2.9 CURVILINEAR MOTION IN POLAR COORDINATES For a particle whose motion takes place on a plane, its trajec- tory is described by the equation RWD=x(Hit yj (t20) (2.54) with respect to a rectangular cartesian coordinate system. Some- times, however, it is more convenient to study the motion using polar coordinates rather than cartesian coordinates. In this section, we consider this approach and derive the corresponding formulas for the velocity and acceleration. Since the cartesian coordinates (x, y) are related to the polar coordinates (r, 8) by the equations x=rcos®, y=rsin®Vector Functions of One Variable 129 6» NOAA oO Fig. 2.19 The unit vectors u, and uy in polar coordinates. we may express (2.54) in polar coordinates as R(t) = r(b) [cos A(t) i + sin Oj] = r(t)u,(0(t)) (2.55) where u,(0() = cos 6(t) i+ sin 8) j (2.56) ‘The quantities r(t) and 0(t) denote the radial distance and the polar angle of the particle at time t (Fig. 2.19). It is clear that u, is a unit vector and has the same direction as the position vector R. By Theorem 3 (Sec. 2.3) , it follows that du, Y= ig = “sin G+ cos Bj (2.57) is orthogonal to u,. The vector (2.57) is also a unit vector and it points in the directon of increasing @ (see. Fig, 2.19). Further, by dif- ferentiating (2.57), we find130 Chapter 2 (2.58) do The formulas (2.57) and (2.58) imply that the process of differentia- ting either one of the unit vectors uy or ug is equivalent to rotating that vector through 90° in the counterclockwise direction. As we shall see in this discussion, the unit vectors u, and ug play the same important role in polar coordinates as the unit vectors i and j in cartesian coordinates. Let us now determine the expressions for the velocity and the acceleration of a moving particle described by (2.55) in polar coordi- nates. Since 0 is a function of time or the parameter t, so is the unit vector u,. Hence by the chain rule, we have dR _dr du, do = +r VOD = ae Fatt t ag dt which, in view of (2.57), becomes dR _ dr do VO = Ge Ge tet Ge Bo 2.59) This is the formula for the velocity in polar coordinates. We see from (2.59) that the velocity is the vector sum of two orthogonal vectors, one parallel to u, and the other parallel to up, The scalar factors dr/dt and rd@/dt in (2.59) are called the radial and the trans- verse components of the velocity, respectively (see Fig. 2.20). Since u, and up are orthogonal unit vectors, it follows that 2 2 2_ (ar do Y= lary * ae and so the speed is given by v WV (ar/aty? + (rd0/dt)" (2.60)Vector Functions of One Variable 131 Fig. 2.20 Velocity vector in polar coordinates. If the particle is moving around a circle with center at the ori- gin, then r= const. and so dr/dt = 0. In such a case, the velocity (2.59) reduces simply to v =r (d0 /dt)uy, The scalar quantity w = d0 /dt is, of course, the angular speed. To obtain an expression for the acceleration, we differentiate (2.59) and use the relations (2.57) and (2.58). We find 2 d+ dr da du, af “| (:"| duy 7 ute Ut at at gg * dt[” dt dt} go at 42 ae tat ae tat 2 2 i et] oe (“8 4dr ats a Thus the acceleration vector is also resolved into its radial compo- nent (r"- r0'2) and transverse component (r8" + 2r'@'), as shown in132 Chapter 2 0) Ue Fig. 2.21 Acceleration vector in polar coordinates. Fig. 2.21. Unlike the velocity vector, however, the acceleration vec- tor is no longer tangential to the path of motion, as we observed in Sec. 2.8. The term 2r'0'ug in (2.61) is sometimes called the Coriolis acceleration. If a particle is moving around a circle at uniform speed, so that dr/dt = 0 and d@ /dt = const.,, then d?6 /dt? = 0 and, hence, the acceleration (2.61) reduces to 2 i (<) a=-r(2)u, which is the normal acceleration obtained in Example 1, Sec. 2.8. Example 1. A particle is moving from the center to the rim along a spoke of a wheel that is rotating at a constant angular speed ©. Its position vector is given by R(t) =tu,. Find the velocity and the acceleration of the particle as a function of time. Solution: By differentiating the vector function R, we obtainVector Functions of One Variable 133 the velocity f trde de VO = eG Ht Gy Be The velocity is composed of the velocity u, of the particle relative to the wheel and the additional velocity 1(d0/dt)uy due to the rotation of the wheel. By differentiating v, we obtain the acceleration 2 du,do | do do) duy agp at * dt 8 * Lat) ae 2 de de = a,-()a, ‘The Coriolis acceleration is given by 2(d0/dt)uy which points in the ction of rotation. The term -t(d8 /dt?u,is obviously the centri- petal acceleration directed toward the center of the wheel. Kepler's Law on Planetary Motion Equation (2.61) leads to an important result when the motion is such that the acceleration is radial, that is, when the transverse component of the acceleration vanishes. This is the case with regard to the motion of the planets around the sun. Here we derive the so-called Kepler's second law on planetary motion. The law states that the position vector from the sun to a planet sweeps out area at a constant rate. In other words, as the planet moves around the sun, its position vector sweeps out equal area during an equal interval of time. Let us assume that the mass of the sun is M and the mass of a planet ism, Let R=ru, denote the position vector from the sun to the planet, and let F denote the gravitational force with which the planet is attracted to the sun (Fig. 2.22). According to Newton's134 Chapter 2 Orbit of planet Sun Fig. 222 Planetary motion. universal law of gravitation, we have Mm where G is the gravitational constant. By Newton's second law of motion this force is equal to the mass of the planet times its accele- on a, that is, F = ma. Hence we deduce GM - u, 2 ur r a which is a radial acceleration directed toward the sun (because of the negative sign). Since R and a are parallel, it follows that Rx a=0. From Example 3, Sec. 2.8, we conclude that the orbit of the planet lies on a plane. Now let A(t) denote the area swept out by the position vector of the planet from a certain time t = a to a subsequent time t (see Fig. 2.22), and let ®, and @ denote the corresponding polar angles. From elementary calculus, we know thatVector Functions of One Variable 135 rie AW=5 f ride Q Ha) The rate of change of this area is given by Aw =} ag) oO = 14{ (2, \ae 1 2d0 dt 2" dt 9, tt) Since the acceleration of the planet is radial, the transversal com- ponent of its acceleration vanishes. Hence from (2.61) we have vo | argo (2) t 2 0 ae atdt Tra dt which implies that 2d0 r at = const, Therefore, 1 2d0 AMO) = 0 Gp = const. which says that the area swept out by the position vector of the pla- net changes at a constant rate. This is Kepler's second law of plane- tary motion. 2.7 EXERCISES In each of Problems 1 through 6, the position vector of a moving particle is given. Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle at time t, and point out the Coriolis acceleration, if any. 1. R(t) = cosh wt (cos ti + sin tj), w positive constant. 2 — R(t) =P(cos wti + sin wtf), > 0 constant. 3. R(t) =r(l)(cos 3ti + sin 3ij), where r(t) = a(1 -cos 31), a>0136 Noms 10. u. Chapter 2 R(t) =r) u,, where r(t) = a(1 + sin t), @ = R(t) = r(t)(cos wt i + sin wt j), where r(t) = a/(1 + cost), a > 0. R(t) = r()(cos ti + sin tj), where r(t) =3a/[2(2 + cos )},a>0. Let R(t) = r(t)u,. Express d3R /dt? in terms of the unit vectors u, and uy. A particle moves on a plane with constant angular speed © about the origin. If the acceleration increases at a rate propor- tional to the vector u,, (a) find the transverse component of PR /dt3. (b) Show that dr /dt? = rw?/3, A person weighing 160 Ib walks at the rate of 2 ft/sec toward the edge of a merry-go-round that is rotating with constant angular speed of x/5 rad/sec. Find the centrifugal and the Coriolis forces experienced by the man when he is 5 ft from the center, From formula (2.62), deduce that the force acting on the parti- cle of mass m has two components, F, along u,and Fy along ug. Thus show that the motion of the particle is governed by the quations ai ao], @ FpemSo em | | at? dt 2 Gi) Fy = mrt ey amt @ ae dt dt (a) From Eq, (ii) of Problem 10, show that, d|_ 2do rFy = ffm | The quantity mr(d0/dt) is called the angular momentum of the particle. (&) Hence, if the force acting on the particle is always parallel to the radial vector u,, show that the angular momentum is constant.Vector Functions of One Variable 137 12. A particle is rotating counterclockwise around the origin of the xy-plane with angular speed o. (a) If w=okdenotes the angular velocity, show that v =R\) = wx R(t), where R(t) =1() u, (b) Show that a = w x R(t) - «R(t, where w' is the angular aceleration. (c) Thus deduce that if the angular velocity is constant, the acceleration consists only of the normal acceleration, 2.10 CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES In studying motions in space it is oftentimes more convenient to use noncartesian coordinate systems. The two most widely used coordinate systems of this kind are the cylindrical and the spherical coordinate systems. In this section we derive the expressions for the velocity and the acceleration in these two coordinate systems. Cylindrical Coordinates The equations relating the rectangular coordinates (x, y, z) and the cylindrical coordinates (5, ®, 2) of a point are given by x cosd, ysrsin@, z=2 where r= 0,00 <2n, -% dp [set Me *| uy+ 2 ae Pat} ag dt” gg dt do} 4Uydp 9U,do| d] dé ofl dt * gg at |* atl? at 72] Mo dO gl Cede, Mado gray ap dt gg at142 Chapter 2 By the formulas in (2.68), this becomes 2 2 dp -»(%*) -0 (20) ante ae Mat dt ’ dp dod’ (aa) Pp ‘| S dt dp de do dé do 2 si sin 9+ 2p 8 : Bar gt NMA PL SNM BBM Gy 5088 | ta (2.70) We observe that both the velocity and the acceleration are expressed in terms of their components along the unit vectors uy, uy, and ug Example 1. A particle is moving at a constant angular speedy along a meridian of a sphere of radius a. If the plane of the meri- dian makes an angle 0 = x/6 with the x-axis, find the velocity and the acceleration of the particle at any time t. Solution: Since the particle is revolving at constant angular speed 7, the angle traversed in time t measured from the positive z-axis is equal to @= yt. Therefore, using spherical coordinates, the position vector of the particle is given by R(t) = asin yt cos (x/6) i+ asin yt sin (x/6) j+acosytk =asinytu,+acosytk where u, = cos (x/6)i + sin (x/6) j (see Fig. 2.25). Hence the velocity is v(t) = R'() =ay cos ytu, - ay sinytkVector Functions of One Variable 143 and the acceleration is a(t) = v(t) = -a ylu, - ay? cosytk = - R(t) It follows that the acceleration is directed toward the center of the sphere. Fig. 2.25 Motion ona sphere. Example 2. Referring to the problem in Example 1, suppose the sphere is also rotating at a constant angular speed w about the z-axis, what is the velocity and the acceleration of the particle at any time t? Solution: Since the plane of the meridian rotates with the sphere, the unit vector u, is no longer constant but is of the form u, = cosati+sin ot] where 0 = ot is the angle measured from the positive x-axis. Notice that the x-axis together with the other coordinate axes is fixed in space, By differentiating the position vector R(t) = asinytu, +a cos ytk144 Chapter 2 we obtain the velocity v(t) = a7 cos yt u, +a. sin yt (du, /d9) - ay sin ytk = aycosytu, +a sin yt ug -ay sin ytk The term aw sin yl ug arises from the rotation of the sphere. Differentiating v(t), we obtain the acceleration a(t) ay? sin yt u, + aay cos yt (du,/d0) + awy cos yt up, + sin yt (dug /d0) - ay? cos ytk =-ay’sin yt u, + 2awy cos yt ug -aw"sin ytu, - ay cos ytk Since the sum of the first and the last terms is equal to - y7R, the acceleration can be written as a(t) = PR + 2awy cos yt uy - aw"sin yt u, Comparing this with the result in Example 1, we see that the first term is the radial acceleration directed toward the center of the sphere which is due to the motion of the particle on the meridian. The last term, aw*sin yt u,, is the acceleration directed toward the z-axis and is due to the rotation of the sphere. The second term, 2awsy cos ytug. is the Coriolis acceleration, which results from the interaction of the rotation of the sphere and the motion of the par- ticle on the sphere. 2.8 EXERCISES 1. A particle moves in space so that its position at time t has cylindrical coordinates r = 2, @ = 3t, z = 2t. Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle at time t. 2. A particle moves in space so that its position at time t has cylindrical coordinates =t,0=1,2=2t The particle traces outVector Functions of One Variable 145 a curve called a conical helix. Find the velocity and accelera- tion of the particle at time t. Referring to Problem 2, find a formula for the angle between the velocity vector and the generator of the cone at each point on the curve. A particle mov s in space so that its position at time t has cylindrical coordinates r= sint,0=t, z=t. (a) Show that the curve traced out by the particle lies on the cylinder 4x24 4(y-1/2)?=1 (b) Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle at time t. (6) Determine a formula for the angle between the velocity vector and the unit vector k. A particle moves in space at constant angular speed w along the circle of intersection of the plane z = 1 with the sphere of radius 2 and center at the origin. (a) Find the formulas for the velocity and acceleration of the particle at time t. Assume the particle is moving counter- clockwise as viewed atop the positive z-axis. (b) Suppose the sphere is also rotating at a constant angular speed y about the z-axis. Find the velocity and acceleration if the sphere rotates in the same direction as the particle; in the opposite direction. Referring to the problem in Example 1, suppose the particle is moving along the meridian at angular speed y = t (so that 9 = 12), Find the transverse and radial components of the accelera- tion as function of t Referring to the problem in Example 2, suppose the sphere is rotating at a variable speed such that @ = Find the accelera- tion and determine the Coriolis acceleration. A particle moves at constant angular speed a along the circle of intersection of the plane y = z and the sphere of radius a (center at the origin). Show that the position vector of the particle at time t can be expressed as Rit) =acosati+asinatj* where j* = cos (x/4)i + sin (x/4)j and at is the angle made by R(t) with the x-axis. What are the formulas for the velocity146 10. i. 12. 13. Chapter 2 and acceleration? Referring to Problem 8, suppose the sphere is now rotating about the x-axis at constant angular speed y. Find the formula for the position vector of the particle and determine the velo- city and acceleration at time t. Establish the formulas given in (2.70). Show that the scalar coefficient of ug in (2.70) can be written as 1 od a8 int psingdt|? dt ® A particle slides from (a, 0, 0) down a frictionless circular helix R(0) = acos @ i + asin 6j + 0k, =0, a,b >0 with constant angular speed d@/dt = x rad/sec. Find the velocity of the par- ticle and the distance (assumed in meters) it has traveled at t = 2 sec. (Assume the positive z-axis to be pointed downward.) A free falling body starting from rest at (a, 0, 0) slides down a frictionless circular helix R(®) =a cos @ i + a sin @j +b8k,0=0, a,b > 0 at the speed v = V(2gb0), where g is the gravitational acceleration (32 ft/sec? or 980 cm/sec”). (a) Find @ as a function of time t= 0, Note that ye 4 v= IRON (b) Find the distance traversed by the body along the helix at t= 2 sec. (Assume the positive z-axis to be pointed downward.)