Abrading Methods, Inc.

1011 Davis Road, Elgin, IL 60123

(847) 742-6776 FAX: (847)-742-6783
http://www.lapping.com An ISO 9001:2000 Registered Company

Reading Flatness using an Optical Flat

Scope
This instructional guide is intended to provide the reader a basic understanding of reading flatness using
an optical flat. The initial use of this guide is to provide a basis for an instructor-guided learning
experience. The student may retain this guide for future reference. The simplicity and economy of the
equipment used with this technique, and the speed with which results can be obtained, make optical flat
reading a required and valuable skill for those involved in lapping and polishing.

Objective
The objective of this guide, together with an instructor-led learning experience, is to provide the student
with the basic knowledge required to perform flatness measurement during production. The use of this
guide does NOT certify the reader in performing final quality checkscertification must be performed
separately, and will be performed under the supervision of the Quality Manager or other qualified person.

Introduction
The easiest and best way to test the flatness of a flat lapped or polished surface is with an optical flat.
Such surfaces are found on micrometers, measuring machines, gage blocks, snap gages, ring seals,
valve seats and precision flat lapped parts. The surface must be sufficiently polished to reflect light.
Ordinary lapped surfaces are too rough to show light wave interference bands. However, unless the
material is extremely soft or porous, a few rubs on a polishing stand will polish the part and enable the
light bands to be seen in monochromatic light.

When an optical flat is placed on a brightly polished, flat surface, under a monochromatic light source,
such as a helium light, a series of light and dark lines or shadows will form. These lines are called Light
Bands. One can measure the flatness of a surface by correctly interpreting the meaning of these light
bands.

Handling
An optical flat is an expensive precision measuring instrumenteven though it has no moving parts. The
surface flatness of an optical flat can be as flat as .000001. Thats one millionth of an inch! To keep this
in perspective, a human hair is usually about .003. Imagine dividing a human hair into 3,000 equal parts.
The surface of a high-grade optical flat will vary no more than the thickness of ONE of those 3,000 parts
of a human hair!

If scratches develop on the working face of the optical flat, the accuracy may be affected. Scratches also
tend to make reading the light bands more difficult. If an Optical flat is dropped or bumped against
another object with sufficient force, the flat may become so damaged that it is useless.

Always handle optical flats with great care. Never put them where they can fall, or objects can fall onto
them. When they are not in use, they should be kept in their felt-lined cases. Make sure the case itself is
kept clean and dry. Wipe them clean using a clean, dry soft cloth or paper towel. Dont touch the reading
surface with your fingersyou will leave oil deposits that can affect the flat.

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 Abrading Methods, Inc.
1011 Davis Road, Elgin, IL 60123
(847) 742-6776 FAX: (847)-742-6783
http://www.lapping.com An ISO 9001:2000 Registered Company

The Physics
While it is not necessary to understand why the light bands are formed to measure flatness,
understanding the principles does provide some insight. The cause of the formation of light bands are
formed lies in a scientific principle. When two waves collide (light waves, ocean waves, etc.) one of two
things will happen. If the waves are in phase, they will reinforce each other and become stronger or
larger. This is called Constructive Interference. If they are out of phase, they will cancel each other. This
is called Destructive Interference. Figure 1 below illustrates this principle.

Interference Diagram: Fig. 1

Figure 2 below illustrates light waves passing through an optical flat onto a work piece. If the work piece
is not perfectly flat, an air wedge will be formed by the gap between the optical flat and the work piece.
Certain rays, (B, D, F, etc.) will fall where the thickness of the wedge is just one, two, three, etc., half-
wavelengths. Where this occurs, light waves will be partly reflected from the optical flat, flat and partly
from the work piece. At these points, (because the reflections are waves, the reflection of each of these
particular rays interferes with itself, canceling its own light and appearing from above as a narrow dark
band (destructive interference). Since each dark band is like a contour line, it defines a path across the
wedge wherever its thickness is exactly uniform. The dark bands are thus useful for precise measurement
of work flatness. Other rays, A, C, E, etc., reflect upward without interference and appear as wide
alternate bright bands.

Interference Diagram: Fig. 2

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 Abrading Methods, Inc.
1011 Davis Road, Elgin, IL 60123
(847) 742-6776 FAX: (847)-742-6783
http://www.lapping.com An ISO 9001:2000 Registered Company

The Phenomenon of Interference Bands

When there is an extremely thin wedge between two flat surfaces, a series of interference bands or
fringes appear. The bands occur at right angles to the slope of the wedge. They represent intervals of
approximately 11.57 millionths of an inch (293.8 nanometers) from the surface being tested to the optical
flat when a monochromatic light of 23.13 millionths (587.6 nm) wavelength is used. Helium
monochromatic light sources provide a highly diffused light of this wavelength. Dark bands occur because
light reflections from the two surfaces, which form the wedge, interfere with each other where the
thickness of the wedge is one half or multiples of one half the wavelength of the light.
The parallel bands thus form at zones where the wedge thickness changes by 1/2 wave length. Between
each pair of dark bands the reflections reinforce each other and produce bright bands. When viewed
perpendicularly in helium light, the dark bends are located where the air wedge thickness changes by
equal intervals of .00001157" (293.8 nm).

Interference Diagram: Fig. 2 (Duplicate)

Procedure For Making Flatness Tests

Clean all dust and dirt from the surface of the work piece. Burrs and nicks should be removed by using an
appropriate deburring tool. Make certain the work piece is free from all moisture. GENTLY clean the
optical flat with a soft cloth. Place the work under the monochromatic light. Place a clean piece of optical
tissue (or any other clean paper) over the work piece. Look at the edge of the optical flat, to determine
which is the test side. Place the optical flat on top of the paper with the test side facing the work piece.
Hold the optical flat steady with one hand and draw the paper out from between the work piece and the
optical flat with the other hand. If bands do not appear, repeat this procedure. This will reduce the
possibility of scratching the optical flat and the work piecerubbing or sliding the optical flat on the work
piece can damage the optical flat.
The light bands should be viewed from a distance at least 10 times the diameter of the optical flat and
with the line of vision as nearly perpendicular to the flat as possible. If the bands are straight, parallel and
evenly spaced, the surface is flat. If the bands are curved or are unevenly spaced, the surface is not flat.

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 Abrading Methods, Inc.
1011 Davis Road, Elgin, IL 60123
(847) 742-6776 FAX: (847)-742-6783
http://www.lapping.com An ISO 9001:2000 Registered Company

If Bands Fail to Appear

If light bands fail to appear it may be due to one of the following reasons:
Dust, burrs or nicks may still be holding the optical flat away from the surface. Do not slide
the optical flat around on the surface in an effort to make the bands appear as this may
scratch the flat. Instead, reclean the surface or remove the burrs, then try again. The wedge
between the surface of the work and the optical flat may be too thick. GENTLY Press down
on the optical flat with a uniform pressure to squeeze out the air film.
If moisture or oil is present if may cause the optical flat to wring or adhere to the work so
closely that bands cannot appear. Reclean the surface, using alcohol or other fast-
evaporating cleaner, then try again.
The optical flat is lying too angularly to the work piece. The flat may be making too great an
angle with the work, in which case the bands will be so close together as to be nearly
invisible. Try putting gentle pressure at different points around the edge of the optical flat.
The optical flat is lying too nearly parallel to the surface of the work piece. This rarely occurs.
When it does, it is because the work piece is extremely flat. In this case, the bands would be
so far apart that they would not be distinguishable as bands. Apply gently pressure to the top
of the optical flat at various points to try to make the bands appear.
The surface of the work piece is not bright enough. Try re-polishing the work piece to make
the surface more reflective, and then try again.
The work piece may be too far out of flat to be readable optically. This can only be
determined using another form of instrumentation.

Determining the Amount of Flatness Error

(See Figure 3a through 3e below) The amount that the bands curve, with reference to the distance
between them, indicates the amount of flatness error. If the bands are perfectly straight and of uniform
thickness, the surface of the work piece is flat to within the accuracy of the optical flat itself. In most
cases, however, there will be some amount of curvature of the light bands. In judging the amount of
curvature, imagine a line drawn across the surface from one end of any band to the other end of that
same band. If this imaginary line just touches the previous band the flatness error is 1 band (See figure
3a)

If the imaginary line comes half way between the two bands the error is band (Figure 3b). If the surface
is out of flat by two bands, the imaginary line will just touch the second band. If it is out of flat by three
bands it will just touch the third band and so on.

The imaginary line may be made real by aligning a piece of thread across the face of the monochromatic
lights diffusion screen, or by use of a transparent straightedge. This may serve as an aid to those
learning how to interpret then bands, or where extreme precision is required.

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 Abrading Methods, Inc.
1011 Davis Road, Elgin, IL 60123
(847) 742-6776 FAX: (847)-742-6783
http://www.lapping.com An ISO 9001:2000 Registered Company

Determining the Amount of Flatness Error (cont.)

The figures below illustrate certain different conditions and degrees of flatness error. The right edge of the
work is in contact with the flat. (The user is applying light pressure to the right-hand side of the optical
flat.) An explanation of the band patterns is as follows:
a. Convex surface: side edges low 1 band (11 millionths.)
b. Convex surface: side edges low band (6 millionths.)
c. Surface is very nearly flat, with some edge drop-off (edges low or rounded) band (6 millionths.)
d. The surface is both convex and concave: hollow in center, higher each side of center and lower at
side edges: error, band (3 millionths)

Amount of Flatness Error: Fig. 3a, 3b, 3c, & 3d

Convex or Concave?
The rule for determining whether a surface is concave or convex is as follows: If the bands curve AWAY
from the point of light pressure, then the surface is convex, as shown in illustration 3a. If they curve
TOWARD the point of light pressure, then the surface is concave, as shown in (Figure 3e)

Concave part: Fig. 3e

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 Abrading Methods, Inc.
1011 Davis Road, Elgin, IL 60123
(847) 742-6776 FAX: (847)-742-6783
http://www.lapping.com An ISO 9001:2000 Registered Company

Irregular Surfaces
When the surface to be measured is irregular, the contact method of flatness testing is recommended.
This is the only case where the count of the number of bands is meaningful. Here, the flat is placed in the
tightest possible contact with the work piece. No attempt should be made to maintain a wedge. A band
pattern such as shown in figure 4 will appear. These bands are to be interpreted like the contour lines on
a map. Each band represents 11.57 millionths of an inch (293.8 nm). In this case, the total flatness error
is equal to half the number of bands between points of contact.
In the figure shown the count of 12 bands between high spots indicate a valley 69.42 millionths deep
between the two high spots. Note that the high spots appear as bulls-eye patterns.

Irregular Surface: Figure 4

Additional Suggestions Regarding Flatness Tests

The bands should be viewed as nearly perpendicularly as possible. If viewed from an
increasingly oblique angle, the value of 11.57 millionths per dark band can increase
significantly. Also, there will be fewer bands and they tend to straighten as the angle of
viewing becomes shallower.
All work should be allowed to come to a common temperature before being tested. A cold flat
on a warm part, or vice-versa, will cause inaccurate readings.
The number of bands that appear is not an indication of the flatness of the surface. The
number of bands relates only to the steepness of the wedge formed between the work piece
and the optical flat. The bands may be made fewer and father apart by pressing on the
optical flat until they are most conveniently spaced for evaluation.
A perfectly flat surface will show straight and evenly spaced bands. In this case, turn the part
90 to itself, and test again. Now, the bands will be running at right angles to their original
position, and it will now be possible to evaluate the curvature.
Not everyone will interpret light band patterns exactly the same way. In critical work, it may
be valuable to have another person interpret that flatness of the work piece. You can then
average the two readings to give a more accurate measurement.
There is no substitute for experience. Working with optical flats and reading band patterns
over and over again will increase the users capability and accuracy.
Conclusion
With time and experience, a trained operator can distinguish both the shape and the extent of part
flatness, with a degree of precision nearly equal to any other flatness measurement technique. The
simplicity and economy of the equipment used, and the speed with which results can be obtained, make
optical flat reading a required and valuable skill for those involved in lapping and polishing.

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