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Linear
Motors
Application Guide
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Those that know anything about linear friction. This magnetic levitation had
motors can be forgiven for immediately long been understood, but it was
thinking of maglev trains, superguns, or Laithwaite who pioneered the
even futuristic elevator systems. You commercial development of the first
might even recall Major Boothroyd practical applications, developing
using the linear motor of one of Qs direct linear drives for both machinery
toys to propel a tray at decapitating and transport.
speed in the 1977 Bond movie, The
Spy Who Loved Me. All have Linear motors have evolved in several
captured public attention and its guises but perhaps the most commonly
imagination in recent years. The linear encountered are tubular, flat, or U-
motor has really come of age through channel types, which are finding
a dramatic increase in practical and increasing use thanks to their low
beneficial industrial applications. profiles and high output. For all intents
and purposes, and for the purposes of
The linear motor was invented by this discussion, we can assume most
Professor Eric Laithwaite, the British linear motors for motion control use
electrical engineer who died on brushless technology.
December 6, 1997 at age 76. It
projected a shuttle across a weaving
loom using a linear motor. Professor
Laithwaite was fascinated with the
weaving process ever since his
boyhood spent in Lancashire, the UKs
home of textile manufacture.
Back to basics
If youve never puzzled whether or not of the sun, apart from getting warm
to put gravity (g) into an equation, and feet, Mr. Arbuckle might weigh near
have never struggled to state the 4,500 kg (nearly 10,000 lb)!
difference between weight and mass,
then you may skip this chapter. There... weve already fallen into the
trap. As far as SI units are concerned,
For the rest of us mere mortals, here is it is mass that is measured in kilograms.
a simple reminder of what were The unit of weight is named after good
dealing with when considering motor old Sir Isaac and is, of course, the
specification. All we, as engineers, newton. Weighing machines are
really need to consider are the laws scaled in kilograms for convenience,
according to Faradays predecessor, but really should be marked in
Sir Isaac Newton. newtons. Take our Hollywood pal Mr.
Arbuckle to the moon and he weighs
Lets start with mass and one sixth of what he does on Earth. His
weight. Mass is the mass has not changed, but the force
unchanging quality of a acting on it has. A trip to the moon is a
body (Fatty Arbuckle great way to lose weight, but does
had a large nothing for the waistline!
mass) while
weight is the Take Newtons first law of motion: a
force that mass mass continues in a state of rest, or of
exerts in a motion at uniform velocity, unless a
gravitational field force acts upon it. OK, so lets go back
(dont let Mr. Arbuckle to space and give Mr. Arbuckle a
fall on you). However, gentle shove. He now weighs nothing
the weight varies and we watch him float across the
according to gravity. For spacecraft.
instance, in outer space
you could throw Mr. Now, if we give him a harder push, he
Arbuckle a long way, flies across and bangs into the
whereas on the surface bulkhead, enabling us to witness
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Newtons second law, which states: the Newtons laws indicate that once a
rate of change of velocity (acceleration) moving mass has been accelerated, it
of a mass is proportional to the applied should remain at a constant velocity
force and occurs in the direction of the without the need for further force. Yeah
applied force. right! As any engineer knows there are
a lot of forces preventing that scenario:
However, when we gave spaceman friction, bearing resistance, air
Arbuckle a hard shove, we also flew resistance, even lubricants and gravity
backwards at the same rate. This all conspire against us as engineers.
occurrence is described by Newtons
third law: action and reaction are
equal and opposite.
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magnetic flux leakage and care must The forcers are ironless, which means
be taken to make sure that fingers do there is no attractive force and no
not get trapped between the magnetic disturbance forces generated between
rod and an attracted surface. A major forcer and magnet track. The ironless
problem with the design of tubular coil assembly has low mass, allowing
motors is shown when the length of for very high acceleration.
travel increases. Due to the fact that
the motor is completely circular and Coil
travels up and down the rod, the only
point of support for this design is at the
ends. This means that there will always
be a limit to length before the
deflection in the bar causes the
magnets to contact the forcer.
Epoxy
U Channel Linear motor
This type of linear motor has two Typically the
parallel magnet tracks facing each coil winding is
other with the forcer between the three phase,
plates. The forcer is supported in the with brushless
magnet track by a bearing system. commutation.
Increased performance can be
achieved by adding air cooling to the
motor. This linear motor design is better
suited to reduced magnetic flux
leakage due to the magnets facing
each other and being housed in a U-
shaped channel. This also minimizes
the injury risks of fingers being trapped
Aerotech U-channel by powerful magnets.
linear motors
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Due to the design of the magnet track, forcer, the motor has no attractive force
they can be added together to or cogging (the same as U-channel
increase the length of travel, with the motors). This will help with bearing life
only limit to operating length being the in certain applications. Forcers can be
length of cable management system, mounted from the top or sides to suit
encoder length available, and the most applications.
ability to machine large, flat structures.
Ideal for smooth velocity control such
Flat-type linear motors as scanning applications, this type of
design yields the lowest force output of
flat-track designs. Generally, flat
magnet tracks have high magnetic flux
leakage and care should be taken
while handling these to prevent injury
from magnets trapping you between
Aerotech BLMF
flat linear motor them and other attracted materials.
Slotless iron flat motors forcer to the magnet track as they will
attract each other and may cause
The slotless iron flat motor is similar in injury. This motor design produces
construction to the slotless ironless more force than the ironless designs.
motor except the coils are mounted to
iron laminations and then to the Slotted iron flat motors
aluminum base. Iron laminations are
In this type of linear motor, the coil
used to direct the magnetic field and
windings are inserted into a steel
increase the force.
structure to create the coil assembly.
The iron core significantly increases the
Steel laminations with
aluminum base force output of the motor due to
focusing the magnetic field created by
the winding. There is a strong attractive
force between the iron-core armature
and the magnet track, which can be
used advantageously as a preload for
an air-bearing system. However, these
forces can also cause increased
bearing wear at the same time. There
will also be cogging forces, which can
Epoxy Coil be reduced by skewing the magnets.
Aerotech BLMFS5
Due to the iron laminations in the iron-core flat
linear motor
forcer, an attractive force is now
present between the forcer and the
track and is proportional to the force
produced by the motor. As a result of Skewed magnets
the laminations, a cogging force is
Before the advent of practical and
now present on the motor. Care must
affordable linear motors, all linear
also be taken when presenting the
movement had to be created from
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As with all the other translation systems operation, if the motor is shut down
discussed, the positioning of the load any load that has been held vertically
in a screw system is made with a rotary would be allowed to fall. There are
encoder mounted on the motor. The also no failsafe mechanical brakes for
controller never really closes a loop at linear motors at present. The only
the load. In a linear motor system the solution that some manufacturers have
encoder is at the load, reading actual achieved is the use of an air
load position. counterbalance.
Consider the application Environmental conditions must also be
considered. Although the motor itself is
As with any technology, there are
quite robust, it cannot be readily
always limitations and caution must be
sealed to the same degree as a rotary
used to employ the correct solution in
motor. In addition, linear encoders are
any application. While cost was once
often employed as feedback devices
a limitation in selecting linear motors,
and therefore care must be taken to
improved manufacturing methods and
ensure that the encoder is also suited
increasing volume have combined to
to the environment. That said, linear
make the expense of a linear motor
motors have been successfully
solution comparable with a typical
employed in ceramic cutting, an
screw and motor alternative. Indeed,
environment where highly abrasive
when cost of ownership is taken into
ceramic dust has led to the downfall of
account, a linear motor system will,
many supposedly more robust
over time, prove to be considerably
solutions. Again, the motor supplier
less expensive than the traditional
should be familiar with all of the
screw alternative. Today the superior
options and offer advice in each case.
performance of linear motors also
helps meet the more exacting demands In conclusion, where loads are not
from OEMs for higher productivity. excessive and the driven axis is
horizontal, the linear motor has many
A disadvantage with linear motors is
advantages over traditional
they are not inherently suitable for use
translational mechanical systems.
in a vertical axis. Due to its noncontact
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stability for micron-level positioning, for extremely robust and useful for hostile
those applications where ultra-high environment applications. For precision
precision positioning is required, and applications, linear optical encoders
position stability into the nanometer are capable of higher levels of
range is paramount, linear amplifiers accuracy than their magnetic
should be considered. This type of counterparts due to their finer scale
amplifier also has a much reduced pitch. Whereas magnetic linear
EMC noise footprint (almost negligible) encoders can provide accuracies to
and its high bandwidth and zero around 3 m over a one meter
crossover distortion is also of length, the best linear optical scales
significant benefit for ultra-high exceed 1 m per meter. With the use
precision synchronized multi-axis of suitable amplified sinusoidal
positioning applications. encoders, resolutions with
multiplication for magnetic encoders
Feedback System can be as low as 0.05 m, while the
optical designs can provide 0.010 m
Linear encoder feedback and
(10 nm) and beyond.
commutation systems are required for
all closed-loop brushless servo linear Aerotech AGS15000 linear motor
motors, although there may be some gantry uses optical encoders
brushless linear motor applications
where position feedback could be
provided by other devices such as
linear potentiometers or magnet-based
systems. However, the principal of
designing-in these feedback devices is
similar to the linear encoder.
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introduce stick-slip (stiction) and render Linear motion guide bearings may be
very short duration, micron-level moves specified for demanding applications
erratic or otherwise difficult to achieve. such as cleanroom, vacuum, corrosion
resistant, high speed, and low/high
Aerotech ANT series nanopositioners temperature. These bearings usually
use direct-drive linear motors and
crossed-roller bearings include sealing strips as standard and
provision for special lubrication. Even
fine movement applications can be
addressed with modified standard
products that include special
lubrication.
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Linear brakes that fit the form of linear designed to withstand the rigors of
motion guide rails are available as a constant flexing and high accelerations
convenient solution for preventing to provide a much longer working life
stage movement under power-off than standard cable. Consideration for
conditions. the cable performance in the correct
environment should also be given
Cable management i.e., temperature, humidity, cleanliness,
vibration, etc. all have an effect on
As linear motors and feedback devices
cable performance and life. The cable
are essentially friction-free and linear
chain orientation horizontal, side
bearings have a predictable life, the
mounted, standing or hanging is also
working life of a complete positioning
of importance as is the space and
system and the frequency of
clearance envelope, how the chain
maintenance downtime is often
may need supported, and
dependent upon the cable
requirements for maintenance access.
management system.
As with the choice of linear bearing,
E-chain can be used for motor power
the weight and drag from the E-chain
and encoder cables, as well as other
system will influence linear motor
electrical, fiber optic, pneumatic, or
sizing and will be required to correctly
even hydraulic services required for a
select the motor type and power for
particular project. The first task is to
the finished system design.
define the total cable requirement and
determine the diameter, weight, and
bend radius for each. Most cable
manufacturers specify cable bend
radius but it is very important to use the
dynamic rather than the static rating.
The bend radius refers to the inside
diameter of the cable and wherever
possible chain rated cable should be
specified. This cable is specifically
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Commutation Waveforms
1
Six Step
0.5 Sinusoidal
Trapezoidal
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
-0.5
-1
Electrical Degrees
track the forcer is in and therefore Modified six step commutation is very
energize the correct phase sequence. similar to trapezoidal commutation.
The digital Hall devices are aligned
There are three different types of with the zero crossing point of the
commutation currently available on the phase per the diagram showing the
market: trapezoidal, modified six step, Hall sequence of a brushless motor.
and sinusoidal. Trapezoidal Again, at each point that the Hall
commutation is the simplest form of signal translation is seen the phase
commutation and requires that digital current is switched. However, with this
Hall devices are aligned 30 method two current sensors are used
electrically from the zero crossing point and it provides a commutation
of the phase. At each point that a Hall sequence that is closer to the ideal
signal transition takes place, the phase sinusoidal phase current. This method
current sequence is changed, thus is slightly more costly than trapezoidal
commutation of the motor occurs. This commutation due to sensing two
is the cheapest form of commutation current levels. Both of these Hall-based
and the motor phase current looks like methods will cause disturbance forces
the diagram shown above. resulting in higher running temperature
and motion that is not smooth.
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Sizing up linear motors
This method is the lower cost of the two
So how do we take advantage of the
methods, but noise can be picked up
linear motors superior performance
on the Hall devices, affecting
and what are the correct procedures
commutation.
when sizing and applying a linear
Another more popular method of motor?
sinusoidal commutation is by using the
encoder. When a change of state is
detected in the digital Hall signal, the
incremental encoder signals can then
be used to digitally determine where in
the commutation cycle the motor is.
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a= v u s= (uv)t
f g= si n ( )m g 2s
v = 2 +u 2s 2
2 2
f p= f a+f f+ f g t a= s u2 t s= (v u )
2t 2a
t=
vu
a
T= RT (Mf )
rms
:
t=
2s
C
Where r a tion fo
rce (N
)
vu acc e le
N)
fa force (
t= 2s friction ce(N)
a ff it a ti o nal for
grav N)
fg orce (
peak f
fp kg)
mass ( (m/s 2)
2
RMS force m ti o n
r a
accele .81 m/s )
t 1f 12+ t 2f 22+ t 3f 32+ . . . +t nf n2 a it y (9
frms = gra v iction
t 1+ t 2+ t 3+ . . . +t n+t dwell g nt of fr
coe f f ic ie ntal in
o m horizo )
angle
f r = 90
V e s ( vertical
degre (m/s)
l v e locity
fin a (m/s)
v
ia l v e locity
init
u )
tdwell time (s
F fn
t n ce (m)
f1 dista ce
s ge for
frms f2 Avera rise
t2 f rms ratu e
r /W)
t1
T e m p e
is ta n c e (C
tn T al res /W)
Ther m s tant (N
tdwell RT c o n
time
time to repeat Motor
MC
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If required, you can also calculate the Calculating the peak force is simply a
distance taken to accelerate the load: case of adding these numbers
together:
s=ut +at2 =x36x0.08332=0.125 m
fp=fa+ff+fg=1800+1.47+0=1801.47 N
Newtons equation finds the force
required for the acceleration: Care must be taken with this peak
force. Any other external forces such
fa = ma = 50 kg x 36 m/s2 = 1800 N as cable management systems should
also be added to the peak force total.
This is the peak rating needed from the
Next, with a known total of
prospective motor, derived only from
acceleration and friction forces, the
the acceleration force. It does not
next step is to calculate the continuous
account for friction, gravitational or
force requirement. The rms force is the
other opposing forces. For example, a
average force from the motor and
quality crossed-roller bearing used to
helps determine the final temperature
carry the load has a coefficient of
that the coil will reach. Based on the
friction of about 0.0005 to 0.003.
above example using a trapezoidal
When the 50 kg rides on these
profile, the calculation will be:
bearings, the frictional force is:
RMS force
ff = mg = 50x9.81x0.003 = 1.47 N
t 1f 12+t 2f 22+t 3f 32+ ... +t nf n2
frms =
Because friction always opposes t 1+t 2+t 3+ ... +t n+t dwell
motion, it adds to the driving force
2 2
0.0833x1801.47 +0.0833x1.47 +0.0833x1801.47 2
required. Another force that becomes = 0.0833+0.0833+0.0833+0.275
relevant is the gravitational force. In this
example the force is zero because the = 1015 N
load is supported by the bearings, but
should the load be at an angle, then The rms force of 1015 N together with
the following formula is used: the peak force requirement can then
be used to choose a specific size and
fg = sin()mg = sin(0)x50x9.81 = 0 N model of motor that can apply this
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( ) ( )
2 2
T = RT frms = 0.12 x 1105 = 68.56C ContCurrent (lrms) = frms =
MC 46.23 Force_Constant
1105
In this application final coil = 23.18 Apeak cont
47.67
temperature rise will be 88.56C.
We also must check for the required
Typically temperatures over 100C
bus voltage. To do this we need to
should be avoided. If you are
make sure that we have enough
designing a high accuracy system then
voltage to drive the peak current
the temperature that the coil reaches
across the coil resistance, taking into
will be significant. As the temperature
account the motor voltages being
of the coils increase, so will
generated. To do this we calculate as
surrounding areas, and expansion will
follows:
occur changing the accuracy of the
system. Drive_Voltage_minimum =
(lp x Coil_Resistance) + (v x BEMF) =
Next we need to size an amplifier to
(41.16 x 1.8) + (3 x 54.79) = 238.46 V
drive this motor. As it is sinusoidally
wound, a sinusoidal amplifier is The amplifier required to drive this
recommended and we have worked motor for this application will have the
out the characteristics for one. First, we following specification:
need to check our current requirement.
If we need to create 1962 N peak Peak Current 41.16 A
with the BLMX-502-B, then the Cont. Current 23.18 A
following formula is used to calculate Min Bus Voltage 238.46 V
peak current:
PeakCurrent (lp) = fp =
Force_Constant
1962 = 41.16 A
peak
47.67
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Dedicated to the
Science of Motion
AEROTECH is a world leader in
positioning and motion control, with Aerotech Inc (U.S.A.)
offices and subsidiaries in the United
States, Europe, and Asia.
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