
(Rukuni, 1994) with about 60% of industry being agro-based. Furthermore, 1992 8 969 5 296
the agricultural sector consumed about 20% of total output of industry 1993 10 001 3 823
(CFU, 2000).The agricultural sector employed a large proportion of 1994 14 604 1 408
the countrys labour force and also contributed about 18% of GDP 1995 12 790 1 500
and 40% of export earnings annually in a normal year (Rukuni, 1994). 1996 6 640 4 365
1997* 6 932 1 379
The major exports in the 1990s were are tobacco, cotton, sugar, maize,
1998* 7 481 1 221
tea, coffee, horticultural crops, fruits, vegetables and beef (Table 1). 1999* 11 547 1 273
The beef exports go mainly to the European Union and South Africa. 2000* 12 010 2 390
[Since this profile was first prepared there have been many changes in 2001* 31 84
Zimbabwe and the impact of these changes on the agricultural, pastoral 2002* 4 344 2 826
and livestock industries may not be adequately reflected here]. 2003* 4 344 335
2004* 54 1026
About 70% of the population is dependent on farming for a livelihood.
Source: Central Statistical Office
However, more than 80% of Zimbabwe is subject to conditions which make with data 1997-2004* from
dry land cropping a risky undertaking because of low and erratic rainfall. FAOSTAT (2006).

Figure 1. Map of Zimbabwe


6 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Livestock and crop production are therefore important Table 2. Numbers of livestock (thousand)
enterprises in most areas.The major ruminant species in commercial, communal and resettlement
farming sectors
kept are cattle, goats and sheep. Cattle are the most
Year Commercial Communal + Resettlement
important; donkeys, pigs and poultry are also kept. sector sectors
Natural grazing is the most important source of Beef Dairy Cattle Goats Sheep Pigs
livestock feed. The number of domestic livestock 1980 2 304 106 2 869 1 108 307 86
1981 2 287 104 2 895 1 375 396 124
fluctuates widely because of variations in annual
1982 2 298 102 3 262 1 014 354 135
rainfall (Table 2).
1983 2 253 105 3 189 1 178 352 133
There are four major farming sectors in Zimbabwe 1984 2 120 111 3 234 1 609 348 159
(Table 3):large-scale commercial, small-scale 1985 1 979 111 3 409 1 711 422 152
commercial, communal and resettlement. Large-scale 1986 2 014 112 3 657 1 916 343 191
commercial farms, owned mainly by white farmers, 1987 1 892 121 3 905 2 210 447 192
1988 1 884 121 3 815 2 360 545 226
have an average size of 2 200 ha, with about 55%
1989 1 867 123 3 856 2 419 517 275
being located in high potential areas.These farms are
1990 1 704 127 4 172 2 621 588 233
characterised by relatively high levels of investment. 1991 1 714 126 3 509 2 622 487 207
In contrast, small-scale commercial farms occupy the 1992 1 641 124 4 259 2 618 491 209
smallest land area with an average farm size of about 1993 1 451 115 3 589 2 569 456 204
125ha. Land is held under either free-hold or lease- 1994 1 383 105 4 279 2 556 461 201
1995 1 331 105 3 381 2 457 466 157
hold title. The farms are leased from government.
1996 3 518 2 519 428 143
The communal farming sector has the highest (Source: Central Statistical Office; Matowanyika, 1998).
human population density. About 74% of communal
farmland is on inherently infertile sandy soils in marginal areas characterised by low and erratic rainfall.
Arable land holdings are generally less than 2.5ha. There is considerable pressure on the land because
of the increasing human population growth rate (3% per annum). The high pressure on land results
in conversion of grazing land to arable, which in turn, leads to serious environmental problems like
deforestation and soil erosion. When Zimbabwe gained independence in 1980, one of the primary aims
of the new government was to relieve pressure on communal lands by resettling people on formerly
white-owned large-scale commercial farms. Farms were acquired on a willing-seller willing buyer basis.
As of 2000, more than 51410 families have been resettled on 3790000ha. Tenants are given permits to
settle, cultivate land and keep livestock. Land is held under lease-hold title. There are serious problems
relating to land ownership in Zimbabwe. Landless people from communal areas are currently invading
white-owned large-scale commercial farms and the land ownership issue has a very high profile with
ongoing legal battles.

Table 3. Major characteristics of the farming sectors and existing levels of investment
Parameter Large-scale farms Small-scale farms Communal areas Resettlement areas
Land tenure Freehold & Freehold & Leasehold Leasehold
leasehold leasehold
Number of households 4 660 8 653 > 1 million 51 410
Land area (106 ha) 11.22 1.38 16.35 3.79
Farm size (ha) 2 200 125 2.5a 5a
Agricultural land potential High Marginal Marginal Medium
Macro-level investmentb
Roads 4 2 2 2
Credit facilities: short-term 4 2 1 2
Medium term 3 3 - 2
Research 3 1 1 1
Extension 4 2 3 2
Marketing outlets 3 2 2 2
Irrigation development 3 1 1 1
Grazing schemes (fencing) 4 3 1 1
Micro-level investmentb
Fertiliser use 4 2 1 2
Use of improved seed 4 2 2 2
a
Refers only to arable land holding.
b
1 and 4 denote lowest and highest levels of investment, respectively. (Source: Rukuni, 1994).
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 7

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY


Major topographic features
The country can be divided into six general physical regions (Figure 1). Anderson et al., 1993 described
these regions as follows:
Eastern Highlands. This is a series of mountain ranges extending some 250km along the border
with Mozambique. Altitude ranges between 2000m and 2400m. The high elevation gives this
region a characteristic microclimate and vegetation.
Highveld. Consists of a more or less gently undulating plateau above 1200m. A northern subre-
gion extends from Chinoyi to Rusape and south to Gweru. Karoi is centred on an outlier of this
subregion to the northwest. A southern, more arid, subregion extends and narrows southwest from
Gweru to Plumtree.
Middleveld. Borders the Highveld. Elevation ranges between 900 m and 1200m. Undulating to
rolling, with common rock outcrops and locally dissected, it comprises a subregion 80 to 160km
wide southeast of the Highveld and two more complex subregions to the northeast and northwest
of the Highveld.
Kalahari Sandveld. This is an extensive area in western Zimbabwe influenced by a mantle of deep
aeolian Kalahari sands. It is flat to undulating with an altitude less than 1200m.
Zambezi Valley. This can be divided into two subregions separated by the Kariba gorge. The Upper
Zambezi Valley and Sanyati-Sengwa Basin subregion, mainly at elevations between 500 m and
900m, shows strong structural control, resulting in the Matuzviadonha and Chizarira plateaux.The
Mid Zambezi Valley subregion downstream of the Kariba Gorge and demarcated by the precipitous
Zambezi Escarpment, declines northwards from about 600m elevation at the escarpment foot to
about 350m at the Mozambique border. It is generally less broken than the Upper Zambezi Valley,
particularly east of the Manyame River where the landform shape is almost flat to undulating but
with a finely dissected microrelief in places.
Southeast Lowveld and Middle Save Valley. This is a broad peneplain at elevations under 900m.
East of the middle reaches of the Save River, there is a marked rise through the foothills of the
Eastern Highlands. Elsewhere, the transition to Middleveld is gradational. Landform is very sub-
dued, generally almost flat to gently undulating.

Geology and soils


Soils are closely related to the underlying rocks. Nyamapfene (1991) gives a detailed description of
the soils of Zimbabwe. Diverse geological materials occur in the country. Igneous and metamorphosed
igneous rocks occupy 65% and materials of aeolian (e.g. Kalahari sands) and sedimentary origin (e.g.
Karoo sandstones) 25% of the area. Granites are the dominant (46%) igneous rocks. The granites give
rise to infertile light textured sandy soils. Relatively small inclusions of other rocks referred to as the
gold belt formations (complexes of metamorphosed basaltic and andesitic lavas and sediments) are
important sources of minerals and also give rise to agriculturally important heavy textured red soils. A
unique feature of Zimbabwes geology is the 540km long Great Dyke that stretches in a nearly straight
line from the northern Highveld region near the Zambezi escarpment southwards into the Southeast
Lowveld region. It is composed of mafic and ultramafic rocks that give rise to soils that are characterised
by the dominance of magnesium and toxic levels of heavy minerals such as chrome and nickel that are
associated with characteristic flora such as Andropogon gayanus and Diplorhynchus condylocarpon
(Nyamapfene, 1991).

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES


Climate
Zimbabwe lies entirely within the tropics but much of the Highveld and Eastern Highlands have a
subtropical to temperate climate due to the modifying effect of altitude. Three seasons are recognised
8 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

in Zimbabwe. These are: (1) a hot wet season from mid- November to March (summer); (2) a cold dry
season from April to July (winter), and a hot dry season from August to mid-November (spring).
Air temperatures are closely related to altitude with mean annual temperature ranging from about
25 oC in parts of the Zambezi Valley to less than 15 oC above 1 800 m in the Eastern Highlands.
Maximum temperatures are lowest in June or July and highest in October. During winter, mean daily
temperature ranges between 11 and 20oC. Mean maximum daily temperatures can exceed 32oC during
spring.
Frost may occur in most areas between May and September, with the highest incidence in June and
July. It occurs more frequently and more severely at mid and high altitudes. Severe frosts are associated
with an influx of cold dry southwesterly air that mostly affects the Kalahari Sandveld and southern
Highveld regions. Local topography, however, is the main determinant of frost risk with valleys, vleis
and other sites which receive and retain cold night air being especially susceptible. The Mid Zambezi
Valley is probably the only frost-free region.
Rainfall varies widely both temporally and spatially.The reliability of rainfall increases with altitude
and from south to north. Coefficients of variability range from >40% in areas south of Bulawayo to
<20% in some parts of the Highveld and Eastern Highlands. About 90% of the total rainfall in Zimbabwe
is associated with thunderstorm activity producing falls of short duration and high intensity. Periods of
drizzle and light rain (guti) are only significant in the southeast of the central watershed, but total
amounts contributed by this type of rainfall are small.Local variation in the regional rainfall pattern
caused by orographic effects occurs in several areas.

Agro-ecological zones
Vincent and Thomas (1960) divided Zimbabwe into five main natural regions according to differences
in effective rainfall (Figure 2; Table 4).
Annual rainfall is highest in Natural region I which covers approximately 2% of the land area. It
is a specialised and diversified farming region with plantation forestry, fruit and intensive livestock
production.Tea, coffee and macadamia nuts are grown in frost-free areas. Natural region II covering 15%

Figure 2. Map of agro-climatic zones and farming regions


Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 9

of the land area, receives lower rainfall Table. 4. Agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe and the
than region I, nevertheless is suitable recommended farming systems in each zone
Natural Area Rainfall Farming system
for intensive farming based on crops or region (km2) (mm/year)
livestock production. I 7 000 >1 000 Specialised and diversified farming
Natural region III is a semi-intensive II 58 600 750 1 000 Intensive farming
farming region covering 19% of Zimbabwe. III 72 900 650 - 800 Semi-intensive farming
IV 147 800 450 - 650 Semi-extensive farming
Although rainfall in this region is moderate
V 104 400 <450 Extensive farming
in total amount, severe mid season dry (Vincent and Thomas, 1960)
spells make it marginal for maize, tobacco
and cotton, or for enterprises based on crop production alone. The farming systems are therefore based
on both livestock (assisted by the production of fodder crops) and cash crops.
Natural region IV is a semi-extensive farming region covering about 38% of Zimbabwe. Rainfall is
low and periodic seasonal droughts and severe dry spells during the rainy season are common. Crop
production is therefore risky except in certain very favourable localities, where limited drought resistant
crops are grown as a sideline.The farming is based on livestock and drought resistant fodder crops.
Natural region V is an extensive farming region covering about 27% of Zimbabwe. Rainfall in this
region is too low and erratic for the reliable production of even drought resistant fodder and grain crops,
and farming is based on grazing natural pasture. Extensive cattle or game ranching is the only sound
farming system for this region.

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS


Both large-scale commercial and smallholder ruminant livestock production are practised in Zimbabwe.
Beef and dairy cattle production are the important commercial enterprises while in the smallholder sector
farmers keep beef, dairy and small ruminants (sheep and goats) under a mixed farming system.

Commercial production
Beef and dairy production are important in the large-scale commercial sector (Table 5). Beef and milk
are consumed locally and also exported. Exports of beef to the EU and South Africa generate foreign
exchange.

Beef cattle
European breeds (Bos taurus), indigenous breeds (Bos indicus) and crosses are used for beef production.
Systems range from extensive systems (ranching), which require large areas of land, to intensive
systems, which require relatively smaller areas of land. Generally, extensive systems are practised in
Natural regions IV and V where rainfall is too low and erratic for crops. In contrast, intensive systems of
production such as pen-fattening of slaughter stock are practised in high rainfall areas (Natural regions
II and III) where herbage production is higher and less variable and farmers can grow high-energy feeds
like maize.
Natural grazing is the primary source of feed for beef animals, but cereal crop residues and planted
pastures may assume this role for short periods in medium and high rainfall areas (Natural regions I and
II). Animals are usually grazed at conservative (light) stocking rates on rangeland in fenced paddocks.
Rotational grazing systems are used with five to eight paddocks per herd.
The quantity and quality of Table 5. Estimated production of livestock products from the
herbage varies spatially and large-scale commercial sector (thousand tonnes)
temporally (Weinman, 1948; 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Elliot and Folkertsen, 1961). Beef 139.25 102.28 107.27 78.68 70.81 73.79 73.50 67.20
Dairy 220.76 204.82 196.92 200.19 200.90 185.40 184.32 181.29
Rainfall is a major determinant of
Sheep 0.10 0.18 0.18 0.25 0.29 0.29 0.27 0.30
grass production (Dye and Spear,
Poultry 36.29 31.09 33.36 33.94 33.82 36.42 35.02 38.52
1982). There is a linear relation Pigs 6.50 8.78 9.21 8.51 8.80 9.90 10.59 11.00
between grass production and (Source: Commercial Farmers Union, 2000)
10 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

annual rainfall in areas receiving less than 900mm. It is difficult for producers to match animal numbers
with available herbage. Farmers therefore use conservative stocking rates in order to prevent overgrazing.
This strategy, however, results in under-utilisation of herbage in years of above-average rainfall.
Beef cattle are fed supplements because of seasonal changes in the feeding value of grazing: this
involves the use of protein supplements during the dry season, phosphorus in the wet season and
occasionally energy supplements in spring and early summer (Sibanda, 1998).
Some farmers also reinforce rangeland with legumes in order to improve the quality of grazing.
Several herbaceous and browse legumes are used (these are described below).
A key player in the Zimbabwean beef industry is the Cold Storage Company (CSC) that supplies
breeding stock to both commercial and smallholder farmers, and beef to the domestic market during
periods when there are reduced supplies. CSC is a former parastatal organisation that was privatised
recently; has ranches and feedlots in different parts of the country and practices both extensive and
intensive beef production. Its mandate is to support national beef production and marketing. It supports
national beef production by buying animals from farmers in drought-stricken areas. These are kept on
ranches during drought years and then either sold or loaned to farmers for restocking after drought. The
supply of slaughter stock in Zimbabwe is seasonal. Few farmers supply animals for slaughter in the dry
season and early-growing season. Thus, CSC maintains the supply of beef to both the domestic and export
markets by slaughtering animals that are fattened on high-energy diets in pens during these seasons.
Commercial beef production has declined drastically since 1992 (Table 5). This has been attributed to
an unfavourable macro-economic environment that is characterised by high inflation and interest rates.
Farmers are increasingly unable to borrow money to purchase breeding stock, especially after drought.
Some farmers are therefore switching away from beef production to more profitable enterprises such as
wildlife farming.

Dairy cattle
Dairying is an important industry that supplies milk to the domestic market (Table 6). It is a specialised
enterprise requiring proper feeding of the cow and handling of the milk. To produce milk, a cow should be fed
a balanced diet. Feeding systems are generally based on maize and its by-products for energy, and cotton and
soybean-oil cakes for protein (Pascoe, 1987). Natural grazing, veld hay, maize silage and where irrigation is
available, oats, Midmar rye grass, lucerne and planted pastures are important sources of roughage.
Feeding systems vary depending on climate and hence the farmers ability to grow feeds
economically. In marginal rainfall areas (Natural regions III and IV) most farmers purchase concentrates
and use rangeland in summer months to provide roughage. Maize silage and veld hay provide roughage
during winter months. In contrast, farmers in high potential areas (Natural regions I and II) grow maize
for roughage (silage) and energy (grain). Thus, farmers in high potential regions normally only purchase
high concentrate protein mixes. Although many farmers graze animals in summer, there is an increasing
trend towards zero grazing with maize silage forming
the bulk of the roughage intake (Pascoe, 1987). Where Table 6. Number of dairy animals and
producers, and the amount of milk
irrigation is available, most farmers produce green feed for delivered (million litres) to Dairiboard
use in winter. Popular forages are oats, Midmar rye grass Zimbabwe (Ltd)
and grass pastures. Year Number of Number of Raw milk
The high costs of purchased feeds are affecting the dairy females producers intake
1982 93 350 472 150.5
viability of many dairy enterprises adversely. Farmers
1983 93 999 495 172.5
are increasingly producing feeds on-farm in order to 1984 104 464 521 181.1
reduce costs. Production of high quality forages is 1985 103 837 520 187.9
being researched at various government-funded research 1986 196 763 538 202.1
institutes. The major aim is to investigate cheaper systems 1987 105 107 561 223.9
for milk production from dryland grass and grass/legume 1988 108 433 540 236.7
1989 112 868 534 241.0
pastures.
1990 141 000 524 256.0
The commonest dairy breeds are Friesland-Holstein, 1991 149 000 495 253.5
Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire and Red Dane. Natural service 1992 136 900 461 237.6
and artificial insemination using imported semen of proven 1993 - 430 204.0
sires are regularly used in breeding programmes. (Source: Nyathi and Gambiza, 1994)
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 11

Smallholder production Table 7. Relation between size of the cattle herd


and maize production in the communal sector
Beef cattle and small ruminants
Cattle are the most important livestock in the Herd size
Area
under
Area
manured
Manure
applied
Maize
yield
smallholder sector where they are kept for multiple maize (ha) (ha) (tonnes) (kg/ha)
purposes; they provide draught power, manure, 1-4 1.0 0.38 4.01 903
5-8 1.2 0.57 4.19 1 148
milk, cash and meat. Beef production is ranked
9-12 1.3 0.69 4.21 1 249
lower than provision of draught power in terms >12 1.3 0.94 4.57 1 831
of the value of cattle. There is therefore a strong (Source: Rukuni, 1994).
relation between crop and cattle production in
the smallholder sector (Table 7). Crop production Table 8. Flock size and ownership pattern of
small ruminants and donkeys by natural region
increases as herd size increases. Farmers who own (NR) in communal areas
cattle till their lands timeously leading to higher Flock or herd size NR II NR III NR IV NR V
crop yields. Moreover, cattle manure is used as an Goats 3.2 2.6 6.2 7.9
organic fertiliser which improves soil structure and Sheep 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
fertility thereby reducing the amounts of inorganic Donkeys 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.2

fertilisers that have to be purchased. Cattle owners Households owning (%)


Goats 62.9 51.6 57.3 74.8
therefore obtain higher crop yields and incomes Sheep 3.6 4.0 3.6 3.4
than non-cattle owners and greater food security is Donkeys 4.0 14.1 35.1 37.8
associated with cattle ownership. (Source: Rukuni, 1994).
Offtake of cattle from the smallholder sector is
generally low (less than 7%) (Rukuni, 1994). Farmers tend to sell old (910 years) and unproductive
animals. The low offtake is attributed to cattle being kept for multiple purposes. Furthermore, farmers
have small herds (4-5 head per household). About 40% of households in the smallholder sector have no
cattle and depend on cattle owners for draught power. Farmers therefore aim at purchasing and building
herds leading to reduced offtake.
Unlike cattle, small ruminants are primarily kept for meat, cash sales and manure. Small ruminants
complement cattle in providing households needs (Rukuni, 1994). Table 8 shows flock sizes and
ownership patterns of small ruminants in communal areas. Ownership of goats and flock size increase
with aridity. This is attributed to the goats ability to survive in harsh environments. In contrast,
ownership of sheep and flock size are similar across the five agro-ecological regions of the country.
Cattle and small ruminants graze natural pasture during summer and in winter they feed on crops
residues, waterways, fallow land and uncultivated areas within arable lands. Cattle are grazed at high
stocking rates (1 LU: 1 ha) on communal grazing land and numbers and productivity fluctuate with
annual rainfall leading to boom and bust production cycles (Campbell et al., 2000). Thus, cattle numbers
increase during years with above-average rainfall whereas numbers decline dramatically in drought
years. For example, during the 1991/1992 drought, up to 90% of cattle died in some areas. Farmers keep
indigenous breeds such as the Mashona, Tuli and Nkone that have been shown to have high fertility
(calving percentage exceeds 85% under adequate feeding and disease control). Animals are neither fed
protein supplements during the dry season nor dosed and vaccinated against diseases.

Dairy cattle
Dairy production in the smallholder sector is a post-independence (1980) phenomenon. The Agricultural
and Rural Development Authority (ARDA), a parastatal organisation, has been at the forefront in
promoting milk production in the smallholder sector. Several smallholder dairy schemes are now
operational in different parts of the country. These schemes are now delivering milk to the market
(Table 9). The Dairy Development Programme (DDP) of ARDA has a mandate to promote dairy
development. It provides farmers with financial and technical assistance to set up dairy enterprises. Milk
is produced from crossbred cows.
Dairy animals are grazed and also fed home-grown feeds and commercial concentrates. Several
problems have been experienced in the smallholder sector leading to reduced milk production and sales.
The major constraints are (ARDA-DDP Annual Report, 1998/99):
insufficient feed;
high costs of commercial feeds;
12 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

poor fertility of cows because of Table 9. Size of the dairy herd, milk production and sales
(litres) in the smallholder sector
low nutrition;
Year Dairy Home DZLa sales Local sales Total
use of old cows because of high herd retention (106 litres) (106 litres) production
cost of replacement heifers; (number) (106 litres) (106 litres)
1990 0.38 1.18 0.08 1.64
poor calf management leading
1991 0.47 1.41 0.16 2.04
high calf mortality, and
1992 0.43 1.11 0.32 1.86
insufficient knowledge of how 1993 0.46 1.11 0.42 1.99
to process milk and market milk 1994 4 734 0.65 1.66 0.52 2.83
products. 1995 4 962 0.81 1.94 0.80 3.56
Despite these problems concerted 1996 5 474 0.75 1.73 0.71 3.18
1997 5 569 0.73 1.26 0.85 2.84
efforts are being made to improve
1998 5 657 0.58 0.54 0.87 1.99
smallholder dairy production. There is 1999 5 327 0.37 0.37 0.74 1.48
greater emphasis on training farmers (Source: ARDA-DDP Annual Report; 1998/99)
to feed and manage dairy animals. a
DZL is Dairiboard Zimbabwe Limited, a former parastatal organisation that markets milk.

Livestock numbers and production statistics in the period of 19962005


There have been considerable changes in Zimbabwe since this profile was first drafted. As separate data
for the commercial and smallholder sectors are not available Table 10 contains statistics for livestock
numbers, meat and milk production and some import and export data (from FAOSTAT) for the period
19952004 for the whole of Zimbabwe. There appears to have been little change in livestock numbers
since 2000 and meat and milk production has stagnated or declined (apart from pig and poultry meat
production). Beef and veal exports have declined and since 2001 there has been a negative trade balance
in dairy products. In 2000 there was a balance of US$6M in dairy exports over imports but by July 2003
there was a (negative) balance of minus US$3M.
Table 10. Zimbabwe statistics for livestock numbers, meat and milk production, live animal and beef
exports and milk imports for the period 19962005
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Cattle nos.(,000,000) 5.4 5.4 5.5 6.1 5.7 5.8 5.6 5.4 5.4 5.4
Goat nos.(,000,000) 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Sheep nos. (,000,000) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Beef and veal prod. (,000 mt.) 67.4 73.6 73.7 95.4 101.3 101.3 99.0 96.8 96.8 96.8
Goat meat prod. (,000 mt.) 11.6 11.6 12.0 12.8 12.8 12.8 12.7 12.8 12.8 12.8
Sheep meat prod. (,000 mt) 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Game meat prod. (,000 mt.) 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 32.0
Pig & chicken meat prod. (,000 mt) 33.4 33.7 36.3 36.4 45.7 64.9 62.0 64.0 64.0 64.0
Cow milk prod. (,000 mt.) 300.0 280.0 290.0 300.0 310.0 310.0 280.0 248.0 248.0 248.0
Live cattle exports nos. (,000) 3.0 2.3 19.4 11.2 20.6 2.5 0.7 0 0.1 n.r.
Live goat exports nos. (,000) 3.0 5.2 9.6 6.2 1.7 1.7 0 0 0 n.r.
Beef & veal exports (,000 mt) 6.7 6.9 7.5 11.6 12.0 0.03 4.4 4.4 0.04 n.r.
Milk equiv. imports (,000 mt) 9.8 11.4 12.1 17.4 7.6 6.6 15.3 12.3* 11.2 n.r.
Source: FAOSTAT 2006; n.r. no record
* Valued at US$4186000, but partly offset by exports valued at US$1154000

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE


Natural grazing (rangeland)
Natural grazing is the cheapest and most important source of livestock feed in Zimbabwe. It has been
divided into sourveld, sweetveld and mixedveld based on animal body weight changes in the dry season.
Sourveld describes grazing where animals gain weight during the growing season but lose weight during
the dry season because of the poor quality of herbage (crude protein content less than 30 g/kg). It is
found in the highveld region that receives more than 800mm annual rainfall at altitudes above 1200m.
Sweetveld refers to grazing where animals gain weight during the growing season and in winter, and
are able to at least maintain their body weight. Sweetveld is in low-lying (< 900 m) semi-arid areas
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 13

that receive low rainfall (<600 mm). The ability of Table 11. Seasonal changes in dry matter
domestic herbivores to maintain weight is partly (DM), crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), and
ash of ungrazed rangeland on sandy soils at
attributed to the availability of palatable browse Grassland Research Station
which tends to be high in protein. The middleveld Month DM CP CF Ash
is intermediate between these two extremes and is (kg/ha) (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg)
usually in areas of intermediate altitude and rainfall. December 228.7 85 333 59
January 571.6 71 352 66
Herbage production is highly variable spatially
February 1 017.7 50 384 60
and temporally; major factors influencing it are March 1 360.7 51 374 63
annual rainfall, shading by woody plants and April 1 462.7 41 395 54
soil type. There is a linear relation between grass May 1 053.6 40 384 57
production and annual rainfall (up to about 900mm) (Source: Weinman, 1948)
(Dye and Spear, 1982). For each millimetre of Table 12. Seasonal changes in dry matter (DM),
rain, 2 kg dry matter of grass/ha/year are produced crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ash and
in areas cleared of woody plants on clayey soils, total digestible nutrients (TDN) of ungrazed
while 1kgDMha/year is produced in cleared areas rangeland on clayey soils at Henderson
Research Station
on sandy soils (Dye and Spear, 1982). There is a
Month DM CP CF Ash TDN
negative exponential relation between woody plant (kg/ha) (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg)
cover and grass production (Frost, 1996). November 539.9 87 307 109 -
The quality of herbage varies seasonally. The December 1 080.9 70 316 102 612
crude fibre content increases with plant maturity January 1 555.8 52 356 100 523
February 2 441.1 43 369 97 529
and is therefore highest at the end of the growing
March 2 921.9 36 381 89 473
season. In contrast, the crude protein content of April 2 919.6 31 388 98 438
grasses is highest during the early growing season May 2 868.4 28 406 90 293
(November /December) and lowest during the dry (Source: Elliot and Folkertsen, 1961)
season (Tables 11, 12). Ruminants lose body weight
during the dry season in areas where the crude protein content of herbage is less than 60 gkg-1. In the
large-scale commercial sector, animals are commonly fed protein supplements during the dry season to
prevent weight loss.
There are eight major grass vegetation types in Zimbabwe (Rattray, 1957). They are described in
terms of the dominant grass species (Figure 3). The grass vegetation types vary in grazing capacity.
Generally, grazing capacity is highest in areas of high rainfall and lowest in those of low rainfall.
Mountain grassveld. It occurs in the eastern border where rainfall is above 1000mm and altitude
above 1600m. It is a short perennial sour grassveld with a grazing capacity of 1 livestock unit
(LU = 500kg) : 23ha. Themeda triandra dominates on fertile red clays and Loudetia simplex
on sandy granite soils. Other common grass species are Andropogon schirensis, Monocymbium
ceresiiforme, Eragrostis racemosa Trachypogon spicatus, Alloteropsis semialata, Digitaria apicu-
lata, D. monodactyla and Bewsia biflora. Cymbopogon validus, Eragrostis species and the shrub
Senecio sceleratus dominate when mountain grassland is overgrazed.
Hyparrhenia tall grassveld. It occurs in areas receiving between 750mm and 1 125mm at an
altitude ranging from 1200m to 1675m. This is a sourveld varying from Brachystegia spiciformis
woodland to open perennial grassland on the countrys watershed. It has a grazing capacity of 1 LU:
2.5-3.5 ha. Common grasses include Hyparrhenia filipendula, Hyperthelia dissoluta, Heteropogon
contortus, Brachiaria brizantha, Digitaria milanjiana, Eragrostis racemosa, Andropogon schinzii,
Schizachyrium semiberbe, S. jeffreysii and Aristida congesta. Aristida vestita and Perotis patens
are characteristic species on infertile granite sands. Hyparrhenia species and Themeda triandra
dominate on fertile red clays and clay loams. This veld type is relatively resistant to overgraz-
ing. However, Heteropogon contortus, Sporobolus pyramidalis, Melinis repens, Eragrostis spp.,
Aristida spp., Cynodon dactylon and shrubs (e.g. Eriosema englerianum and Dolichos malosanus)
become dominant when the veld is overgrazed.
Hyparrhenia other species grassveld. It occurs mainly on the watershed at altitudes above
1200m where rainfall is less than 750mm. This is a sourveld of tall perennial grasses varying
from tree savanna to more open savanna on the drier parts of the countrys main watershed. It has a
grazing capacity of 1 LU: 45ha. The common grass species are similar to the previous type. The
14 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

grass cover is, however, less dense and several additional species such as Eragrostis jeffreysii and
E. gummiflua appear in this type. Associated woody species are Terminalia sericea, Burkea afri-
cana, Combretum spp and Acacia species. In overgrazed veld, grass species that become dominant
are similar to those outlined in the previous type excluding Sporobolus pyramidalis. Eragrostis
rigidior also increases in abundance in overgrazed areas.
Heteropogon other species grassveld. Is a mixedveld of medium height perennial grasses with
some annuals in tree savanna or tree bush savanna, occurring between Hyparrhenia veld and
Eragrostis veld. It has a grazing capacity of 1 LU: 56ha. Common grass species are Heteropogon
contortus, Themeda triandra, Cymbopogon plurinodis, Hyparrhenia filipendula, Bothriochloa
insculpta and Eragrostis superba. It is sensitive to over-grazing. Cymbopogon plurinodis, H.
contortus, B. insculpta and various annuals and woody species (e.g. Acacia karroo) increase in
abundance in overgrazed veld.
Eragrostis other species grassveld. It occurs on light textured soils at altitudes between 450m
and 1 050 m with rainfall ranging between 375 mm and 500 mm. This is sweet-to mixed veld
with predominantly medium height perennial grasses and a high proportion of annuals in tree bush
savanna. Annuals increase in drought years. It has a grazing capacity of 1 LU: 7.510ha. Common
grasses are Eragrostis rigidior, E. superba, Schizachyrium jeffreysii, Heteropogon contortus,
Schmidtia pappaphoroides, Pogonarthria squarrosa, Brachiaria nigropedata, Urochloa pullulans,
Digitaria pentzii, Enneapogon cenchroides and Aristida species. Associated woody species are
Terminalia sericea, Combretum spp., Commiphora spp., Acacia spp., Colophospermum mopane,
Grewia spp. and in the northern part of the country Brachystegia boehmii and B. spiciformis. It
is sensitive to overgrazing. Enneapogon cenchroides, E. rigidior and various annuals increase in
abundance in overgrazed veld.
Aristida other species grassveld. It occurs at altitudes between 900m and 1200m. Rainfall ranges
from 500mm to 750mm. It is a sour to mixed veld of short and tall perennial and annual grasses in
woodland on Karroo sandstone and Kalahari sands in western Zimbabwe. It has a grazing capacity
of 1 LU: 10-16 ha. Common grasses are Aristida graciliflora, A.pilgeri, Digitaria pentzii, D. per-
rottetti, Triraphis schlechteri, Heteropogon melanocarpus, Eragrostis pallens, Schizachyrium jef-
freysii, S. semiberbe, Pogonarthria fleckii and Panicum maximum. Associated woody species are
Baikiaea plurijuga, Pterocarpus angolensis, Julbernardia globiflora, Brachystegia spiciformis, B.
boehmii, Burkea africana, Terminalia sericea, Guibourtia coleosperma and Combretum species.
The poisonous suffrutex Dichapetalum cymosum is common. Extremely sensitive to overgrazing.
Aristida spp., Triraphis schlechteri, Eragrostis pallens, various annuals and forbs increase in abun-
dance in overgrazed veld.
Cenchrus other species grassveld. It occurs on heavy clay basaltic soils at altitudes ranging from
450m to 1000m where rainfall varies from 325mm to 400mm. This is sweetveld in a tree bush
savanna with medium-height perennial grasses and a high proportion of annual grasses. Perennials
decrease in dry years. It has a grazing capacity of 1 LU: 7.510ha. Common grasses are Cenchrus
ciliaris, Bothriochloa radicans, Chloris myriostachya, Pennisetum spp. Panicum maximum and
Enneapogon cenchroides. Associated woody species are Colophospermum mopane, Grewia spe-
cies and Acacia species. It is sensitive to overgrazing. Enneapogon cenchroides and various annu-
als increase in abundance in overgrazed veld.
Aristida-Dactyloctenium-Eragrostis other species grassveld. It occurs in the Zambezi and
Limpopo River Valleys below 600m where annual rainfall ranges between 300mm and 600mm.
This is sweetveld mainly in woodland or bush scrub savanna with mainly sparse short annual
grasses. It has a grazing capacity of 1 LU: 1220ha. Common grasses are Aristida adscensionis,
Eragrostis viscosa, Dactyloctenium giganteum, Chloris virgata and on deeper soils with more
moisture Urochloa spp., Panicum spp., Cenchrus ciliaris and Digitaria species. Associated woody
species are Combretum celestroides, Adansonia digitata, Commiphora spp., Schrebera spp. and
Colophospermum mopane. Extremely sensitive to overgrazing. Annual species increase in abun-
dance in overgrazed veld. Large areas of bare ground are formed because of overgrazing.
There are several other less extensive grassland types that are interspersed within the major types.
Examples are Setaria veld, serpentine veld and sodic veld. Setaria veld is a sour to mixed veld type
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 15

found on vertisols in higher rainfall (>


400 mm) areas in tree savanna or open
grasslands situations. Common grasses
are Setaria porphyrantha, S. sphacelata,
Dichanthium papillosum and Ischaemum
afrum. These grasses are associated with
Acacia species. It has a grazing capacity
of 1 LU: 34 ha. Serpentine veld is a
sour to mixed veld on the Great Dyke.
Characteristic species are Andropogon
gayanus, A. schirensis, Themeda triandra,
Bewsia biflora, Aristida spp. and Loudetia
species. It has a grazing capacity of 1 LU:
5 ha. Sodic veld is a sweetveld in tree
bush or bush clump savanna on sodic
soils often near granite drainage lines.
Common grasses are Sporobolus ioclodes,
Chloris virgata and Dactyloctenium
aegyptium. Associated woody species
are Colophospermum mopane, Acacia
gerrardii and A. mellifera. It has a grazing
capacity of 1 LU: 1420ha.

Reinforced (improved) rangeland


The only feasible means by which range Figure 3. Major grass vegetation types in Zimbabwe
(Rattray, 1957)
productivity can be raised above natural
levels is by reinforcement with legumes (Clatworthy, 1998). Several legumes can be used for reinforcing
rangeland (Robinson and Clatworthy, 1980; Maclaurin and Wood,1987) (Table 13). In Zimbabwe,
rangeland reinforcement has consisted mainly of planting rows of improved herbaceous forages, usually
legumes, into the topland veld, and grasses into vleis. It has generally been more successful in the higher
rainfall areas and on the more fertile soils.
Table 13. Legumes and grasses commonly used for reinforcing rangeland in Zimbabwe
Species Soil type Rainfall Altitude Remarks
(mm) (m)
Legumes
Chamaecrista rotundifolia (Cassia) Sands 650800 1 300 Semi-prostrate annual. Prolific seeder.
Seeding rate: 2kg/ha.
Stylosanthes guianensis (Graham Sands/sandy clays > 800 <1 300 Perennial.
stylo) Seeding rate: 3kg/ha.
Good resistance to anthracnose.
Stylosanthes hippocampoides (Oxley Sands 6001 000 >1 200 Perennial. Seeding rate is 3-4kg/ha.
fine-stem stylo) Susceptible to anthracnose.
Stylosanthes hamata (Verano stylo) Sands/sandy clays 6501 000 <1 300 Drought tolerant.
Seeding rate: 3kg/ha.
Stylosanthes scabra (Shrubby stylo) Sands/sandy clays >650 <1 300 Perennial and erect.
Seeding rate: 3kg/ha.
Macrotyloma axillare (Archer) Sands/sandy clays >800 >1 000 Perennial and twining. Seeding rate: 3-
5kg/ha.
Macroptilium atropurpureum (Siratro) Sands/sandy clays 6501 000 <1 500 Perennial and twining. Seeding rate: 6-
9kg/ha.
Leucaena leucocephala (Leucaena) Sands/clays 6501 000 <1 300 Perennial shrub or tree. Planted in rows 3
m apart.
Grasses
Acroceras macrum (Nile grass) Sands/sandy clays >1 000 <1 500 Prostrate and stoloniferous. Used to
reinforce vleis from runners.
Panicum repens (Torpedo grass) Sands/sandy clays >1 000 <1 500 Rhizomatous. Used to reinforce vleis from
runners.
Paspalum urvellei (Upright paspalum) Sands/sandy clays >1 000 <1 500 Tall bunch grass for reinforcing vleis.
Seeding rate: 15kg/ha.
16 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Table 14. Legumes and grasses commonly used for temporary dry land pastures (leys)
Species Soil type Rainfall Altitude Remarks
(mm) (m)
Legumes1
Neonotonia wightii (Glycine) Sandy clays/ clays >800 >1 200 Twining perennial. Resistant to root-knot
nematode. Seeding rate: 4-6kg/ha.
Desmodium intortum (Greenleaf Wide range >800 >1 200 Twining perennial. Resistant to root-knot
desmodium) nematode. Seeding rate: 2kg/ha.
Desmodium uncinatum (Silverleaf Wide range >800 >1 200 Twining perennial. Susceptible to root-knot
desmodium) nematode. Seeding rate: 3kg/ha.
Lotononis bainesii (Beit lotononis) Sands >800 >1 300 Prostrate perennial. Susceptible to root-knot
nematode. Seeding rate: 0.51kg/ha.
Grasses
Chloris gayana (Katambora Rhodes Sands/ sandy clays >800 >1 000 Easy to establish. Resistant to root-knot
grass) nematode. Seeding rate: 68kg/ha.
Eragrostis curvula (Weeping lovegrass) Sands/ sandy clays >800 <1 200 Easy to establish. Resistant to root-knot
nematode. Seeding rate: 34kg/ha.
Panicum maximum (Panicum) Wide range >800 <1 500 Resistant to root-knot nematode. Seeding
rate: 810kg/ha.
Digitaria eriantha (Smuts finger grass) Sands/ sandy clays >800 <1 500 Resistant to root-knot nematode. Seeding
rate: 68kg/ha.
Paspalum guenoarum (Wintergreen Sands/ sandy >800 <1 500 Resistant to root-knot nematode. Seeding
paspalum) rate: 67kg/ha.
Chloris gayana (Giant Rhodes grass) Sandy clays >800 <1 500 Tufted and stoloniferous. Susceptible to
root-knot nematode. Seeding rate: 810kg/
ha.
1
Including Siratro, Graham stylo and Archer (see Table 13).

Table 15. Grasses1 commonly used for permanent dryland pastures


Species Soil type Rainfall Altitude Remarks
(mm) (m)
Cynodon species (Stargrasses) Wide range >650 <1 500 Easy to establish. Resistant to root-knot
nematode. Seeding rate: 3-4kg/ha.
Pennisetum clandestinum (Kikuyu Sandy loam/clays >1 000 <1 500 Established from runners. Requires high
grass) fertility and moisture.
Paspalum notatum (Paraguay Sands/sandy clays >800 <1 500 Resistant to root-knot nematode. Seeding
paspalum) rate: 15-17kg/ha.
1
Including Panicum repens, Acroceras macrum (see Table 13).

Table 16. Grasses and legumes commonly used for irrigated pastures
Species Soil type Rainfall Altitude Remarks
(mm) (m)
Grasses1
Lolium multiflorum (Midmar ryegrass) Sandy clays/clays >1 000 >1 200 Tufted leaf annual. Seeding rate: 30kg/ha.
Avena sativa (Oats) Sandy clays >1 000 >1 200 Annual cereal crop. Seeding rate: 75kg/ha.
Agrotricum Sandy clays/clays >1 000 >1 500 A hybrid between Agropyron elongatum
and Triticum vulgare. Seeding rate:
3035kg/ha.
Legumes
Medicago sativa (Lucerne) Sands/sandy clays >650 <1 300 Deep rooted, erect perennial. Seeding
rate: 1012kg/ha.
Trifolium semipilosum (Kenya white Sandy clays >1 000 >1 300 Prostrate perennial. Grass well in
clover) association with Kikuyu grass. Cause
bloat.Seeding rate: 1.52kg/ha.
Trifolium repens (Tama clover) Sands/sandy clays >1 000 >1 300 Causes bloat. Seeding rate: 1517kg/ha.
1
Including Pennisetum clandestinum, Cynodon species (see Table 15).

Planted pastures
In high rainfall areas integrating crops and livestock through use of pastures can lead to greater and
more stable farm production (Clatworthy, 1998). Planted or sown pastures range from unfertilised grass
fallows to heavily fertilised irrigated pastures. Examples of plants that could be used in planted pastures
are given in Tables 14-16.
The major problems of pasture plants are the availability of seed and poor persistence of some
species under heavy grazing. Pasture seeds are generally expensive. Furthermore, most legumes require
inoculation with Rhizobia and application of phosphatic fertiliser at establishment. Inorganic fertilisers
are generally expensive for smallholder farmers.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 17

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE


RESOURCES
There are three main ways in which pasture resources could be improved. First, where natural pasture
is the major feed, a conservative stocking rate strategy could be adopted (Gammon, 1978). This would
reduce overgrazing and ensure adequate feed in drought years. The farmer would need to assess the
condition of the pasture annually and make necessary adjustments to stocking rates. This is a form of
adaptive management that requires the farmer to keep detailed records on rainfall, animal performance
(calving rates, weaning weights, growth rates), vegetation (pasture composition, basal cover, density
of palatable species) and soil (erosion, compaction, termite activity). The major problem with a
conservative stocking strategy is that there is under-utilisation of herbage in years of above average
rainfall; it is difficult to apply where land is grazed communally.
Second, range can be reinforced with herbaceous and browse legumes. Legumes have been shown
to improve soil fertility and reduce weight loss of grazing animals during the dry season. Establishing
legumes in grazing areas could therefore reduce the costs of protein supplementation thereby increasing
economic returns. However, the major problems with range reinforcement with legumes are (1) high
initial fertiliser costs (phosphate is required by most legumes), (2) poor establishment of legumes
especially during drought years, and (3) poor persistence of herbaceous legumes. More research is
needed on legumes for overseeding and for use in sown pastures.
Third, fodder banks could be developed to feed animals during drought. Fodder could also be used to
feed selected classes of stock such as lactating cows and draught animals. The last two strategies depend
on the availability of seed of forage plants. It may therefore be necessary to increase seed production.

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND


PERSONNEL

There are several key institutions in Zimbabwe which carry out research and promote the development of
forages. These include government, parastatal and private organisations. The departments of Research and
Specialist Services (DR&SS) and Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services (Agritex) under the Ministry
of Lands and Agriculture, are the two most important government departments. DR&SS has a mandate to
conduct research on sustainable livestock production from rangeland and pastures while Agritex provides
technical advice on livestock and crop production to farmers. The contact person in DR&SS is Dr P. Nyathi.
His address is: Department of Research and Specialist Services, P.O. Box CY 594, Causeway, Harare.
Universities in Zimbabwe also conduct research on rangeland management, animal production and
nutrition. Contacts at the University of Zimbabwe are:
Professor S. Sibanda: Department of Animal Science, PO Box MP 167, Mt Pleasant.
Dr P. Mugabe: Department of Animal Science, PO Box MP 167, Mt Pleasant.
J. Gambiza: Department of Biosciences, PO Box MP 167, Mt Pleasant.

8. REFERENCES
Anderson, I.P., Brinn, P.J., Moyo, M. and Nyamwanza, B. 1993. Physical resource inventory of the communal
lands of Zimbabwe An overview. NRI Bulletin 60. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute.
ARDA-DDP Annual Report, 1998/99. Annual Report, Dairy Development Programme, Harare. 43 pages.
Campbell, B.M., Dore, D., Luckert, M., Mukamuri, B. and Gambiza, J. 2000. Economic comparisons of
livestock production in communal grazing lands in Zimbabwe. Ecological Economics 33: 413-438.
Clatworthy, J.N. 1998. Planted pastures for beef production. In: Beef Production Manual, Commercial Farmers
Union, Harare. 8 pages.
18 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Commercial Farmers Union, 2000. Facts on land and the present situation. Mimeograph, 25 pages.
Dye, P.J. and Spear, P.T. 1982. The effect of bush clearing and rainfall variability on grass yield and composition
in south-west Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural Research 20: 103-117.
Elliot, R.C. and Folkertsen, K. 1961. Seasonal changes in composition and yields of veld grass. Rhodesia
Agricultural Journal 58: 186-187.
Frost, P.G.H. 1996. The ecology of miombo woodlands. In: Campbell, B. (ed.). The Miombo in Transition:
Woodlands and Welfare in Africa. Centre for International Forest Research, Bogor.
Gammon, D.M. 1978. A review of experiments comparing systems of grazing management on natural pastures.
Proceedings of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa 13: 75-82.
Maclaurin, A.R. and Wood, A.M. 1987.Veld and pasture management. In: Oliver, J. (ed). Dairy Handbook,
National Association of Dairy Farmers of Zimbabwe, Harare. pp. 79-94.
Matowanyika, J.Z.Z. 1998. Land resources. In: Chenje, M., Sola, L. and Paleczny, D. (eds.). The State of
Zimbabwes Environment 1998. Government of the Republic of Zimbabwe, Ministry of Mines, Environment
and Tourism, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Nyamapfene, K. 1991. The soils of Zimbabwe. Nehanda Publishers, Harare.
Nyathi, P. and Gambiza, J. 1994. A review of current and proposed future livestock and pastures research.
Research Report. Zimbabwe Agricultural Journal, Government Printer, Harare.
Pascoe, D. 1987. The dairy industry. In: Oliver, J. (ed). Dairy Handbook, National Association of Dairy
Farmers of Zimbabwe, Harare. pp. 1-3.
Rattray, J.M. 1957. The grass and grass associations of southern Rhodesia. Rhodesia Agricultural Journal 54:
197-234.
Robinson, J. and Clatworthy, J. 1980. Grasses and legumes for pastures. Natural Resources Board, Harare.
Rukuni, M. 1994. Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Appropriate Agricultural Land Tenure Systems.
Volume II: Technical Reports. Government Printers, Harare.
Sibanda, S. 1998. Supplementary feeding of beef cattle. In: Beef Production Manual, Commercial Farmers
Union, Harare. 15 pages.
Vincent, V. and Thomas, R.G. 1960. An agricultural survey of Southern Rhodesia: Part I: agro-ecological
survey. Government Printer, Salisbury.
Weinman, H. 1948. Seasonal growth changes in chemical composition of herbage on Marondellas sand veld.
Rhodesia Agricultural Journal 45: 119-131.

9. CONTACTS
The profile was prepared by James Gambiza and Cynthia Nyama in October/November, 2000.
James Gambiza:
Address: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Zimbabwe. PO Box MP 167, Mount
Pleasant, Harare. E-mail: Gambiza@trep.co.zw.
J. Gambiza is a lecturer at the University of Zimbabwe, Department of Biological Sciences. He
has several years of experience on rangeland research and management in Zimbabwe. He will be
responsible for updating this profile.
Ms Cynthia Nyama:
Address: Grasslands Research Station, P.B. 3701, Marondera, Zimbabwe.
Ms Cynthia Nyama is a Senior Research Technician at Grasslands Research Station. She has over
13 years of experience on rangeland research and animal production.

[The profile was edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in November/December 2005 and livestock
data modified in August 2006. No changes have been made to the profile to reflect developments in
Zimbabwe since late 2000.]

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