AP Review #6: Nation States (Ch. 22) & Mass Society (Ch.

23)
Nation States: 1850-1871 (The Age of Realism)
Crimean War: 1853-56
Causes: Russia wants to occupy the Ottoman Empire; OE declares war after RUS entered
and tried to intervene in the protection of Christian shrines in Palestine; GB/FR declare war
on RUS (to protect the balance of power and defend their interests in the E Med)
Austria & Prussia stay neutral; high death toll; poorly fought; first professional nurses (F
Nightingale)
Treaty of Paris (1856): RUS had to surrender territory & protection rights in the OE,
recognized the neutrality of Black Sea; Concert of Europe was dissolved (Aus & Rus
became enemies)
Italian Unification
Unification movement strengthened under leadership of Count Cavour (PM of Piedmont)
who advocated constitutional monarchy; sought the help of Nap III to fight against Austria
(proved not very helpful) but nationalism grew stronger; eventually Northern Italy would
be unified by Piedmont
In the South, Garibaldi led the Red Shirt Army & marched up the peninsula; they wanted to
invade the Papal States (being protected by FR) but Cavour convinced them not to;
Garibaldi accepts the leadership of Victor Immanuel II, and the Kingdom of Piedmont ruled
all of Italy (except Papal States)
When FR left the Papal States, they were annexed into Italy and the capital became Rome
German Unification
Unity came through membership in the Zollverein (trade union that facilitated trade b/t
the GR states) and Bismarck was tasked with quieting calls for liberal reform
Bismarck used realpolitik (the politics of reality) in which decisions are made on everyday
reality (versus ethics/morality); he was an extremely crafty politican that allowed his
enemies to win at times if he thought it best for the good of the state; launched an
aggressive foreign policy campaign in order to distract domestic liberals; believed that GR
would be unified through iron and blood
Unification came through THREE wars and resulted in the creation of the North German
Confederation and the emergence of William I as emperor of Germany and espoused
militarism combined with authoritarian rule. Nationalism won out over liberalism!
o War with Denmark (1864): held many GR-speaking nationalities in
Schleswig/Hollstein and refused to turn them over completely to Denmark; Prussia
won
o Austro-Prussian War (1866): Austria still area of contention as some wanted it
included in unified GR; others, including Bismarck, did not; Austrian defeat ousts
them from unification
o Franco-Prussian War (1870): Bismarck knows France stood in way of GR unification
so tricked Nap III to declare war on GR (Ems Telegram) that way GR appears to just
be defending itself; Prussian army blasted the French; Paris and Nap III were
captured; France paid indemnity and relinquished Alsace and Lorraine (2 valued
territories) to Germany
Austrian Reforms
Rise of an urban proletariat put pressure on authoritarian rule of the Hapsburgs; military
defeat in Italy and Prussia also increased calls for reform.
Response was the creation of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary (Compromise of 1867
or Augsleich) and prompted Czechs and other nationalities to be granted autocratic rule
Russian Reforms
 Defeat in Crimean War showed that Russia was continuing to lag behind the Western
powers.
Tsar Alexander II (Great Liberator) abolished serfdom in 1861, created local govt
assemblies, Zemstovs, which were allowed limited self-government.
Violence against Russian officials grew and culminated in the assassination of Alex II by
The Peoples Will; his son and successor, Alexander III reverted to repressive policies as a
result

2nd French Empire (1852-70)

France voted Louis Napoleon to rule as emperor (reminded them of the glory under
Napoleon)
Napoleon III considered first modern dictator and served as a model to other authoritarian
rulers
Succeeded domestically (helped industrialized FR; redesign of Paris, implemented urban
infrastructure to advance public health) BUT failed in foreign affairs (Mexico, Italy, Franco-
Prussian War ends in his capture by Bismarck)THIRD Republic created in his place
Marxist Socialism Communist Manifesto, Das Kapital
Origins: educated in radical politics/economics; exiled; teamed up with Engels (whose father
owned a factory; The Conditions of the Working Class in England- an expose of industrial
life);
Differed from utopians in that he rejected reform and called for an all-out revolution of the
over the bourgeoisie (working men of the world unite) b/c current political framework not
strong enough to bring about successful reformsradical revolution the only solution!!
Basis of conflict is social disparity (capitalism to blame) so argued for the creation of a
classless society, one in which no class benefits at the expense of another)
Led to establishment of the First International (organization to strengthen socialism across
national borders & promoted the interests of working-class organizations for the first time)

Mass Society: The Age of Progress

2nd half of 19th c. is characterized by the 2nd Industrial Revolution, which led to the creation of
mass society and mass politics. Many thought progress would result from new technology
(fixing problems that plagued the continent for centuries) & govts became receptive to liberal
policies & took larger role in lives of their citizens.
2nd Industrial Revolution Dominated by chemicals, electricity, oil (not coal/textile like
st
the 1 )
Improved technology (i.e. Bessemer Process) led to even faster/increased industrial
production; overseas markets will be flooded with European goods; creation of the modern
consumer economy with the increase of real wages (made possible by cheaper production of
goods)
By 1870, Germany surpassed GB as leading industrial power (emphasis on domestic goods
and use of high protective tariffs aided by increased innovative efforts)
Job opportunities were created for women with the invention of white-collar jobs (secretaries,
sales clerks, tellers, etc) and prostitution was still high as young girls searched for
opportunities in cities
Mass Society Social disparity still a large issue to contend with, but mass education
resulted in the virtual elimination of adult illiteracy by the turn of the century and improved
urban transportation fed recreational activities to city centers; professional sports inspired
nationalism and recreational tourism beyond ones country helped spur economies
Population growth: 1850= 266 million & 1910= 447 million; massive emigration
(Europeanization of the world; America becomes melting pot); rural and urban areas could
not sustain this rapid growth. Urban areas were left with a high supply of workers struggling
 to find work; led to increased demands for the govt to solve urban problems (sanitation, over
crowing, etc.); many cities were rebuilt as a result (ex. Paris, London, Vienna)
Upper Class: (5%) emergence of the bourgeoisie creates competition with traditional
aristocrats; will merge to form a new elite (income from landed estates decreased as
industrial wealth increased)
Middle Class: (15%) diverse group (white collar, professionals) who valued hard work; most
employed domestic servants and lived outside the city (suburbs); leisure activities (for
children also) expanded; concept of the weekend began; inspired working class to imitate
life-style & values
Lower Class: (80%) trade unions evolved into political parties (GR SPD) and promoted socialist
policies to better the lives of the working class; benefitted greatly from universal primary
education
Women: separate spheres still practiced as women were in charge of managing households
and men worked outside the home; this shifted from economic necessity as practiced in the
previous century; wages still the property of her father/husband and legally considered
minors and to be obedient; wages and skill level of jobs were kept low; divorce very difficult;
little sexual reproductive rights