Running Head: COACHING TRACK AND FIELD 1

Coaching Track and Field: Sculpting Championship Athletes

Morgan Leopold

Glen Allen High School

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Abstract

The following guide discusses a variety of psychosocial practices a track and field coach

may implement to improve athlete performance quality. Though coaching styles should be

individualized for each runner, thrower, and/or jumper, there are patterns among different

genders, races, and skill levels that coaches should be aware of, as implementing certain

strategies based on these factors can motivate athletes and build a trusting relationship. Coaches

must establish a relationship that creates independent-minded athletes, rather than reliant on their

coaches for every step. Physical factors and workouts will also play an obvious role in athlete

performance. Therefore, it is important to note that differences in skill level and strength may

cause injury if not accounted for in the training process. Implementing a workout schedule with a

variety of types of workouts can be useful to muscle development for different events, as each

type has a unique benefit. It is also important to note that all training must be oriented around

injury prevention and/or relief.

Introduction

The goal for athletes competing in the sport of track and field is to run fast, jump high,

and throw far. The goal for track and field coaches is to assist their athletes to run faster, jump

higher, and throw farther. Interpersonal relationships between coaches and athletes can be a

determining factor to how that athlete will train leading up to competition, especially when

factoring in gender, race, and/or skill level. Operative implementation of strictness or lenience

when training athletes may have a significant effect on motivation and practice effectiveness.

Similarly, strategic training regimens and proactive strengthening of muscle groups may prevent

an injury that could jeopardize a championship appearance. Although there is no predefined key

to sculpting championship level athletes, a track and field coach may demonstrate certain
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psychosocial and physiological measures to successfully improve an athletes physical

performance quality.

Sociological

Championship Levels

The definition of a championship athlete, or a track and field runner in general, varies

drastically among different age and skill levels. High school, collegiate, and professional

competition each encompass unique characteristics that can affect athletic performance

positively and/or negatively. For example, high school training, as described by Coach Drew

Spicer of Deep Run High School, consists of student-athletes who are doing the sport for the

very first timeA high school coach is working with a group of people with a huge range of

experiences and ability levels as well as interest levels. Because of the novice experience levels,

coaches typically spend a lot more time communicating with parents and large groups of athletes

rather than the individual himself. The wide scope of people requiring prompt information may

cause a barrier for expressing individual expectations and goals. In contrast, at the collegiate

level, coaches are able to recruit certain athletes for their specific skills, thus adding greater

expectations to perform well. Especially with the availability of scholarships, these recruits tend

to be highly motivated to participate, whereas the sport is more of a social venue at the high

school level. Professional track and field, the most prestigious of the three, is synonymous to a

full-time job, as described by Coach Jon Molz of University of Richmond. These athletes are

expected to win their events in order to maintain sponsorships and income, therefore training is
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extremely individualized and involves massive external pressure, which the coach will have to

deal with.

Team Development

Though individual ability plays a vital role in performance, the team environment in

which that athlete trains has major effects on an individual performance in competition. Milbrath,

sport pedagogical expert and long-time coach, explains that factors such as team size and

collective-efficacy are important when developing a productive team environment for individuals

to prosper. Specifically, Milbrath refers to how as a group grows, it increases in productivity

until it gets to this optimal number, the optimal number being the size in which a particular

group is most constructive to performance. Larger training groups can be beneficial because

varied talents provide a range of abilities that can be shared and influenced, allowing individuals

to be more likely to find the athletes who contend for individual championships and also

place high caliber runners in the fourth and fifth team positions, necessary to win team titles.

On the downside, once an optimal number has been reached, the productivity experienced by

the group begins to level off due to barriers in communication. Also in large groups, the sense

of individual purpose disappears, which may stall athletic success. Tasks can lose their meaning

if coaches are unable to assess individual performances throughout. Comparison of individual

effort against group standards is not possible when a training group size exceeds optimal size

for productivity, therefore individuals believe their personal efforts are not necessary for the

success of the group (Milbrath, 2016).

Oppositely, small training groups can be extremely beneficial to athletic success as they

provide an environment in which the achievements of individual athletes are more often

recognized. Sufficient praise and instruction toward individual athletes prompts feelings of self-
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importance and value to the group as a whole, therefore initiating work ethic in training. The

problem with small groups remains that athletes are not introduced to varying techniques or

influences of same-minded athletes. Smaller teams are most commonly seen at the collegiate and

sometimes professional levels while larger teams can be found predominantly at the high school

and sometimes professional levels.

A productive team environment is derived from collective-efficacy, which is similar to

self-efficacy, but involves external motivators from teammates and coaches to succeed.

Therefore, creating an environment where athletes are motivated and believe in their ability to

perform is integral in addressing these remaining parts of the athlete-centered coaching

approach Collective-efficacy can be improved by setting team goals, promoting support among

individuals, and determining whether the group will benefit more from a democratic-style or

autocratic-style leadership which may depend on gender, race, skill level, etc. Additionally, as

the teams collective efficacy increases, the level of difficulty that can be used to provide

successful experience also increases (Milbrath 2016). In order to sculpt athletes to reach their

maximum athletic potential, the teams training environment and its effects on that athletes

performances and attitudes must be taken into consideration.

Coaching Styles

Style of coaching, either a stricter or more lenient approach, is important to consider

when optimizing athlete success. The way athletes respond to their coaches and build

relationships plays a major role in sculpting championship-level performers. Deep Run High

School track and field coach, Drew Spicer, explains his strategy of "being strict early and

adjusting how you want later on, in order to build a consistent and fair environment moving

forward, as well as to gain respect before its too late. With this coaching style, athletes are
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likely to respond to instruction in order to avoid discipline (addition repetitions of workouts, for

example). Many coaches enact disciplinary measures in order to improve self-efficacy within

their athletes, as well as set high expectations for their athletes to reach. James Monroe High

School and Nigerian Olympic coach, Skeeter Jackson, takes an opposite approach, elaborating

on his tendency to be "lenient with good communication from the start in order to build a more

trusting relationship. With a lenient coaching style, athletes are likely to respond by showing

comfort in approaching a coach with questions or concerns about their performances. Many

coaches have noticed a strong, positive correlation between male athletes and strict coaching

styles, while female athletes typically respond better to a more lenient approach (Tomlinson,

2016). Coaches must consider how their athletes respond to different types of reinforcement to

optimize performances in training and competition.

Individualization

Though many coaches will note that coaching track and field is a unique endeavor for

every individual athlete, there are common trends noticed among genders, races, and skill levels.

As for gender, studies exhibit an easier communication between coaches and athletes of the same

sexual category. Coach Drew Spicer of Deep Run High School touches on the subject, explaining

that from personal experience, sometimes, I have to work harder to gain trust from some girls,

as well as some who are of different race or background. He assumes such barriers may form

due to the individuals desire to make sure [he is] genuinely there for them. Many times,

strictness or leniency in coaching style will depend on the gender of an athlete. University of

Richmonds head coach analyzes that [he] must be more forceful and louder with males

whereas a strict style would be less effective with females as they take remarks (from coaches

and teammates) more personally. Implementing the wrong language when training athletes may
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unintentionally shift the focus from the sport to personal matter. Coaches rarely note a

connection among races apart from gender, as the gender barrier proves more significant in the

coaching process. Historically, there is a greater emphasis on executing a strict style for male

athletes and lenient style for female athletes, rather than separating based on race or ethnicity.

Richmonds assistant coach, Jon Molz challenges the claim that genders or races may be

correlated to coach-athlete communication. Rather, he predicts, its more of personality

differences than gender or race. Though this claim proves valid to many coaches, there is a

strong correlation between females and timid personalities, men and boisterous behaviors, still

contributing to the theory that different genders require different coaching styles. Skeeter

Jackson, who coaches professional jumpers up to the Olympic level, reiterates the claim that

proper communication is the best way to remind athletes what [he] expects out of them. An

athletes motivation to reach his/her coachs expectations will inevitably improve training habits

and performance qualities. However, instead of basing training regimens on gender or race,

Jackson [bases] on abilities and individual skill levels.

Individualized training based on different skill levels prevents excessive fatigue and

serious injury. From the start, athletes will enact entirely different styles of training including

running form, pain threshold, etc. The overall anatomy of a runner may contribute to injury in

regard to the differences in strength, flexibility, alignment, and other considerations, as

explained by Dr. Adam Tenforde, a sports medicine field specialist. Therefore, athletes with

weaker glutes would benefit from extra strength training within their regimen in order to prevent

changes [in] the position of the pelvis that causes one leg to appear a different length than the

other, or other correlated injuries with the glutes (Tenforde, 2016). The same goes for other

weaknesses, such as lack of flexibility which can be aided by extra stretching within workouts. It
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is the coachs responsibility to notice these individual necessities in their athletes and make

adjustments when necessary to both prevent injury and improve performance.

Dependency

A track coachs primary goal is to create independent-minded athletes who are able to

execute their own workouts and goals because athletes too dependent on their coaches

experience performance suicide. Such a problem can arise when coaches implement strategies

such as analyzing every step of their athletes in both practices and competitions, known as over-

coaching (Coach Dependency, 2013). A coach may tend to these dependencies by including

athletes in decisions about a weekly training schedule, promoting individual goal setting, or

setting an athlete loose to perform their workout autonomously. Should an athlete be able to

carry him/herself during practice, he/she is more likely to succeed in a competition without the

coachs direct attention. The problem of athlete dependence can be seen in times of warmup,

such as a runner not knowing what time to warm-up when the start time of a changes abruptly.

Feeling confident in ones ability to compete individually will ultimately improve performance

quality, rather than relying on a coachs input. Matt Walton, a coach at Glen Allen High School,

describes his means of encouraging athlete independence by [giving them] all the tools they

need to be successful and [teaching] them how to use these tools. By initially teaching

important skills necessary to succeed in perspective events, and later allowing athletes to

experiment with them on their own terms, an athlete can develop to become self-sufficient and

motivated. A healthy coach-athlete relationship consists of an athlete setting personal

expectations to meet while a coach develops skills their skills needed to reach these goals, rather

than an athlete striving to meet a coachs goals for them.

Initialization of Self-Efficacy
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Although collective-efficacy remains integral to success in track and field, self-efficacy

must also be present within championship athletes. Though it is true that self-efficacy needs to be

further operationalized in order to be considered necessary for triumphant performance, there is a

strong correlation between athletes with strong self-efficacy and considerable performance

successes.

Aside from just assigning daily workouts, a coach endures the "empowerment process in

which a coach transforms an athlete from a psychological lack of empowerment to exhibiting

efficacy and leadership through independent goal setting and performance expectation.

Leadership psychologists explain the empowerment process as a five-stage method coaches

may implement to increase self-efficacy among their athletes. Stage one is described as an

athletes psychological state of powerlessness that can be mended through supervision and

reward systems primarily. After completing stage one, athletes advance to stage two which

involves more managerial strategies and techniques by including goal setting, participative

management, and coach feedback. Stage three is a turning point in initiating self-efficacy as one

may experience a vicarious experience, or a fulfilling experience that motivates the athlete to

continue working toward improvement - for example, winning a race or earning a personal

record. Stage four of the empowerment process involves empowering [subordinates], which

can involve putting athletes in charge of workout groups in order to reinforce effort and

performance expectancy. Stage five is described as a state of full self-efficacy in performance

and involves persistence of behavior to accomplish task objectives. An athlete who exhibits a

strong motivation to succeed and self-efficacy throughout the training process will likely

demonstrate a dramatic performance enhancement in a competition setting (Conger & Kanungo,

1998).
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Verbal Cues

Research conducted by Porter, Wu, and Partridge illuminates how a coachs words, or

verbal cues, during practice and competition can enhance an athletes performance dramatically.

Verbal cues are a major part of self-motivation, promoting an external focus instead of an

internal focus to increase muscle memory and technical perfection while excluding conscious

effort. A study was conducted at the USA Track and Field Outdoor National Championships

about athletes coaches use of verbal cues during training and competition, and it was observed

that approximately 84.6% of coaches provided verbal cues throughout training, and 69% of those

cues helped runners focus internally - a skill necessary for success in the sport (Porter, Wu, &

Cartridge, 2010).

An internal focus of attention directs a persons conscious attention to the bodys

movements or to a specific body part, contrasting an external focus of attention, which directs a

persons conscious attention to the effects of movements or specific features in the environment.

For example, if a track and field sprinter desires to improve the speed during a 100-meter dash,

the coach may instruct them to increase the turnover of their leg action. This would likely induce

an internal focus of attention because the verbal instructions direct the athletes attention to the

legs. Alternatively, a coach may instruct the athlete to minimize ground contact while running the

100-meter dash, which indirectly encourages the athlete to increase leg speed. Since this form of

verbal instruction directs the runners attention to the external result of the movement (minimal

ground contact) (Porter, Wu, & Cartridge, 2010). Promoting an external rather than internal

focus of attention is one of the simplest techniques to improve athlete performance during

practice and competition, as the strategic use of words can alter the entire mindset of an athlete.

Utilizing external cues about surroundings, such as referencing force toward the ground or air
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can influence a dramatic improvement in performance quality as attention is drawn away from

internal obstacles like muscle fatigue and breath sounds.

Physiological

Coachs knowledge of the body

A coachs knowledge of physiological elements of the body will improve athlete

performance, as training regimens and workout plans should be planned proactively to avoid

injury and soreness, as well ensure athletic improvement. Because injuries are common and

occur at a high rate, coaches must be able to break up training in order for athletes to gain the

maximum benefit from each workout session while still avoiding injury (Tenforde, 2016). Coach

Steve Taylor of University of Richmond adds, an understanding of muscle function and

physiology in T&F/XC is what allows you to explain the purpose of workouts and how the body

will adapt through the training cycle. He adds, without this understanding, the coach would put

the athletes at a greater risk of injury and have a difficult time planning why specific workouts

need to be done. A coachs lack of knowledge about the bodys responses to different workouts,

such as their benefits and stresses, is detrimental to an athletes progress throughout a training

season, sacrificing championship competitivity.

Types of workouts

Different types of workouts tend to benefit athletic performance in different ways. Many

coaches utilize a variety of workouts to improve general skills like strength and endurance in

their athletes. For example, distance runners should perform more endurance based workouts
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while sprinters will perform more strength and speed based. Throwers will perform heavy

strength workouts while jumpers may see a combination of strength and speed.

Health and exercise expert, Kristin Canning explains that there are four core workouts

that a majority of running workouts branch from, each of which having a distinct purpose in

improving athlete performance. Speedwork, is the first type and is designed to [use] more

fast-twitch muscle fibers than distance running does, and it teaches you good form-that is,

pumping your arms, keeping your head and chest up, and driving your knees forward. The

speedwork category typically includes repeated sets of short sprints, from 30 to 120 yards.

However, because sprinting is extremely hard on the joints, implementing the speedwork

workout daily will likely lead to injury if not given any variation.

The Speed-Stamina Workout includes high-speed repetitions of 200 to 1,600 yards,

longer and more strenuous than the Speedwork workout. This is the most physically

demanding of the four because it requires the heart to increase its contractility (the force of the

beat) as well as the density of the mitochondria (cellular power plants) in [the] legs. Performing

a workout for example, 8 sets of 500 meter sprints with a 100m walk-back recovery will improve

the athletes stamina and speed, hence the name. The Speed-Stamina Workout may be a

valuable asset for middle-distance runners.

A Threshold Session involves running for 30 to 60 minutes at your threshold pace-the

speed you can maintain without breathing so hard that you need to slow down. Implementing

this type of workout will [improve] aerobic capacity, mostly beneficial to longer distance

runners. Often this type of workout is also known as a tempo run.

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Relaxed Long Runs are characterized as a slow, steady run. While they burn a lot of fat,

they also increase stamina and endurance. Because long runs are run at a pace slow enough to

talk and breathe easily and reduce stress in joints caused from intense workouts, long runs are

typically implemented as recovery or pre-competition workouts (Canning, 2015).

Throwers and jumpers implement their own routines and workouts, typically more

associated with strength and technique. These skills can be focused on in weight room settings

where equipment such as bar bells and bench press are present. With all field events, it is

important to practice many repetitions of that event in order to improve muscle memory and

comfort with its challenges. For example, a thrower should spend ample time throwing a shotput

in order to increase performance success, and a long jumper must practice jumping often to

maintain proper takeoff techniques.

Greg McMillan, a well-known exercise physiologist, introduces the concept of the

Champions Workout, in which an athlete challenges the body to break boundaries by pushing

it to full-fatigue - allowing muscles to fully regrow and develop afterwards. Though, because

these types of workouts are so hard on the body, it is important that an athlete does not reach this

level of intensity more than once or twice per running season, as doing more will almost

certainly result in stress-related fractures and injuries (McMillan, 2013). A Champions

Workout can be administered in the form of large quantities of high-intensity sprints for

sprinters, sudden major increase in a long run for distance runners, or a heavyweight, many

repetition weight room routine for field event athletes. This type of workout is extremely

beneficial to athlete performance because it is possible to gain the amount of speed, endurance,

and/or strength in a single day that would normally be gained in a week or more, only if the

athlete completes the workout in its entirety without injury.

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Planning workout schedules

As for implementing different workouts, all coaches implement a unique approach. The

combination of workout intensity and volume varies drastically between athletes with individual

situations, skill levels, and event interests. For example, the weekly workout schedule usual

100m dash runner typically includes more intense repetitions, whereas a 1600m runners would

include a larger quantity, but at a less intense speed. Jumpers and throwers weekly schedules

contain more strength workout and lifting than the other two groups. Coach Matt Walton of Glen

Allen High School explains his strategy for planning his athletes workouts with the overall goal

to qualify for post-season championships; After throwing a few things out there, I will put

together the next 2-3 weeks. Weather will play a role. Some people will do a lot more interval

work, some more sprint work, some a mix of both. I like to do a lot more volume in

the beginning of the season and gradually step it down. Some people want to do more interval

work throughout the season. It just depends on your philosophy. A coachs philosophy depends

entirely on the needs and goals of the athletes. Because the quality of a workout schedule can

make or break an athletes seasonal performance, coaches must understand different workout

types and implementations to properly sculpt a championship team.

Injury Prevention

When planning workout schedules for multiple athletes, it is important to note that

differences in skill level and strength which may cause injury if not proactively accounted for .

Injuries will delay or restart the training cycle, an obstacle that can risk a seasons qualitative

success. Due to the threat of injury, track and field coaches are recommended by surgical sports

medical physician, Dr. Adam Tenforde, to generally encourage healthy habits - nutritional and

physical - in all aspects of life. For example, an incorrect consumption of food can cause low
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energy availability...from accidental or unintentional under fueling like missing breakfast or

eating a smaller portioned lunch than usual. Sleep deprivation, too, can pose major problems for

muscle growth and repair after workouts, making it nearly impossible to benefit from workouts

as intended. A study conducted with 18-year olds in the active military compared minimal sleep

regulations (less than six hours) to mandating six hours of sleep with training modifications

during cumulative weekly marching. The results found a 96-percent reduction in developing a

stress fracture for those who maintained a more regular and bountiful sleep schedule. For injuries

associated with stress and tightness of muscle groups, it is especially critical to promote constant

rolling out of present lactic acids that may later cause muscle tears and pulls - season ending

injuries. Ice baths and heat supplements may be beneficial to heal soreness before and after

difficult workouts or races. Proactively caring for injuries becomes especially important when

considering the limitations that running injuries create, there is a high rate of injury and re-

injury noticed among track and field runners (Tenforde, 2016).

References

(May 20, 2013.) Coach Dependency. Athletics Weekly. Retrieved

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Canning, Kristen (2015, May 7). 4 Types of Running Workouts (And Why You Should Be Doing

Them All.) Retrieved from www.menshealth.com/fitness/breakaway-speed-training-plan

Conger, J., & Kanugo, R. (1988). The Empowerment Process: Integrating Theory and Practice.

The Academy of Management Review, 13(3), 471-482. Retrieved from

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/258093

McMillan, Greg (2013, Mar 11.) The Champion's Workout. Retrieved

from http://www.runnersworld.com/workouts/the-champions-workout.

Milbrath, M. J. M.ED., (2016, August). Group Centered Coaching: Addressing the Whole Team.

Techniques for Track & Field and Cross Country, 10, 34-42.

Porter, J., Wu, W., & Partridge, J. (2010). Focus of attention and verbal instructions: Strategies

of elite track and field coaches and athletes. Sport Science Review, 19(3-4), 77-89.

Tenforde, Adam. (2016, Aug). Running Injuries: How to Fix (Prevent) Them. Techniques,

10, 47-53.

Tomlinson, A. (2016, Aug 15.) Male Coach/Female Athlete Relations: Gender and Power

Relations in Competitive Sport. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Vol 21, Issue 2, pp.

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