Title.

An Introduction to Oil and Gas Processing

Describe typical product flows in oil and gas processing operations

1.1. Simple processing terms

Define simple processing terms.
This chapter has been compiled for readers with an interest in the oil and gas industry. It
is an overview of the main processes and equipment. When we searched for a suitable
introduction to be used for new engineers, I discovered that most of the equipment described in
standards, equipment manuals and project documentation. Little material was found to quickly
give the reader an overview of the entire oil and gas industry, while still preserving enough detail
to let the engineer have an appreciation of the main characteristics and design issues.
Before petroleum can be used, it is sent to a refinery where it is physically, thermally and
chemically separated into fractions and then converted into finished products. About 90% of
these products are fuels such as gasoline, aviation fuels, distillate and residual oil, liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), coke (not the refreshment) and kerosene. Refineries also produce non-fuel
products, including petrochemicals, asphalt, road oil, lubricants, solvents and wax.
Petrochemicals (ethylene, propylene, benzene and others) are shipped to chemical plants, where
they are used to manufacture chemicals and plastics.
A very fundamental aspect of equity investing is understanding the companies and sectors
in which you invest. In the equity universe, there are a number of sectors, and equity investors
require some specialized knowledge to make educated investment decisions. The oil and gas
sector is teeming with complicated terminology that can overwhelm investors new to the space.
With a basic understanding of this terminology and the oil and gas business in general, investors
can better understand the fundamentals of oil and gas stocks.
Hydrocarbon Basics
Crude oil and natural gas are naturally occurring substances present in rock amidst the
earth's crust. The origin of oil and gas is organic material - the remains of plants and animals -
compressed in sedimentary rock such as sandstone, limestone and shale. Sedimentary rock is a
product of sediment deposits in ancient oceans and other bodies of water. As layers of sediment
were deposited on the ocean floor, decaying remains of plants and animals were integrated into
the forming rock. This organic material eventually transformed into oil and gas after being
exposed to a specific temperature and pressure range deep within the earth's crust.
Because oil and gas are less dense than water, which occurs in huge quantities in the
earth's subsurface, oil and gas migrate through relatively porous sedimentary source rock toward
the earth's surface. When the hydrocarbons are trapped beneath relatively less-porous cap rock,
an oil and gas reservoir is formed. These reservoirs, which are simply layers of rock containing
relatively large quantities of oil and gas, are our source for crude oil and gas.
To bring the hydrocarbons to the surface, a well must be drilled through the cap rock and
into the reservoir. Drilling rigs work in a similar fashion as a hand drill; a drill bit is attached to a
series of drill pipes, and the whole thing is rotated to make a well in the rock. Once the drill bit
reaches the reservoir, a productive oil or gas well can be completed and the hydrocarbons can be
pumped to the surface. When the drilling activity does not find commercially viable quantities of
hydrocarbons, the well is classified as a "dry hole." Dry holes are typically plugged and
abandoned.
There are two major sectors within the oil industry, upstream and downstream. For the
purposes of this tutorial we will focus on upstream, which is the process of extracting the oil and
refining it. Downstream is the commercial side of the business, such as gas stations or the
delivery of oil for heat.
Exploration
Oil and gas wells can generally be classified into two different types - exploratory wells
and development wells. Sometimes known as a wildcat well, exploratory wells are those drilled
to find new reservoirs (places where hydrocarbons haven't been found in the past). Wells drilled
into the known extent of a producing reservoir are known as development wells.
Drilling
Because all hydrocarbon production declines over time, E&P companies must drill new
wells in order to grow revenue and earnings. Therefore, a key analytical consideration is the
company's drilling program. Investors should read about what the E&P has been doing and what
it plans to do in its drilling program to understand where revenue and earnings growth could
come from.
There are a lot of factors to consider - the oil vs. gas mix, the drilling cost of each well,
the company's working interest (essentially the ownership percentage of the well) and the mix of
development and exploratory wells to name a few. The better the E&P is at increasing production
in a cost effective way, the greater the potential return on equity for shareholders.
Analysts usually consider the company's overall drilling success rate, which is the
percentage of all wells drilled that resulted in economic production. If the company plans to drill
the same type of wells (and in similar geographic locations) in the future as it has in the past, the
past drilling success rate can be somewhat of an indicator of future success. If the analyst is
confident that the drilling program will be successful, he or she will have confidence in the
company's ability to increase production and cash flows in the future.
Production
Investors are wise to consider an E&P's production trend before investing in its stock.
E&Ps usually report several production figures, such as average daily production rate, total
production for the period and the exit production rate in every earnings press release and
financial filing. Like the analysis of any company, investors want to see production (and
therefore profit potential) increasing over time without corresponding material increases in new
debt and equity securities. The combination of those factors, with all other things being equal, is
what drives earnings per share growth for an E&P.
Oil Drilling and Services.

Oil drilling and services is broken into two major areas: drilling and oilfield services.

Drilling - Drilling companies physically drill and pump oil out of the ground. The
drilling industry has always been classified as highly skilled. The people with the skills and
expertise to operate drilling equipment are in high demand, which means that for oil company to
have these people on staff all the time can cost a lot. For this reason, most drilling companies are
simply contractors who are hired by oil and gas producers for a specified period of time.
In the drilling industry, there are several different types of rigs, each with a specialized
purpose. Some of these include:
Land Rigs - Drilling depths ranges from 5,000 to 30,000 feet.
Submersible Rigs - Used for ocean, lake and swamp drilling. The bottom parts of
these rigs are submerged to the sea's floor and the platform is on top of the water.
Jack-ups - this type of rig has three legs and a triangular platform which is
jacked-up above the highest anticipated waves.
Drill Ships - These look like tankers/ships, but they travel the oceans in search of
oil in extremely deep water.
Oilfield Services - Oilfield service companies assist the drilling companies in setting up
oil and gas wells. In general these companies manufacture, repair and maintain equipment used
in oil extraction and transport. More specifically, these services can include:
Seismic Testing - This involves mapping the geological structure beneath the
surface.
Transport Services - Both land and water rigs need to be moved around at some
point in time.
 Directional Services - Believe it or not, all oil wells are not drilled straight down,
some oil services companies specialize in drilling angled or horizontal holes.
Oil Refining
The refining business is not quite as fragmented as the drilling and services industry. This
sector is dominated by a small handful of large players. In fact, much of the energy industry is
ruled by large, integrated oil companies. Integrated refers to the fact that many of these
companies look after all factors of production, refining and marketing. For the most part, refining
is a slow and stable business. The large amounts of capital investment means that very few
companies can afford to enter this business. This handbook will try to focus more on oil
equipment and services such as drilling and support services.
Terms.
BTUs: Short for "British Thermal Units." This is the amount of heat required to increase
the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. Different fuels have different
heating values; by quoting the price per BTU it is easier to compare different types of energy.
Day rates: Oil and gas drillers usually charge oil producers on a daily work rate. These
rates vary depending on the location, the type of rig and the market conditions. There are plenty
of research firms that publish this information. Higher day rates are great for drilling companies,
but for refiners and distribution companies this means lower margins unless energy prices are
rising at the same rate.
Downstream: Refers to oil and gas operations after the production phase and through to
the point of sale, whether at the gas pump or the home heating oil truck.
Crude oil is a complex mixture consisting of 200 or more different organic compounds,
also other elements such as sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, and etc. Mostly alkanes (single bond
hydrocarbons on the form CnH2n+2) and smaller fraction aromatics (six-ring molecules such as
benzene C6H6) figure 1.1.

a) b)

Figure 1.1. a) octane - C8H18, b) benzene C6H6.

Separation - As described earlier, the well-stream may consist of crude oil, gas,
condensates, water and various contaminants. The purpose of the separators is to split the flow
into desirable fractions.
On an installation such as this, where the water cut is high, there will be a huge amount of
water produced. In our example, a water cut of 40% gives water production of about 4,000
cubic meters per day (4 million liters) that must be cleaned before discharge to sea. Often, this
water contains sand particles bound to the oil/water emulsion.
Process gas compression is a procedure for pressurizing and circulating gas through a
process by compressing it in a cylinder, to enhance conditions for chemical reaction.
The Utilities Area does not always get the required attention in a refinery, except when it
is not working properly or experiences an unscheduled shutdown. The utilities area (steam,
condensate, instrument air, electricity, chemical additives, etc.) is one key area that can
slowdown or shutdown the entire refinery, thus reliable operations in this area are a must.
Wet gas, natural gas that contains an appreciable proportion of hydrocarbon compounds
heavier than methane (e.g., ethane, propane, and butane). The mixture may be gaseous or both
 liquid and gaseous in the reservoir; the heavier hydrocarbons are condensable when brought to
the surface and are frequently separated as natural gas liquids (NGLs). Alternatively, the propane
and other lighter compounds may be marketed as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and heavier
hydrocarbons may be made into gasoline (petrol).
Hydrates- crystalline substances formed by associated molecules of hydrogen and water
and having a crystalline structure. Natural gas hydrates look like wet pressed snow turning into
ice. Having accumulated in the gas pipeline, they can choke or completely block the pipe and
cause damage to the system's operating conditions.
When large gas volumes are transported, dehydration is the most efficient and
economical means of preventing the hydrate formation in the trunk pipeline. The existing
methods for gas dehydration in the field fall into two main groups: absorption (dehydration by
liquid media) and adsorption (dehydration by solid media). The dehydration is aimed at the
depression of the water dew point below the minimal temperature that can be expected in the gas
pipeline. Gas dehydration by liquid media is most widely used in the gas industry.
The liquid sorbents used for the dehydration of natural and petroleum gases should have
high solubility in water, be low cost, and should show high corrosion resistance. They must also
be chemically neutral towards the gas components and, if regeneration is used, they should be
easily regenerated, be of low viscosity, and so on. Diethylene glycol (DEG), triethylene glycol
(TEG) and, to a lower extent, monoethylene glycol (MEG) satisfy most of these requirements.
Refinery yield -- Refinery yield (expressed as a percentage) represents the percent of
finished product produced from input of crude oil and net input of unfinished oils. It is calculated
by dividing the sum of crude oil and net unfinished input into the individual net production of
finished products. Before calculating the yield for finished motor gasoline, the input of natural
gas liquids, other hydrocarbons and oxygenates, and net input of motor gasoline blending
components must be subtracted from the net production of finished aviation gasoline.

The fluid flow equations and formulas presented thus far enable the engineer to initiate
the design of a piping or pipeline system, where the pressure drop available governs the selection
of pipe size. (In addition, there may be velocity constraints that might dictate a larger pipe
diameter. This is discussed below in the section on velocity considerations for pipelines.

Once the inner diameter (ID) of the piping segment has been determined, the pipe wall
thickness must be calculated. There are many factors that affect the pipe-wall-thickness
requirement, which include:

The maximum and working pressures

Maximum and working temperatures
Chemical properties of the fluid
The fluid velocity
The pipe material and grade
The safety factor or code design application
Corrosion is a common problem encountered in the oil and gas industry. Oil and gas
pipelines, refineries and petrochemical plants have serious corrosion problems. Internal
corrosion in oil and gas industry is generally caused by water, carbon dioxide (CO 2) and
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and also can be aggravated by microbiological activity. Importantly, the
flow regimes of multiphase fluids greatly influence the corrosion rate. For example, at high flow
rates, flow induced corrosion and erosion-corrosion may occur, whereas at low flow rates, pitting
corrosion is more common. Corrosion is generally related to the amount and nature of the
sediments. High-velocity flow tends to sweep sediments out of the pipeline, whereas low
velocity allows sediments to settle at the bottom, providing sites for pitting corrosion.
 Erosion of oil and gas equipment has become a significant financial burden on both the
upstream and the downstream components of the petroleum industry. Concerns over loss of life,
injuries, lawsuits, downtime, and plant reconstruction are keeping plant and engineering
managers awake at night. This paper outlines a cost-effective methodology for minimizing
erosion and avoiding dangerous and expensive accidents.
Artificial lift systems are designed to help natural reservoir energy power formation
fluids to the surface at targeted rates. Gas lift systems aid or increase production by injecting
high-pressure gas from the casing annulus into fluids that have entered the production tubing
from the formation. The injected gas reduces the fluid density and, thus, the hydrostatic pressure
of the fluid, allowing in situ reservoir pressure to lift the lightened liquids.
Today, oil companies produce an average of three barrels of water for each barrel of oil
from their depleting reservoirs. Every year more than $40 billion is spent dealing with unwanted
water. In many cases, innovative water-control technology can lead to significant cost reduction
and improved oil production.
Generally, produced water may be injected with minimal treatment when injected under
fracturing conditions or into (thermally) fractured formations. Water quality requirements for
sustained matrix rate (sub fracturing) injection are typically much more stringent than for
fracturing injection. If the injected water contains solids large enough to plug the formation (a
fraction of the median pore size), injectivity will decline. The rate of loss of injectivity will
depend on the surface area of the completion. Unlike in fracturing injection, the surface area
exposed in a completion operated at matrix rates does not increase. A cased and perforated
completion typically exposes a small amount of formation and may be particularly sensitive to
suspended solids. Open hole and proppant-fractured completions are expected to be less sensitive
(although by no means insensitive) to suspended solids, provided the solids are not large enough
to plug completion components (eg. sand screens or proppant).
A barrel of oil equivalent (BOE) is a term used to summarize the amount of energy that
is equivalent to the amount of energy found in a barrel of crude oil. By encompassing different
types of energy resources into one figure, analysts, investors and management can assess the
total amount of energy the firm can access. This is also known as crude oil equivalent (COE).
An emulsion is a dispersion (droplets) of one liquid in another immiscible liquid. The
phase that is present in the form of droplets is the dispersed or internal phase, and the phase in
which the droplets are suspended is called the continuous or external phase. For produced
oilfield emulsions, one of the liquids is aqueous and the other is crude oil. The amount of water
that emulsifies with crude oil varies widely from facility to facility. It can be less than 1% and
sometimes greater than 80%.
Soluble substances are those that easily dissolve in a solvent, such as water, and include
sugar, salt, alcohol and some dishwashing detergents. In chemistry, solubility of a substance is a
quantitative term that refers to the amount of substance that can dissolve in a given volume of a
solvent. A substance is considered soluble if more than 0.1 gram of that substance can dissolve in
100 ml of solvent.Examples of insoluble substances are sand, plastic, wood, metal, glass and
cloth. These substances never dissolve in water or any other solvent at room temperature and
pressure. Sugars and inorganic salts are also examples of insoluble substances. Insoluble
substances cannot be extracted from a solution.
The petroleum fiscal regime of a country is a set of laws, regulations and agreements
which governs the economical benefits derived from petroleum exploration and production. The
regime regulates transactions between the political entity and the legal entities involved. A
commercial or legal entity in this context is commonly an oil company, and two or more
companies may establish partnerships to share economic risks and investment capital.

1.2. Key stages of the production process

The petroleum refining industry has tried to find profitable uses for both the lighter and
heavier crude oil fractions. Lighter gaseous fractions can now be used for space heating or fuels
 in the form of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). For the heavier fractions, a variety of technologies
convert large hydrocarbon molecules from the distilled crude oil in to lighter compounds that can
be used as motor gasoline, aviation fuel, or fuel oil. In the process, large amounts of
hydrocarbons are produced that can be isolated as relatively pure substances for use as solvents
or petrochemical feedstocks. For instance, benzene was once derived from coal tars, but most
supplies are now derived from oil. Ethane is easily converted into ethylene, a major
petrochemical feedstock. Commercial techniques for producing xylenes, toluene, butadiene,
butylenes, and propylene also involve simple adaptations of modern oil refinery technologies.
Some specific refinery-generated hydrocarbons are blended into gasolines or fuel oils to enhance
some desired property.
Refining is carried out in three main steps.
Step 1 - Separation
The oil is separated into its constituents by distillation, and some of these components
(such as the refinery gas) are further separated with chemical reactions and by using solvents
which dissolve one component of a mixture significantly better than another.
Step 2 - Conversion
The various hydrocarbons produced are then chemically altered to make them more
suitable for their intended purpose. For example, naphthas are reformed" from paraffins and
naphthenes into aromatics. These reactions often use catalysis, and so sulfur is removed from the
hydrocarbons before they are reacted, as it would 'poison' the catalysts used. The chemical
equilibria are also manipulated to ensure a maximum yield of the desired product.
Step3 - Purification
The hydrogen sulfide gas which was extracted from the refinery gas in Step 1 is
converted to sulfur, which is sold in liquid form to fertilizer manufacturers.
First step - Separation and how we should understand.
As described earlier, the well-stream may consist of Crude oil, Gas, Condensates, water
and various contaminants. The purpose of the separators is to split the flow into desirable
fractions.
Test Separators and Well test
Test separators are used to separate the well flow from one or more wells for analysis and
detailed flow measurement. In this way, the behavior of each well under different pressure flow
conditions can be determined. This normally takes place when the well is taken into production
and later at regular intervals, typically 1-2 months and will measure the total and component
flow rates under different production conditions. Also undesirable behavior such as slugging or
sand can be determined. The separated components are also analyzed in the laboratory to
determine hydrocarbon composition of the Gas oil and Condensate. The test separator can also
be used to produce fuel gas for power generation when the main process is not running. In place
of a test separator one could also use a three phase flow meter to save weight.

Separator functions

A separator is a vessel in which mixtures of immiscible fluids are separated; e.g. Crude
oil, Natural gas and Water. A separator may be a 'Horizontal', 'Vertical' or 'Spherical' vessel and
generally consists of the following:
A primary separation section to remove the bulk of the liquid from the gas.
1. Sufficient liquid capacity to handle surges of liquid from the line.
2. Sufficient length or height to allow the small droplets to settle out by gravity (to prevent undue
entrainment).
3. A means of reducing turbulence in the main body of the separator so that proper settling may
take place.
4. A mist extractor to capture entrained droplets or those too small to settle by gravity.
 Where a vessel is simply separating total liquid from gas, it is called a 'Two-Phase
Separator' when the process requires the separation of two liquids and a gas, the separator is
called a 'Three-Phase Separator'. 'Two or Three Phase separation', refers to the number of streams
leaving the vessel and not the inlet fluid stream.
Petroleum as produced from a reservoir is a complex mixture of hundreds of different
compounds of hydrogen and carbon, all with different densities, vapor pressures, and other
physical characteristics. A typical well stream is a high velocity, turbulent, constantly expanding
mixture of gases and hydrocarbon liquids, intimately mixed with water vapor, free water, solids,
and other contaminants.
As it flows from the hot, high pressure petroleum reservoir, the well stream is undergoing
continuous pressure and temperature reduction. Gases evolve from the liquids, water vapour
condenses, and some of the well stream changes in character from liquid to free gas. The gas is
carrying liquid mist droplets, and the liquid is carrying gas bubbles.
The function of field processing is to remove undesirable components and to separate the
well stream into sellable gas and petroleum liquids, recovering the maximum amounts of each at
the lowest possible overall cost.
Field processing of natural gas actually consists of four basic processes:
1. Separation of the gas from free liquids such as crude oil, hydrocarbon condensate, water,
and entrained solids.
2. Processing the gas to remove condensable and recoverable hydrocarbon vapors.
3. Processing the gas to remove condensable water vapor which, under certain conditions,
might cause hydrate formation.
4. Processing the gas to remove other undesirable components, such as Hydrogen Sulphide
and / or Carbon Dioxide.

Very small droplets such as fog or mist cannot be separated practically by gravity.
However, they can be coalesced to form larger droplets that will separate out.

Coalescing devices in separators force gas to follow a tortuous path. The momentum of
the droplets causes them to collide with other droplets or with the coalescing device, forming
larger droplets. These can then separate out of the gas phase due to the influence of gravity.
Wire mesh screens, Vane elements, and Filter cartridges are typical examples of coalescing
devices.

Separation vessels usually contain four major sections, plus the necessary pressure and
liquid level controls. These sections are:

1. Primary Separation Section:

For removing the bulk of the liquid from the inlet stream. For example, free liquids, slugs
and large droplets. This is usually accomplished by a change in the direction of fluid flow, either
by baffles or deflection plates near the inlet nozzle or by using a tangential inlet nozzle as in
'Tangential Feed' or 'Cyclone' separators which operate by centrifugal force being set up within
the vessel.

2. Secondary Separation Section:

For removing the maximum amount of small liquid droplets without an elaborate design.
The major separation principle in this section is by gravity settling of the liquid droplets from the
vapor stream.
 3. Mist Extraction Section:

For removing the maximum amount of tiny liquid droplets remaining in the gas stream.
The mist extractor may be of the impingement type; (mesh pads) and/or may use the centrifugal
force principle; (the vane type).

4. Liquid Accumulation Section:

For receiving and disposing of the liquid collected. Sufficient volume and proper level
control equipment should be provided to handle surges that may occur during operations.

The length of a horizontal separator has a greater effect on capacity than the height of a
vertical type. In the horizontal vessel the path of any droplet ideally has a trajectory similar to
that of a shell from a gun. Therefore, the length required depends on:
1. Droplet size.
2. Gas velocity.
3. Droplet density.
4. Vessel diameter.
5. Degree of turbulence

Figure 1.2. 3-phase separation vessels.

In the above picture, the system consists of three separators - all are 3-phase separation
vessels.
The 1st stage on the right, is the Low Pressure suction KO drum to a LP compressor, the
2nd stage (in the middle), is the Medium Pressure separator - discharge from the LP compressor
and, suction to the HP compressor. The 3rd drum, on the left, is the final separation stage for the
HP discharge gas. Cooling stages are installed after each discharge.
Separated water is usually dumped to a disposal pit. The gas condensate will then be
metered and pumped to further treatment facilities and, the gas will be metered and go on to
further processing units.
The following diagrams depict common types of separator.
The simplest type of Horizontal separator is shown in Figure 1.3.
 They are used to separate a two or three-phase inlet fluid into liquids and gas. The vessel
inlet and gas outlet nozzles, consist of curved pipes which cause a change in direction of the inlet
flow and the gas outlet. The liquid particles fall to the vessel bottom by gravity, while the gas
rises to the top. This type of simple separator is not very efficient.

Figure 1.3. Separator, horizontal type.

The 'Knock-Out Drum' is another simple type of separator as shown in Figure 1.4.
It is used to separate a two or three phase inlet fluid into liquid(s) and gas. The vessel
inlet flow generally hits an inlet deflector plate to begin the separation process. Between the inlet
and the gas outlet, some form of de-misting element may be installed which can be a wire mesh
'screen' or 'pad' or an angled vane type. The demister construction presents a large surface area to
the liquid mist entrained in the gas which causes small droplets of liquid to coalesce into larger
drops which fall to the vessel bottom by gravity. The gas outlet nozzle exits the gas from the
vessel above the demister screen.

Figure 1.4. K.O. Drum, Vertical type.

The following table shows some of the factors that affect separation:

Table 1.1. Some of the factors that affect separation

Separation factor Effect of the factor

Difference in Fluid Densities The greater the difference in densities, the easier the
 separation.
Residence Time The longer the fluids are in the separator, the better the
separation.
Coalescing Element Surface Area The greater the area of the coalescing element, the better
the separation.

A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing
its volume. An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor.

Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can
transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the
volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed, the main
action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.

Compressed air is used widely throughout industry and is often considered the fourth
utility at many facilities. Almost every industrial plant, from a small machine shop to an
immense pulp and paper mill, has some type of compressed air system. In many cases, the
compressed air system is so vital that the facility cannot operate without it. Plant air compressor
systems can vary in size from a small unit of 5 horsepower (hp) to huge systems with more than
50,000 hp.
In many petrochemical and chemical plant also, other industrial facilities air compressor
use more electricity than any other type of equipment. Inefficiencies in compressed air systems
can therefore be significant. Energy savings from system improvements can range from 20 to 50
percent or more of electricity consumption. For many facilities this is equivalent to thousands, or
even hundreds of thousands of dollars of potential annual savings, depending on use. A properly
managed compressed air system can save energy, reduce maintenance, decrease downtime,
increase production throughput, and improve product quality.
As shown in Figure 1.5, there are two basic compressor types: positive-displacement and
dynamic.

Types of compressors

The main types of gas compressors are illustrated and discussed below:
 Figure 1.5. Classification of compressors.

In the positive-displacement type, a given quantity of air or gas is trapped in a

compression chamber and the volume which it occupies is mechanically reduced, causing a
corresponding rise in pressure prior to discharge. At constant speed, the air flow remains
essentially constant with variations in discharge pressure. Dynamic compressors impart velocity
energy to continuously flowing air or gas by means of impellers rotating at very high speeds. The
velocity energy is changed into pressure energy both by the impellers and the discharge volutes
or diffusers. In the centrifugal-type dynamic compressors, the shape of the impeller blades
determines the relationship between air flow and the pressure (or head) generated.
Positive-Displacement Compressors
These compressors are available in two types: reciprocating and rotary. Reciprocating
compressors work like bicycle pumps. A piston, driven through a crankshaft and connecting rod
by an electric motor, reduces the volume in the cylinder occupied by the air or gas, compressing
it to a higher pressure. Single- acting compressors have a compression stroke in only one
direction, while double-acting units provide a compression stroke as the piston moves in each
direction. Large, industrial reciprocating air compressors are double-acting and water-cooled.
Multi-stage, double-acting compressors are the most efficient compressors available, and are
typically larger, noisier, and more costly than comparable rotary units. Reciprocating
compressors are available in sizes from less than 1 hp to more than 600 hp.
Rotary compressors have gained popularity and are now the workhorse of American
industry. They are most commonly used in sizes from about 30 to 200 hp. The most common
type of rotary compressor is the helical-twin, screw-type (also known as rotary screw or helical-
lobe).
Single-Acting, Reciprocating Air Compressors
This type of compressor is characterized by its automotive type piston driven through a
connecting rod from the crankshaft. Compression takes place on the top side of the piston on
each revolution of the crankshaft. Single-acting, reciprocating air compressors may be air-cooled
or liquid-cooled. These may be single-stage, usually rated at discharge pressures from 25 to 125
pounds per square inch gauge (psig), or two-stage, usually rated at discharge pressures from 125
psig to 175 psig or higher.
 The most common air compressor in the fractional and single-digit hp sizes is the air-
cooled, reciprocating air compressor. In larger sizes, single-acting reciprocating compressors are
available up to 150 hp, but above 25 hp are much less common. Two-stage and multi-stage
designs include inter-stage cooling to reduce discharge air temperatures for improved efficiency
and durability.
Double-Acting, Reciprocating Air Compressors
Double-acting reciprocating compressors use both sides of the piston for air compression,
doubling the capacity for a given cylinder size. A piston rod is attached to the piston at one end
and to a crosshead at the other end. The crosshead ensures that the piston travels concentrically
within the cylinder. These compressors may be single- or multi-stage, depending on discharge
pressure and hp size. These can range upwards from 10 hp and with pressures upwards from 50
psig.
Dynamic Compressors
These compressors raise the pressure of air or gas by imparting velocity energy and
converting it to pressure energy. Dynamic compressors include centrifugal and axial types. The
centrifugal-type is the most common and is widely used for industrial compressed air. Each
impeller, rotating at high speed, imparts primarily radial flow to the air or gas which then passes
through a volute or diffuser to convert the residual velocity energy to pressure energy. Some
large manufacturing plants use centrifugal compressors for general plant air, and in some cases,
plants use other compressor types to accommodate demand load swings while the centrifugal
compressors handle the base load.
Axial compressors consist of a rotor with multiple rows of blades and a matching stator
with rows of stationary vanes. The rotating blades impart velocity energy, primarily in an axial
plane. The stationary vanes then act as a diffuser to convert the residual velocity energy into
pressure energy. This type of compressor is restricted to very high flow capacities and generally
has a relatively high compression efficiency. Mixed flow compressors have impellers and rotors
which combine the characteristics of both axial and centrifugal compressors.
Centrifugal Air Compressors
A centrifugal air compressor has a continuously flowing air stream which has velocity
energy, or kinetic energy, imparted to it by an impeller, or impellers, which rotate at speeds that
can exceed 50,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). Approximately one half of the pressure energy
is developed in the impeller with the other half achieved by converting the velocity energy to
pressure energy as the air speed is reduced in a diffuser and volute. The most common
centrifugal air compressor is one with two to four stages for pressures in the 100 to 150 psig
range. A water-cooled intercooler and separator between each stage returns the air temperature to
approximately ambient temperature and removes condensed moisture before entering the next
stage. An aftercooler cools the air from the final stage and a moisture separator removes the
moisture prior to air delivery to distribution.
To understand the operation of the compressor has been presented operation of
centrifugal compressor shown in Figure 1.6.
 Figure 1.6. The operation of compressor. (1)- Gas/vapor enters the compressor at the suction inlet. (2)- The
impeller accelerate the gas. The centrifugal compressor has one moving element the impeller on the driveshaft.
(3)- The impeller discharges the gas to a diffuser. (4)- The diffuser is a circular, narrow chamber. (5)- A back
pressure is created in the impeller due to the acceleration. (6)- The gas velocity increases in the diffuser. (7)- As the
gas speed slows in the volute , the kinetic energy is converted into pressure. (8)- The compressed gas exits at the
discharge line.

The inherent characteristic of centrifugal air compressors is that as system pressure

decreases, the compressors flow capacity increases. The steepness of the pressure head/capacity
curve is dependent upon the impeller design. The more the impeller blades lean backwards from
the true radial position, the steeper the curve.
Most standard centrifugal air compressor packages are designed for an ambient
temperature of 95F and near sea level barometer pressure. The dynamic nature of the centrifugal
compressor results in the pressure head generated by each impeller increasing as the air density
increases. The compressor mass flow and actual cubic feet per minute (acfm) capacity at a given
discharge pressure increases as the ambient temperature decreases.
Gas dehydration
There are four methods that are used for gas dehydration; they vary in efficiency and cost.
Dehydration methods
The methods used for gas dehydration are absorption, membrane processes and
refrigeration. The methods may be used by themselves or be combined to reach the desired water
contents.
In dehydration by absorption water is removed by a liquid with strong affinity for water,
glycols being the most common. The lean (dry) glycol removes the water from the gas in an
absorption column known as a contactor. After the contactor the rich (wet) glycol must be
regenerated before it can be reused in the contactor. The regeneration is done by distilling the
glycol thus removing the water. With glycol absorption it is possible to lower the water contents
down to approximately 10 ppmvol, depending on the purity of the lean glycol.
Dehydration by adsorption is done with a two bed system, where the beds are filled with
adsorbents e.g. silica gel. The gas is lead through one of the adsorbers, where water is removed.
Meanwhile the other adsorber is regenerated by blowing hot dry gas through it, this gas is then
cooled and the water condenses. The Water is separated off and the gas is lead back to the wet
gas, this is illustrated in Figure 1.7.
 Figure 1.7. Gas dehydration by adsorption.

The efficiency of the adsorption process depends on the adsorbent used; there are several
types of adsorbents available. The most efficient adsorbents are molecular sieves, this is
aluminosilicates that have been altered to improve the adsorption characteristics, achieving a
water contents as low as below 0.1 ppm vol. In membrane processes the gas passes through a
membrane that separates of the water. Membrane processes yields water content between 20-100
ppmvol. The problem with membrane processes are that they only become economically viable
compared to glycol absorption at flows below 1.5106Nm3/d (56 MMscfd).
Gas dehydration by refrigeration is a low cost dehydration method. Water condenses
when the gas is cooled; the water is then removed in a separator. The separation method can be
conducted numerous times. The method is most efficient at high pressure. The amount of water
removed in the refrigeration process is often insufficient. Because of the low cost the
refrigeration process are often used before the other dehydration processes.
Comparison of the methods
The two most efficient dehydration methods are absorption and adsorption. Absorption
with glycol is the preferred dehydration method because it is more economical than adsorption.
This is due to the following differences between absorption and adsorption:
Adsorbent is more expensive than glycol.
It requires more energy to regenerate adsorbent than glycol.
Replacing glycol is much cheaper than replacing an adsorption bed.
Glycol can be changed continuously, while changing an adsorption bed requires a
shutdown.
Some low temperature treatment like liquefaction requires water content below what
glycol plants can achieve. In these cases an adsorption plant is required, to minimize the cost this
can be combined with a glycol plant that removes the majority of the water.
Water absorption
The basis for gas dehydration by absorption is the absorbent; there are certain
requirements for absorbents for gas dehydration:
Strong affinity for water to minimize the required amount of absorbent.
Low affinity for hydrocarbons to minimize hydrocarbon loss during dehydration.
Low volatility at the absorption temperature to minimize vaporization losses.
Low solubility in hydrocarbons, to minimize losses during absorption.
 Low tendency to foam and emulsify, to avoid reduction in gas handling capacity and
minimize losses during absorption and regeneration.
Low viscosity for ease of pumping and good contact between the gas and liquid phases.
Large difference in volatility and boiling point compared to water to minimize
vaporization losses during regeneration.
Good thermal stability to prevent decomposition during regeneration.
Low potential for corrosion.
The most critical property for a good dehydrator is off course the high affinity for water.
The other criteria are used to evaluate potential absorbents practical applicability in the industry.
In practice glycols are the most commonly used absorbents for dehydration.
Glycols used for dehydration
Glycol is a common name for diols; with the two alcohols these substances have a high
affinity for water. In dehydration 1,2-ethandiol also known as Monoethylen glycol (MEG) and
the small polymers of MEG (diethylen glycol (DEG), triethylen glycol (TEG) and tetraethylen
glycol (TREG)) are the most commonly used for absorbents. Higher polymers than TREG is
usually not used for dehydration because they become too viscous compared to the smaller
polymers.
Properties for MEG, DEG, TEG, TREG and water are compared in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2. Properties for MEG, DEG, TEG, TREG.

MEG DEG TEG TREG WATER

Formula C2H6O2 C4H10O3 C6H14O4 C8H18O5 H2O
Molar mass (kg/kmol) 62.07 106.12 150.17 194.23 18.015
Normal boiling point (C) 197.1 245.3 288.0 329.7 100.0
Vapor pressure at 25 C (Pa) 12.24 0.27 0.05 0.007 3170
Density at 25 C (kg/m3) 1110 1115 1122 1122 55.56
Viscosity at 25 C (cP) 17.71 30.21 36.73 42.71 0.984
Viscosity at 60 C (cP) 5.22 7.87 9.89 10.63 0.469
Maximum recommended 163 177 204 224 -
regeneration temperature
(C)
Onset of decomposition - 240 240 240 -

In Table 3-1 the important values are the normal boiling point, vapor pressure, viscosity,
maximum recommended regeneration temperature and the onset of decomposition.
The normal boiling point and vapor pressure has an influence in the distillation. The
greater the difference for these properties between the top and bottom product, the easier it is to
separate the components. The separation between glycol and water is important because the
water contents in the lean glycol determine the amount of water the glycol can remove from the
gas.
The larger polymers TEG and TREG have the best properties for dehydration. TREG has
slightly better properties than TEG, but because of the additional cost of TREG, TEG offers the
best cost/benefit compromise and is therefore the most commonly used glycol.
The decomposition temperature is the point where DEG, TEG and TREG begin to react
with the water and decompose into MEG. The temperatures in [B4] (240 C) originates from
manufacturer data, but there are some doubts about these temperatures, because also give this
temperature for TEG as 196 C, and as 207 C (404 F). These temperatures are just below and
above the maximum recommended regeneration temperature of 204 C (400 F). This indicates
that some TEG will decompose at 204 C. At this temperature there will be some hot-spots in the
boiler where the temperature will exceed 207 C.
When TEG decomposes it becomes MEG and DEG, therefore it will not influence the
dehydration process, only give a slightly larger glycol loss because MEG and DEG are more
volatile than TEG.
Dry Gas
The efficiency of the dehydration is measured on the water contents in the dry gas. The
dew-point temperature for the water in the gas is often a more useful parameter than the total
water contents. The dew-point temperature must be below the minimum pipeline temperature, to
avoid liquid in the gas pipeline. Figure 1.8. shows the relation between dew-point temperature
and the water contents in the lean TEG at different temperatures.

Figure 1.8. Water dew-point, after dehydration with TEG.

A dew-point temperature of 6 to 11 C (10 to 20 F) below the desired dew-point may be

used to insure against non-ideal situations. The water dew-point may differ from the gas dew-
point; the total gas dew-point may be influenced by other hydrocarbons in the gas. This can
result in condensation of hydrocarbons in the gas pipeline; this is also undesirable but much less
so than water condensation.
The glycol dehydration process
A possible design of a dehydration plant is given in Figure 1.9. The design in Figure 1.9.
incorporates most of the units described in the next page, with the exception of the stripping
column and a glycol storage tank. Dehydration plant design often differs from the one given in
Figure 1.9. it can be the units or integration of heat exchangers.
Figure 1.9. Design of a dehydration plant.

The dehydration process can be divided into two parts, gas dehydration and glycol
regeneration. In dehydration water is removed from the gas using glycol and in regeneration
water is removed from the glycol, before it can be reused for dehydration.
Dehydration
Dehydration always consists of an inlet scrubber and a contactor. Sometime it might be
preferable to lower the gas inlet temperature before the dehydration, so an inlet cooler might also
be used.
Regeneration
The main function in the glycol regeneration system can be divided into three:
1. Achieve the optimal pressure and temperature conditions for regeneration of the rich
glycol.
2. Glycol regeneration.
3. Readjust glycol temperature and pressure for optimal dehydration conditions in the
contactor.
Besides these three main points there are some additional features to be considered when
designing a dehydration plant.
Installing a flash separator before the regeneration column. This separator removes the
majority of the hydrocarbons in the dissolved in the glycol.
Filtering the rich glycol if there is solid particles or liquid hydrocarbons in the glycol
Integrating the heat exchangers, so the lean glycol is cooled by heading the rich glycol,
thus minimizing the energy consumption.
Glycol make up to replace the glycol loss, e.g. in a storage tank.
Because of these considerations the design of the regeneration process varies with the
design of the plant. The integration of heat exchangers is especially important, because this
reduces the overall energy consumption of the plant.
Process description
The process is described by the equipment used in the glycol plant.
Inlet cooler
An inlet cooler may be used because dehydration is more efficient at low temperatures.
Another benefit of inlet cooling is that some water (and hydrocarbons) in the gas will condense,
and be removed in the inlet scrubber, instead of in the contactor.
 An inlet cooler is used when the inlet gas temperature is higher than the desired
temperature in the contactor. It is also a helpful tool in simulation if the temperature in the
contactor needs to be optimized.
Inlet scrubber
The inlet scrubber removes free liquid and liquid droplets in the gas, both water and
hydrocarbons. Removing liquid water in the scrubber decreases the amount of water that has to
be removed in the contractor. This decreases the size of the contactor and the glycol needed in it,
to reach the required conditions for the outlet gas. Liquid hydrocarbons are also a problem in the
contactor because they increase the glycols tendency to foam, thereby decreasing the contactors
efficiency and increasing the glycol loss in the contractor and from the regeneration system.
Another problem is that hydrocarbons can be accumulated in the glycol polluting it and thereby
decreasing the dehydration efficiency.
Contactor
The contactor is the absorption column where the gas is dried by the glycol. The lean
glycol enters at the top of the contactor while the rich glycol is collected at the bottom of the
contactor and sent to regeneration. The wet gas enters the contactor at the bottom, while the dry
gas leaves at the top.
The required water dew-point of the dry gas dictates the lean glycol temperature and
purity. This is illustrated in Figure 3-2. The glycol temperature into the contactor must be 3 to 11
C (5 to 20 F) higher than the gas entering the contactor to minimize hydrocarbon condensation
into the glycol.
At contactor temperatures below 10 C (50 F) TEG becomes too viscous, thus reducing
the column efficiency. The contactor temperature may be as high as 66 C (150 F), but glycol
vaporization loss is often deemed unacceptably high above 38 C (100 F).
The glycol flow into the contactor is dictated by the water content in the gas and numbers
of trays in the column. A usual glycol flow is 0.017 to 0.042 m 3 Lean TEG per kg water in the
gas (2 to 5 gal TEG/lb Water). Contactor columns with four to six trays usually operate with
0.025 m3 TEG/kg Water (3 gal/lb), in larger columns with eight or more trays the flow is usually
reduced to 0.017 m3/kg (2 gal/lb).
Flash valve
After the contactor column the pressure is reduced to the regeneration pressure by a flash
valve. The pressure drop over this valve depends on the pressure in the contactor and the
pressure loss in the pipes and equipment until the regeneration column.
Two places in the system unwanted gas is vented off the system, in the flash separator
and the regenerator. To prevent blowback the pressure in these units must be higher than where
they vent to. The slightly higher pressure also acts as a propellant in transporting the gas from the
dehydration system.
Flash separator
It is a good idea to install a separator after the flash valve. Because of the decreased
pressure hydrocarbons absorbed in the glycol will be released.
Without a separator the gas in the glycol will be released together with water in the
regenerator. In the regenerator the water vapour is usually just vented to the atmosphere, thus
increasing the plants emission of hydrocarbons. With a flash separator the hydrocarbon rich gas,
can be used as process gas in the plant.
The pressure in the flash separator must be above the pressure in the system that the gas
is vented too; the separator pressure will therefore differ between plants.
Filters
Filters are only necessary if there is a problem with solid particles or liquid hydrocarbons
in the glycol.
Solid particles in the glycol accumulate, increasing the wear on the equipment and can
create plugs in heat exchangers. Solid particles can easily be removed with sock filters, which
can be made of cloth fabrics, paper or fiberglass.
 Liquid hydrocarbons like condensate and BTEX can be removed from the glycol by
activated carbon filters.
Heat exchangers
The numbers of heat exchangers varies with the design of the process plant. Because of
the large temperature difference between the contactor and regenerator column, rich glycol needs
to be heated while lean glycol must be cooled. With proper design of heat exchangers between
the rich and lean glycol most of the energy can be conserved.
Rich glycol may be heated before and/or after the flash separation. Heating before the
flash separator increases hydrocarbon recovery along with glycol loss. Heating before the flash
separator is preferable if hydrocarbon contents in the rich glycol after the separation are too high.
Besides the heat exchangers the glycol is heated in the regenerator boiler. The lean glycol
temperature may also need to be adjusted before it enters the contactor, this can be done with the
dry gas or a cooler.
Regenerator
The regenerator is a distillation column, where glycol and water is separated. The rich
glycol is preheated in heat exchangers before it is feed to the regenerator column.
At the top of the column is a partly condenser, this provide reflux thus improving the
separation between water and glycol. The condenser also minimizes glycol loss from the
regenerator. The remaining water vapor leaves the condenser and is vented to the atmosphere.
The temperature in the condenser is given as 98.9 C (210 F).
The energy required to separate glycol and water is supplied by the reboiler at the
regenerator column. The reboiler temperature is dictated by the glycol used for the dehydration
as described in section 3.2.1. For TEG the recommended maximum temperature in the reboiler is
204 C (400 F). The Lean glycol is taken from the reboiler and is transferred to a storage tank
before it is recycled or is recycled directly from the reboiler.
The pressure in the regeneration system is just above atmospheric pressure, this is to
insure that no air can enter the system from the atmospheric vent.
The operating conditions for the regenerator influence the purity of glycol. At 204 C
TEG yields a lean glycol concentration of 98.6 wt%. If this purity of glycol is inadequate it can
be improved by using more advanced regeneration techniques.
Some simple ways to increase the lean glycol purity is to add a stripping gas to the
regenerator or regenerate by vacuum distillation. Stripping gas can be added to the regenerator
boiler or in a stripping column after the regenerator column. By adding stripping gas to the
regenerator boiler the TEG purity can be increased up to 99.6 wt%. Vacuum distillation yields
TEG purities up to 99.98 wt%.
Stripping column
Glycol purities up to 99.9 wt% can be achieved by using a stripping column after the
regenerator. The stripping gas from the top of the stripping column is routed to the regenerator
boiler, like when stripping without the stripping column.
The stripping gas is usually nitrogen, dry gas or flash gas from the flash separator. The
water can be removed from the stripping gas by cooling it well below waters dew-point. If
hydrocarbon rich gas is used the gas from the regenerator must be dried or used as process gas.
To achieve 99.9 wt% pure glycol (or 99.6 wt% without the stripping column), the
stripping gas flow must be 28.3 Nm3gas/m3 TEG (4 scf gas/gal TEG).
Cool stripping gas can be used in the stripping column, because the glycol needs to be
cooled after the regenerator. If on the other hand stripping gas is added directly to the regenerator
boiler it might be preferable to preheat the gas, to keep a uniform temperature in the boiler.
Glycol storage tank
This is an optional instalment that ensures a constant glycol flow to the contactor column.
Because there will be a loss of glycol in the dehydration system, a storage tank can act a buffer to
prevent insufficient glycol flow, and also be used to measure the glycol contents in the system.
Glycol circulation pump
 Because of the pressure difference between the regenerator and the contactor, the glycol
pressure needs to be increased. This is done with the glycol regeneration pump. The glycol is
cooled below 80 C before pumping to protect the pump.
Produced water
This section describes the various sources of process water in refineries and discusses
best practices with respect to how they are managed. Also included is a discussion of the
wastewater generated from the different utility systems in the refinery and how these systems are
managed. Finally, concepts for pretreatment of wastewater generated in the process units are
discussed.
Process water is defined as water that has been in intimate contact with hydrocarbons in
the refinery. Water that is generated in the process units is represented by the following
categories:
desalter effluent;
sour water;
tank bottom draws;
spent caustic.
Desalter effluent
Inorganic salts are present in crude oil as an emulsified solution of salt (predominantly
sodium chloride). The source of the aqueous phase is the naturally occurring brine that is
associated with the oil field from where the crude is extracted. The amount of water received at
the refinery with the crude varies widely but an approximate range would be 0.12.0% volume.
The salts contained in the aqueous phase are variable and range from 10 to 250 pounds
per thousand barrels (p.t.b.) of crude. The salts are present mostly in the form of chlorides of
sodium, magnesium and calcium. Typically, the first operation in a refinery crude unit is
desalting, which is used to wash out the salt present in the crude. The most important reasons for
removing the salts from the crude are to:
prevent plugging and fouling of process equipment by salt deposition;
reduce corrosion caused by the formation of HCl from the chloride salts during the
processing of the crude.
There are two basic types of desalters: chemical and electrical. Refineries that use two-
stage electrical desalters can achieve a desalted crude specification of 0.1 p.t.b. of salt in the
crude. The wash water that is used in the desalter is discharged from the unit. Figure 1.10. shows
the typical configuration of a two-stage desalter.

Figure 1.10. Typical desalter configuration.

 The wash water is usually injected into the second stage of the desalter after being heated
by exchange with the hot effluent. The water from the second stage is sent to the first stage
where it is contacted with the incoming crude. The hot (about 148.89C (300F)) brine is then
discharged to the wastewater treatment plant after being cooled. The optimum operating pH in
the desalter is 6 to 7 because the emulsion formation is minimized and the oil/water separation is
most effective at this pH. The pH is significantly impacted by source of the wash water that is
used as well as corrosion considerations in the crude tower system.
Steam is used in many processes in refineries as a stripping medium in distillation and as
a diluent to reduce the hydrocarbon partial pressure in catalytic cracking and other applications.
The steam is condensed as an aqueous phase and is removed as sour water. Since this steam
condenses in the presence of hydrocarbons, which contain hydrogen sulphide (H 2S) and
ammonia (NH3), these compounds are absorbed into the water at levels that typically require
treatment.
Oil/water interface control is an important aspect of the design and operation of desalters.
There are a number of interface controllers that are available in the marketplace and one such
system uses high frequency electromagnetic measurement to detect the interface. Control of the
oil/water interface will help minimize/eliminate the inadvertent discharges of hydrocarbons to
the wastewater treatment systems. The wash water used in desalters is typically 5 to 8% of the
crude throughput. The source of wash water that is used in the desalters varies widely in different
refineries. Table 1.3. describes the various sources that are used and discusses the advantages and
disadvantages of each source.
Table 1.3. Sources of wash water.
Source Advantages
Fresh water 1. The water requires no or minimal pretreatment
Recycled crude 1. Results in lower sour water stripping requirements
tower overhead 2. Avoids the piping required to send the crude tower
overhead to the sour water strippers
3. Minimizes fresh water use in the refinery
Recycled vacuum 1. Results in lower sour water stripping requirements
tower overhead 2. Avoids the piping required to send the crude tower
supplemented by overhead to the sour water strippers
sources of water 3. Minimizes fresh water use in the refinery
Recycled stripped 1. The phenol contained in the stripped sour water is extracted
sour water into the crude resulting in significantly lowering the phenol
content of the effluent.
2. The lower phenol content results in lower capital and
operating costs for wastewater treatment.
3. Allows better pH control in the desalter
Disadvantages
1. Increases overall water usage in the refinery
2. Increases generation of wastewater in the refinery
3. Increases capital and operating costs for wastewater treatment
1. More challenging to control the pH in the desalters due to the
ammonia content of the crude tower overhead
2. Results in more emulsion formation in the desalters leading to
the inadvertent discharge of hydrocarbons to wastewater treatment
3. Results in the discharge of H2S from the desalter effluent to the
atmosphere in the sewers as well as wastewater treatment if
effluent does not go for pretreatment before discharge to sewers or
wastewater treatment
1. More challenging to control the pH in the desalters due to
potential ammonia content of the vacuum tower overhead
2. Results in more emulsion formation in the desalters leading to
the inadvertent discharge of hydrocarbons to wastewater treatment
3. Results in the discharge of H2S from the desalter effluent to the
atmosphere in the sewers as well as wastewater treatment if
effluent does not go for pretreatment before discharge to sewers or
wastewater treatment
1. Routing all sour water generated in the plant results in requiring
a large sour water stripper
2. Increase the piping required to convey the crude and vacuum
tower overhead to the sour water stripper
 The level of contaminants contained in the desalter is highly variable depending on
factors such as:
operating pH of the desalter (higher pH results in more emulsions);
effectiveness of the interface control device in the desalter; and
frequency and effectiveness of the mud wash.
Table 1.4. shows the expected concentration of containments in desalter effluent.

Table 1.4. Desalter effluent contaminants.

Contaminant Expected concentration (mg/l)

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 400 to 1000
Free hydrocarbons Up to 1000
Suspended solids Up to 500
Phenol 10 to 100
Benzene 5 to 15
Sulphides Up to 100
Ammonia Up to 100

Desaltersummary of best practices

Avoid using fresh water as wash water in the desalter.
Preferentially use stripped phenolic sour water as wash water.
Operating pH in the desalter should be optimized to about 67.
Use proper interface probes in the desalter for effective oil/water separation.
Consider diverting desalter brine to a separate tank where solids can drop out during
mud washing operations.
Describe the basic function of plant, equipment and services in oil and gas processing
operations.

2.1. Describe the basic function of process plant and equipment in oil and gas processing
operations.

Figure 2.1. Christmas tree.

In oil and gas extraction, a Christmas tree, or tree (not wellhead as sometimes
incorrectly mentioned), is an assembly of valves, spools and fittings used for oil wells, gas wells,
water disposal wells, water injection wells, gas injection wells, condensate wells and other types
of wells. It was named as Christmas tree due to its crude resemblance to this decorated tree.
Christmas trees are used in both subsea and surface wells. Commonly, there are two types of tree
subsea tree, and surface tree.
Note that a Christmas tree isnt the same equipment as wellhead. They are different
separate pieces of equipment. The Christmas tree is installed on top of wellhead. A well head can
be used without a Christmas tree during drilling operations. Wells being produced with the rod
pumps (nodding donkeys, pump jacks, etc.) frequently dont utilize any tree due to no pressure-
containment requirement, one of Christmas tree shown in the Figure 2.1.
Function
The main function of a Christmas tree is to control the oil and gas flow out of the well.
It may also be used to control the injection of gas or water into the non-producing well so as to
improve production rates of oil from other wells. When the well and facilities are all set to
produce and receive oil or gas, the tree valves are opened and the formation fluids are enabled to
go through a flow line. Then a processing facility, storage depot and/ or other pipelines lead to a
refinery or distribution center for gas. The flow lines on subsea wells often lead to a fixed or
floating production platform or to a storage ship, known as floating processing unit (FPU), a
floating storage offloading vessel (FSO), a floating production, storage and offloading vessel
(FPSO).
An X-mas tress often provides a number of additional functions, including well
intervention means, pressure relief means, chemical injection points, monitoring points
(pressure, temperature, erosion, corrosion, sand detection, flow composition, flow rate, valve,
choke position feedback, etc.), and connection points for such devices as down hole pressure and
temperature transducers (DHPT).
Structures
 Figure 2.2. Part of Christmas tree.

Commonly, an X-mas tree consists of:

Two lower valves are called master valves (upper and lower respectively) as they lie in
the flow path that well fluids must take to come to surface. Lower master valve is often manually
operated, while the upper master valve is normally hydraulically actuated.
Hydraulic tree wing valves require active hydraulic pressure to stay open.
The right hand valve is often known as production wing valve or flow wing valve,
because it is in the flow path that the hydrocarbons take to production facilities.
The left hand valve is called the kill wing valve. It is mainly used for injection of fluids
like corrosion inhibitors or methanol to avert hydrate formation.
The valve at the top is known as the swab valve and lies in the path used for well
interventions such as wireline and coiled tubing.
A choke is a device either stationary or adjustable. It is used to control the gas flow
(also, volume), or create downstream pressure (also, back pressure).
Wellhead
Wellhead consists of components of an oil well which are located above the surface.
Wellhead acts as an interface between the casing strings in oil wellbore and surface facilities.
Well head provides suspending point for the casing strings running through the wellbore and also
acts to contain the pressure inside the casing strings.
Wellhead Functions
Wellheads are also responsible for containing the pressure within each of the casing strings.
During oil well drilling, casing is installed and cemented to the wellbore for containing the
pressure and wellbore wall in place. Casing also serves to avoid mixing of fluids from different
formations through which the wellbore runs.
A wellhead provides means for suspension of casing strings running down the wellbore.
A Blow Out Preventer (BOP) acts to cope up with erratic fluctuations of pressure and flow from
reservoir. Wellhead serves as attachment point for the Blowout Preventers.
Wellhead provides means for attaching a christmas tree for production operations. Christmas tree
is equipped with set of isolation and choke valves and serves for pressure control.
 Tubings are passed through the casing from surface to the oil reservoir to facilitate the transfer of
fluids to the surface. The tubings responsible for oil production are called production tubings. A
wellhead also provides a point for suspension of tubings.
Wellhead can be used for pressure monitoring for casings and annuli between different casing
and tubing strings.
Sometimes multiple casings are used in the same wellbore. These casings contain different well
fluids. A wellhead serves to keep these casings separated from each other to avoid mixing of
fluids.
Wellheads also provide access for pumping from annuli between the different casing/tubing
strings.
Wellhead provides reliable access to well with possibility to attach a well pump.

A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat between two or more fluids. The fluids
can be single or two phase and, depending on the exchanger type, may be separated or in direct
contact. Devices involving energy sources such as nuclear fuel pins or fired heaters are not
normally regarded as heat exchangers although many of the principles involved in their design
are the same.

In order to discuss heat exchangers it is necessary to provide some form of categorization.

There are two approaches that are normally taken. The first considers the flow configuration
within the heat exchanger, while the second is based on the classification of equipment type
primarily by construction. Both are considered here.

Classification of Heat Exchangers by Flow Configuration

There are four basic flow configurations:

Counter Flow

Cocurrent Flow

Crossflow

Hybrids such as Cross Counterflow and Multi Pass Flow

Figure 2.3. illustrates an idealized counterflow exchanger in which the two fluids flow
parallel to each other but in opposite directions. This type of flow arrangement allows the largest
change in temperature of both fluids and is therefore most efficient (where efficiency is the
amount of actual heat transferred compared with the theoretical maximum amount of heat that
can be transferred).
 Figure 2.3. Countercurrent flow.

In cocurrent flow heat exchangers, the streams flow parallel to each other and in the same
direction as shown in Figure 2,4. This is less efficient than countercurrent flow but does provide
more uniform wall temperatures.

Figure 2.4. Cocurrent flow.

Crossflow heat exchangers are intermediate in efficiency between countercurrent flow

and parallel flow exchangers. In these units, the streams flow at right angles to each other as
shown in Figure 2.5.
 Figure 2.5. Crossflow.

In industrial heat exchangers, hybrids of the above flow types are often found. Examples
of these are combined crossflow/counterflow heat exchangers and multi pass flow heat
exchangers. (See for example 2.6.)

Figure 2.6. Cross/counter flow.

Classification of Heat Exchangers by Construction

In this section heat exchangers are classified mainly by their construction, Garland
(1990), (see 2.7.). The first level of classification is to divide heat exchanger types into
recuperative or regenerative. A Recuperative Heat Exchanger has separate flow paths for each
fluid and fluids flow simultaneously through the exchanger exchanging heat across the wall
separating the flow paths. A Regenerative Heat Exchanger has a single flow path, which the hot
and cold fluids alternately pass through.
 Figure 2.7. Heat exchanger classifications.

Regenerative heat exchangers

In a regenerative heat exchanger, the flow path normally consists of a matrix, which is
heated when the hot fluid passes through it (this is known as the "hot blow"). This heat is then
released to the cold fluid when this flows through the matrix (the "cold blow"). Regenerative
Heat Exchangers are sometimes known as Capacitive Heat Exchangers. A good overview of
regenerators is provided by Walker (1982).

Regenerators are mainly used in gas/gas heat recovery applications in power stations and
other energy intensive industries. The two main types of regenerator are Static and Dynamic.
Both types of regenerator are transient in operation and unless great care is taken in their design
there is normally cross contamination of the hot and cold streams. However, the use of
regenerators is likely to increase in the future as attempts are made to improve energy efficiency
and recover more low grade heat. However, because regenerative heat exchangers tend to be
used for specialist applications recuperative heat exchangers are more common.

Recuperative heat exchangers

There are many types of recuperative exchangers, which can broadly be grouped into
indirect contact, direct contact and specials. Indirect contact heat exchangers keep the fluids
exchanging heat separate by the use of tubes or plates etc.. Direct contact exchangers do not
separate the fluids exchanging heat and in fact rely on the fluids being in close contact.

Indirect heat exchangers

In this type, the steams are separated by a wall, usually metal. Examples of these are
tubular exchangers, see 2.8., and plate exchangers, see Figure 2.9.
 Tubular heat exchangers are very popular due to the flexibility the designer has to allow
for a wide range of pressures and temperatures. Tubular heat exchangers can be subdivided into a
number of categories, of which the shell and tube exchanger is the most common.

Figure 2.8. Tubular exchanger classification.

Figure 2.9. Plate exchanger classification.

A Shell and Tube Exchanger consists of a number of tubes mounted inside a cylindrical
shell. 2.10 illustrates a typical unit that may be found in a petrochemical plant. Two fluids can
exchange heat, one fluid flows over the outside of the tubes while the second fluid flows through
 the tubes. The fluids can be single or two phase and can flow in a parallel or a cross/counter flow
arrangement. The shell and tube exchanger consists of four major parts:

Front endthis is where the fluid enters the tubeside of the exchanger.

Rear endthis is where the tubeside fluid leaves the exchanger or where it is returned to
the front header in exchangers with multiple tubeside passes.

Tube bundlethis comprises of the tubes, tube sheets, baffles and tie rods etc. to hold the
bundle together.

Shellthis contains the tube bundle.

The popularity of shell and tube exchangers has resulted in a standard being developed
for their designation and use. This is the Tubular Exchanger Manufactures Association (TEMA)
Standard. In general shell and tube exchangers are made of metal but for specialist applications
(e.g., involving strong acids of pharmaceuticals) other materials such as graphite, plastic and
glass may be used. It is also normal for the tubes to be straight but in some cryogenic
applications helical or Hampson coils are used. A simple form of the shell and tube exchanger is
the Double Pipe Exchanger. This exchanger consists of a one or more tubes contained within a
larger pipe. In its most complex form there is little difference between a multi tube double pipe
and a shell and tube exchanger. However, double pipe exchangers tend to be modular in
construction and so several units can be bolted together to achieve the required duty. The book
by E.A.D. Saunders [Saunders (1988)] provides a good overview of tubular exchangers.

Figure 2.10. Shell and tube exchanger.

Other types of tubular exchanger include:

Furnacesthe process fluid passes through the furnace in straight or helically wound
tubes and the heating is either by burners or electric heaters.
 Tubes in platethese are mainly found in heat recovery and air conditioning
applications. The tubes are normally mounted in some form of duct and the plates act as supports
and provide extra surface area in the form of fins.

Electrically heatedin this case the fluid normally flows over the outside of electrically
heated tubes, (see Joule Heating).

Air Cooled Heat Exchangers consist of bundle of tubes, a fan system and supporting
structure. The tubes can have various type of fins in order to provide additional surface area on
the air side. Air is either sucked up through the tubes by a fan mounted above the bundle
(induced draught) or blown through the tubes by a fan mounted under the bundle (forced
draught). They tend to be used in locations where there are problems in obtaining an adequate
supply of cooling water.

Heat Pipes, Agitated Vessels and Graphite Block Exchangers can be regarded as
tubular or could be placed under Recuperative "Specials". A heat pipe consists of a pipe, a wick
material and a working fluid. The working fluid absorbs heat, evaporates and passes to the other
end of the heat pipe were it condenses and releases heat. The fluid then returns by capillary
action to the hot end of the heat pipe to re-evaporate. Agitated vessels are mainly used to heat
viscous fluids. They consist of a vessel with tubes on the inside and an agitator such as a
propeller or a helical ribbon impeller. The tubes carry the hot fluid and the agitator is introduced
to ensure uniform heating of the cold fluid. Carbon block exchangers are normally used when
corrosive fluids need to be heated or cooled. They consist of solid blocks of carbon which have
holes drilled in them for the fluids to pass through. The blocks are then bolted together with
headers to form the heat exchanger.

Plate heat exchangers separate the fluids exchanging heat by the means of plates. These
normally have enhanced surfaces such as fins or embossing and are either bolted together, brazed
or welded. Plate heat exchangers are mainly found in the cryogenic and food processing
industries. However, because of their high surface area to volume ratio, low inventory of fluids
and their ability to handle more than two steams, they are also starting to be used in the chemical
industry.

Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers consist of two rectangular end members which hold
together a number of embossed rectangular plates with holes on the corner for the fluids to pass
through. Each of the plates is separated by a gasket which seals the plates and arranges the flow
of fluids between the plates, see Figure 2.11. This type of exchanger is widely used in the food
industry because it can easily be taken apart to clean. If leakage to the environment is a concern
it is possible to weld two plate together to ensure that the fluid flowing between the welded
plates can not leak. However, as there are still some gaskets present it is still possible for leakage
to occur. Brazed plate heat exchangers avoid the possibility of leakage by brazing all the plates
together and then welding on the inlet and outlet ports.
 Figure 2.11. Plate and frame exchanger.

Plate Fin Exchangers consist of fins or spacers sandwiched between parallel plates. The
fins can be arranged so as to allow any combination of crossflow or parallel flow between
adjacent plates. It is also possible to pass up to 12 fluid streams through a single exchanger by
careful arrangement of headers. They are normally made of aluminum or stainless steel and
brazed together. Their main use is in gas liquefaction due to their ability to operate with close
temperature approaches.

Lamella heat exchangers are similar in some respects to a shell and tube. Rectangular
tubes with rounded corners are stacked close together to form a bundle, which is placed inside a
shell. One fluid passes through the tubes while the fluid flows in parallel through the gaps
between the tubes. They tend to be used in the pulp and paper industry where larger flow
passages are required.

Spiral plate exchangers are formed by winding two flat parallel plates together to form a
coil. The ends are then sealed with gaskets or are welded. They are mainly used with viscous,
heavily fouling fluids or fluids containing particles or fibres.

Direct contact

This category of heat exchanger does not use a heat transfer surface, because of this, it is
often cheaper than indirect heat exchangers. However, to use a direct contact heat exchanger
with two fluids they must be immiscible or if a single fluid is to be used it must undergo a phase
change. (See Direct Contact Heat Transfer.)

The most easily recognizable form of direct contact heat exchanger is the natural draught
Cooling Tower found at many power stations. These units comprise of a large approximately
cylindrical shell (usually over 100 m in height) and packing at the bottom to increase surface
area. The water to be cooled is sprayed onto the packing from above while air flows in through
the bottom of the packing and up through the tower by natural buoyancy. The main problem with
this and other types of direct contact cooling tower is the continuous need to make up the cooling
water supply due to evaporation.

Direct contact condensers are sometimes used instead of tubular condensers because of
their low capital and maintenance costs. There are many variations of direct contact condenser.
In its simplest form a coolant is sprayed from the top of a vessel over vapor entering at the side
of the vessel. The condensate and coolant are then collected at the bottom. The high surface area
achieved by the spray ensures they are quite efficient heat exchangers.

Steam injection is used for heating fluids in tanks or in pipelines. The steam promotes
heat transfer by the turbulence created by injection and transfers heat by condensing. Normally
no attempt is made to collect the condensate.

Direct heating is mainly used in dryers where a wet solid is dried by passing it through a
hot air stream. Another form of direct heating is Submerged Combustion. This was developed
mainly for the concentration and crystallization of corrosive solutions. The fluid is evaporated by
the flame and exhaust gases being aimed down into the fluid which is held in some form of tank.

Specials

The wet surface air cooler is similar in some respects to an air cooled heat exchanger.
However, in this type of unit water is sprayed over the tubes and a fan sucks air and the water
down over the tube bundle. The whole system is enclosed and the warm damp air is normally
vented to atmosphere.

Scraped Surface Exchangers consist of a jacketed vessel which the fluid passes through
and a rotating scraper which continuously removes deposit from the inside walls of the vessel.
These units are used in the food and pharmaceutical industry in process where deposits form on
the heated walls of the jacketed vessel.

Static Regenerators

Static regenerators or fixed bed regenerators have no moving parts except for valves. In
this case the hot gas passes through the matrix for a fixed time period at the end of which a
reversal occurs, the hot gas is shut off and the cold gas passes through the matrix. The main
problem with this type of unit is that both the hot and cold flow are intermittent. To overcome
this and have continuous operation at least two static regenerators are required or a rotary
regenerator could be used.

Boilers are pressure vessels designed to heat water or produce steam, which can then be
used to provide space heating and/or service water heating to a building. In most commercial
building heating applications, the heating source in the boiler is a natural gas fired burner. Oil
fired burners and electric resistance heaters can be used as well. Steam is preferred over hot
water in some applications, including absorption cooling, kitchens, laundries, sterilizers, and
steam driven equipment. Boilers have several strengths that have made them a common feature
of buildings. They have a long life, can achieve efficiencies up to 95% or greater, provide an
effective method of heating a building, and in the case of steam systems, require little or no
pumping energy. However, fuel costs can be considerable, regular maintenance is required, and if
maintenance is delayed, repair can be costly.

How Boilers Work Both gas and oil fired boilers use controlled combustion of the fuel to
heat water. The key boiler components involved in this process are the burner, combustion
chamber, heat exchanger, and controls.

Figure 2.12. Firetube Boiler.

The burner mixes the fuel and oxygen together and, with the assistance of an ignition
device, provides a platform for combustion. This combustion takes place in the combustion
chamber, and the heat that it generates is transferred to the water through the heat exchanger.
Controls regulate the ignition, burner firing rate, fuel supply, air supply, exhaust draft, water
temperature, steam pressure, and boiler pressure.
Hot water produced by a boiler is pumped through pipes and delivered to equipment
throughout the building, which can include hot water coils in air handling units, service hot water
heating equipment, and terminal units. Steam boilers produce steam that flows through pipes
from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure, unaided by an external energy source such
as a pump. Steam utilized for heating can be directly utilized by steam using equipment or can
provide heat through a heat exchanger that supplies hot water to the equipment.
The discussion of different types of boilers, below, provides more detail on the designs of
specific boiler systems.
Since every mill is different in technology and layout, the control valve requirements and
recommendations presented by this sourcebook should be considered as general guidelines.
Under no circumstances should this information alone be used to select a control valve without
ensuring the proper valve construction is identified for the application and process conditions.
All valve considerations should be reviewed by the local business representative as part of any
valve selection or specification activity.
Control Valves
Valves described within a chapter are labeled and numbered corresponding to the
identification used in the process flow chart for that chapter. Their valve function is described,
and a specification section gives added information on process conditions, names of Fisher
valves that may be considered, process impact of the valve, and any special considerations for
the process and valve(s) of choice.
Process plants consist of hundreds, or even thousands, of control loops all networked
together to produce a product to be offered for sale. Each of these control loops is designed to
control a critical process variable such as pressure, flow, level, temperature, etc., within a
required operating range to ensure the quality of the end-product.
These loops receive, and internally create, disturbances that detrimentally affect the
process variable. Interaction from other loops in the network provides disturbances that influence
the process variable. To reduce the effect of these load disturbances, sensors and transmitters
collect information regarding the process variable and its relationship to a desired set point. A
controller then processes this information and decides what must occur in order to get the
process variable back to where it should be after a load disturbance occurs. When all measuring,
comparing, and calculating are complete, the strategy selected by the controller is implemented
via some type of final control element. The most common final control element in the process
control industries is the control valve. A control valve manipulates a flowing fluid such as gas,
steam, water, or chemical compounds to compensate for the load disturbance and keep the
regulated process variable as close as possible to the desired set point. Many people who speak
of control valves are actually referring to control valve assemblies. The control valve
assembly typically consists of the valve body, the internal trim parts, an actuator to provide the
motive power to operate the valve, and a variety of additional valve accessories, which may
include positioners, transducers, supply pressure regulators, manual operators, snubbers, or limit
switches. It is best to think of a control loop as an instrumentation chain. Like any other chain,
the entire chain is only as good as its weakest link. It is important to ensure that the control valve
is not the weakest link.
Valve Types and Characteristics The control valve regulates the rate of fluid flow as the
position of the valve plug or disk is changed by force from the actuator. To do this, the valve
must: Contain the fluid without external leakage. Have adequate capacity for the intended
service. Be capable of withstanding the erosive, corrosive, and temperature influences of the
process. Incorporate appropriate end connections to mate with adjacent pipelines and actuator
attachment means to permit transmission of actuator thrust to the valve plug stem or rotary shaft.
Many styles of control valve bodies have been developed. Some can be used effectively in a
number of applications while others meet specific service demands or conditions and are used
less frequently. The subsequent text describes popular control valve body styles utilized today.
Single-Port Valve Bodies Single-port is the most common valve body style and is simple
in construction. Single-port valves are available in various forms, such as globe, angle, bar stock,
forged, and split constructions. Generally, single-port valves are specified for applications with
stringent shutoff requirements. They use metal-to-metal seating surfaces or soft-seating with
PTFE or other composition materials forming the seal. Single-port valves can handle most
service requirements. Because high pressure fluid is normally loading the entire area of the port,
the unbalance force created must be considered when selecting actuators for single-port control
valve bodies. Although most popular in the smaller sizes, single-port valves can often be used in
NPS 4 to 8 with high thrust actuators. Many modern single-seated valve bodies use cage or
retainer-style construction to retain the seat ring cage, provide valve plug guiding, and provide a
means for establishing particular valve flow characteristics. Retainer-style trim also offers ease
of maintenance with flow characteristics altered by changing the plug. Cage or retainer-style
single-seated valve bodies can also be easily modified by a change of trim parts to provide
reduced-capacity flow, noise attenuation, or cavitation eliminating or reducing trim (see chapter
4).
Figure 2.13. shows one of the more popular styles of single-ported or single-seated globe
valve bodies. They are widely used in process control applications, particularly in sizes NPS 1
through NPS 4. Normal flow direction is most often flow-up through the seat ring.
 Angle valves are nearly always single ported, as shown in figure 2.14. This valve has
cage-style trim construction. Others might have screwed-in seat rings, expanded outlet
connections, restricted trim, and outlet liners for reduction of erosion damage.
Bar stock valve bodies are often specified for corrosive applications in the chemical industry
(figure 2.15.), but may also be requested in other low flow corrosive applications. They can be
machined from any metallic bar-stock material and from some plastics. When exotic metal alloys
are required for corrosion resistance, a bar-stock valve body is normally less expensive than a
valve body produced from a casting. High pressure single-ported globe valves are often found in
power plants due to high pressure steam (figure 2.16.). Variations available includecage-guided
trim, bolted body-to-bonnet connection, and others. Flanged versions are available with ratings
to Class 2500.

Figure 2.13. Single-Ported Globe-Style Valve Body.

Figure 2.14. Flanged Angle-Style Control Valve Body.

Figure 2.16. High Pressure Globe-Style Control Valve Body.

Figure 2.17. Valve Body with Cage-Style Trim, Balanced Valve Plug, and Soft Seat.

Balanced-Plug Cage-Style Valve Bodies

This popular valve body style, single-ported in the sense that only one seat ring is used,
provides the advantages of a balanced valve plug often associated only with double-ported valve
bodies (figure 2.17.). Cage-style trim provides valve plug guiding, seat ring retention, and flow
characterization. In addition, a sliding piston ring-type seal between the upper portion of the
valve plug and the wall of the cage cylinder virtually eliminates leakage of the upstream high
pressure fluid into the lower pressure downstream system.
Downstream pressure acts upon both the top and bottom sides of the valve plug, thereby
nullifying most of the static unbalance force. Reduced unbalance permits operation of the valve
with smaller actuators than those necessary for conventional single-ported valve bodies.
Interchangeability of trim permits the choice of several flow characteristics or of noise
attenuation or ant cavitation components. For most available trim designs, the standard direction
of flow is in through the cage openings and down through the seat ring. These are available in
various material combinations, sizes through NPS 20, and pressure ratings to Class 2500.
Pipe work must be properly engineered as poorly designed pipe work will result in extra
maintenance and cost. The pipe work system must be able to withstand vibration and thermal
expansion so it should be adequately supported but allow flexibility where required. The pipes
must be of sufficient size to pass the fluid without excessive pressure loss. The fittings and bends
should not produce excessive restriction to the flow.
Pipes are specified by their nominal bore diameter. The outer diameter depends upon the
thickness of the wall. Fittings must take account of this and are generally made to fit the outside.
Pipes are still commonly made to imperial sizes (British Standard Pipe) and 1 inch BSP means it
has a 1 inch nominal bore. Metric pipes are often just inch sizes converted to mm so that a 1 inch
pipe becomes a 25 mm pipe and a 2 inch becomes a 50 mm pipe.
Tubes are specified by their outside diameter and they are made to standard sizes. Sizes in
fractions of an inch are still available but metric is becoming more popular such as 15 mm, 16
mm and so on. The bore diameter depends upon the thickness of the wall and consequently it is
possible to have the same size tube with different bore diameters. Fittings are easily made to fit
tubes as the sizes are standard.
Materials and ratings

Material Pressure Use/Comments

Copper 0-100 bar depending on bore. Easy to manipulate
Permanent non flexible.
Polyurethane 0-8 bar depending on bore. Flexible
Available in many colours.

Nylon 0-30 bar depending on bore. Flexible.

Softens with heat.
Kinks
Available in many colours.
Welded seam steel 0-100 bar Difficult to manipulate.
pipe Air main supplies.

From the well to power generation, the oil and gas industry demands reliable and
sustainable compressed air equipment. Before drilling can even begin, seismic exploration helps
unearth hydrocarbon deposits both onshore and offshore. Once the crude oil has been processed
and treated to make it safe and viable for downstream petrochemical processes, it is transported
via pipeline or aboard vessels and tanker trucks. Once the crude oil arrives at its destination,
refinery and petrochemical plants process the oil to get it ready for distribution to the energy
market and power generation industries.

Throughout upstream, midstream and downstream oil and gas applications, utility and
instrumentation air plays a vital role.

2.2. Describe the role of key utilities/services in oil and gas processing operations.

Utility and Instrumentation Air Applications in Oil and Gas Industry

Whether used during the final painting job on the platform, sandblasting metal
components on a ship, cleaning vessels and pipes, gas flaring or kick-starting your mechanical
rotating equipment, utility and instrumentation air is always in demand.

Instrument air packages are often customized to meet the needs of offshore and onshore
installations, especially when safe area and hazardous area classifications are required. A typical
instrument air skid package contains multiple compressors with dryers and filtration systems that
provide high-quality, dry air for a range of applications from pneumatic controls and actuation of
critical valves, to buffer sealing gas.

Types of Compressors Used in Utility and Instrumentation Air Applications

The following compressors are used to deliver high-quality compressed air for utility and
instrumentation applications.

Oil-free centrifugal compressors In modern configurations of centrifugal air

compressors, ultra-high speed electric motors are used to drive the impellers. This
results in a compact compressor without a gearbox and associated oil-lubrication
system, thus making it oil-free and appropriate for applications that require 100 percent
oil-free air. Oil-free centrifugal compressors are also a good choice for an engineered
skid combined with dryers, controls and receivers.
Oil-free screw compressors Oil-free screw compressors offer ultimate reliability and
efficiency even under the harshest conditions. Atlas Copcos Z series of oil-free screw
compressors can also be engineered with a fire-proof canopy and additional controls on
an engineered skid.
Oil-free tooth compressors The compression rotor in oil-free tooth compressors
utilizes a symmetrical, dynamically-balanced rotor that facilitates efficient and oil-free
compression. Because no venting of the pressure element is required, energy
consumption is considerably lower compared to single stage compression systems.
Oil-injected screw compressor Oil-injected screw compressors provide high-quality
air, are easy to install and require minimal on-site installation work. Because oil-
injected screw compressors can withstand harsh conditions, they are ideal aboard
marine vessels (if Class 0-certified oil-free air is not required for the application).
Low pressure blowers and compressors Low pressure blowers and compressors are
ideal for applications requiring low pressure air such as aeration, pneumatic conveying
and sulfur recovery, among others.
HEATING, VENTILATION, AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC).
When thinking about energy efficiency, one of the most important decisions to be made
regarding a new home is the type of heating and cooling system to install. Equally critical to
consider is the selection of the heating and cooling contractor. The operating efficiency of a
system depends as much on proper installation as it does on the performance rating of the
equipment.
Improper design and improper installation of the HVAC system have negative impacts on
personal comfort and on energy bills. Improper design and installation of a HVAC system can
dramatically degrade the quality of air in a home. Poorly designed and poorly installed ducts can
create dangerous conditions that may reduce comfort, degrade indoor air quality, or even threaten
the health of the homeowners.
Types of heating system
Keys to obtaining design efficiency of a system in the field include:
Sizing the system for the specific heating and cooling load of the home being built;
Proper selection and proper installation of controls;
Correctly charging the unit with the proper amount of refrigerant;
Sizing and designing the layout of the ductwork or piping for maximizing energy
efficiency; and
Insulating and sealing all ductwork.
Two types of heating systems are most common in a new home: forced-air or radiant,
with forced-air being used in the majority of the homes. The heat source is either a furnace,
which burns a gas, or an electric heat pump. Furnaces are generally installed with central air
conditioners. Heat pumps provide both heating and cooling. Some heating systems have an
integrated water heating system.
FORCED-AIR SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Most new homes have forced-air heating and cooling systems. These systems use a
central furnace plus an air conditioner, or a heat pump. Figure 2.18 shows all the components of
a forced-air system. In a typical system, several of these components are combined into one unit.
Forced-air systems utilize a series of ducts to distribute the conditioned heated or cooled air
throughout the home. A blower, located in a unit called an air handler, forces the conditioned air
through the ducts. In many residential systems, the blower is integral with the furnace enclosure.

Figure 2.18. Components of Horizontal Flow Forced-Air Systems.

RADIANT HEATING SYSTEMS

Radiant heating systems typically combine a central boiler, water heater or heat pump
water heater with piping, to transport steam or hot water into the living area. Heating is delivered
to the rooms in the home via radiators or radiant floor systems, such as radiant slabs or
underfloor piping.
Advantages of radiant heating systems include:
Quieter operation than heating systems that use forced-air blowers.
Increased personal comfort at lower air temperatures. The higher radiant temperatures
of the radiators or floors allow people to feel warmer at lower air temperatures. Some
homeowners, with radiant heating systems, report being comfortable at room air
temperatures of 60F.
Better zoning of heat delivered to each room.
Increased comfort from the heat. Many homeowners, with radiant heating systems, find
that the heating is more comfortable.
Disadvantages of radiant heating systems include:
Higher installation costs. Radiant systems typically cost 40% to 60% more to install
than comparable forced-air heating systems.
 No provision for cooling the home. The cost of a radiant heating system, combined with
central cooling, would be difficult to justify economically. Some designers of two-story
homes have specified radiant heating systems on the bottom floor and forced-air heating
and cooling on the second floor.
No filtering of the air. Since the air is not cycled between the system and the house,
there is no filtering of the air.
Difficulty in locating parts. A choice of dealers may be limited.
AIR-SOURCE HEAT PUMPS
The most common type of heat pump is the air-source heat pump. Most heat pumps
operate at least twice as efficiently as conventional electric resistance heating systems in Climate
Zone 4. They have typical lifetimes of 15 years, compared to 20 years for most furnaces.
Heat pumps use the vapor compression cycle to move heat (see Figure 2.19.). A reversing
valve allows the heat pump to work automatically in either heating or cooling mode. The heating
process is:
1. The compressor (in the outside unit) pressurizes the refrigerant, which is piped inside.
2. The hot gas enters the inside condensing coil. Room air passes over the coil and is
heated. The refrigerant cools and condenses.
3. The refrigerant, now a pressurized liquid, flows outside to a throttling valve where it
expands to become a cool, low pressure liquid.
4. The outdoor evaporator coil, which serves as the condenser in the cooling process, uses
outside air to boil the cold, liquid refrigerant into a gas. This step completes the cycle.
5. If the outdoor air is so cold that the heat pump cannot adequately heat the home,
electric resistance strip heaters usually provide supplemental heating. Periodically in winter, the
heat pump must switch to a "defrost cycle," which melts any ice that has formed on the outdoor
coil. Packaged systems and room units use the above components in a single box.

Figure 2.19. Air Conditioner Vapor Compression Cycle.

At outside temperatures of 25F to 35F, a properly sized heat pump can no longer meet
the entire heating load of the home. The temperature at which a properly sized heat pump can no
longer meet the heating load is called the balance point. To provide supplemental backup heat,
many builders use electric resistance coils called strip heaters. The strip heaters, located in the
air-handling unit, are much more expensive to operate than the heat pump itself. The strip heaters
should not be oversized, as they can drive up the peak load requirements of the local electric
utility.
A staged, heat pump thermostat can be used in concert with multistage strip heaters to
minimize strip heat operation. To overcome this problem, some houses use a dual-fuel system
that heats the home with natural gas or propane when temperatures drop below the balance point.
 Air-source heat pumps should have outdoor thermostats, which prevent operation of the
strip heaters at temperatures above 35F or 40F. Many mechanical and energy codes require
controls to prevent strip heater operation during weather when the heat pump alone can provide
adequate heating.
The proper airflow across the coil is essential for the efficient operation of a heat pump.
During installation, the airflow rate must be checked to ensure that it meets the manufacturers
recommendations.
AIR-SOURCE HEAT PUMP EFFICIENCY
The heating efficiency of a heat pump is measured by its Heating Season Performance
Factor (HSPF), which is the ratio of heat provided in Btu per hour to watts of energy used. This
factor considers the losses when the equipment starts up and stops, as well as the energy lost
during the defrost cycle.
New heat pumps manufactured after 2005 are required to have an HSPF of at least 7.7.
Typical values for the HSPF are 7.7 for minimum efficiency, 8.0 for medium efficiency, and 8.2
for high efficiency. Variable speed heat pumps have HSPF ratings as high as 9.0, and geothermal
heat pumps have HSPFs over 10.0. The HSPF averages the performance of heating equipment
for a typical winter in the United States, so the actual efficiency will vary in different climates.
To modify the HSPF for a specific climate, a modeling study was conducted and an
equation was developed that modifies the HSPF, based on the local design winter temperature. In
colder climates, the HSPF declines and in warmer climates, it increases. In Climate Zone 4, the
predicted HSPF is approximately 15% less than the reported HSPF.
GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS
Unlike an air-source heat pump, which has an outside air heat exchanger, a geothermal
heat pump relies on fluid-filled pipes, buried beneath the earth, as a source of heating in winter
and cooling in summer, Figures 2.20, 2.21. In each season, the temperature of the earth is closer
to the desired temperature of the home, so less energy is needed to maintain comfort. Eliminating
the outside equipment means higher efficiency, less maintenance, greater equipment life, no
noise, and no inconvenience of having to mow around that outdoor unit. This is offset by the
higher installation cost.

Figure 2.20. Deep Well Loop.

Figure 2.21. Shallow Trench Loop.

There are several types of closed loop designs for piping:

In deep well systems, a piping loop extends several hundred feet underground.
Shallow loops are placed in long trenches, typically about 6 feet deep and several
hundred feet long. Coiling the piping into a "slinky" reduces the length requirements.
For homes located on large private lakes, loops can be installed at the bottom of the
lake, which usually decreases the installation costs and may improve performance.
Proper installation of the geothermal loops is essential for high performance and the
longevity of the system. Choose only qualified professionals, who have several years experience
installing geothermal heat pumps similar to that designed for your home.
Geothermal heat pumps provide longer service than air-source units do. The inside
equipment should last as long as any other traditional heating or cooling system. The buried
piping usually has a 25-year warranty. Most experts believe that the piping will last even longer
because it is made of a durable plastic with heat-sealed connections, and the circulating fluid has
an anticorrosive additive.
Geothermal heat pumps cost $1,300 to $2,300 more per ton than conventional air-source
heat pumps. The actual cost varies according to the difficulty of installing the ground loops as
well as the size and features of the equipment. Because of their high installation cost, these units
may not be economical for homes with low heating and cooling needs. However, their lower
operating costs, reduced maintenance requirements, and greater comfort may make them
attractive to many homeowners.
GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP EFFICIENCY.
The heating efficiency of a geothermal heat pump is measured by the Coefficient of
Performance (COP), which measures the number of units of heating or cooling produced by a
unit of electricity. The COP is a more direct measure of efficiency than the HSPF and is used for
geothermal heat pumps because the water temperature is more constant. Manufacturers of
geothermal units provide COPs for different supply water temperatures. If a unit were installed
with a COP of 3.0, the system would be operating at about 300% efficiency.
The chemical industry is an integral constituent of the growing Indian Industry. It
includes basic chemicals and its products, petrochemicals, fertilizers, paints, varnishes, gases,
soaps, perfumes and toiletry and pharmaceuticals. It is one of the most diversified of all
industrial sectors covering thousands of commercial products. This Industry occupies a pivotal
position in meeting basic needs and improving quality of life. The industry is the main stay of
industrial and agricultural development of the country and provides building blocks for several
downstream industries, such as textiles, papers, paints, soaps, detergents, pharmaceuticals,
varnish etc.
 Chemicals can be broadly divided into the following sub-groups
i. Basic Chemicals
Chemicals such as organic and inorganic chemicals, bulk petrochemicals, other chemical
intermediates, plastic resins, synthetic rubber, man-made fibers, dyes and pigments, printing inks
are basic chemicals. These are also known as commodity chemicals.
ii. Specialty Chemicals
Specialty Chemicals, also known as performance chemicals, are low-volume but high-
value compounds. These chemicals are derived from basic chemicals and are sold on the basis of
their function. For example, paint, adhesives, electronic chemicals, water management
chemicals, oilfield chemicals, flavors and fragrances, rubber processing additives, paper
additives, industrial cleaners and fine chemical. Sealants, coatings, catalysts also come under this
category.
iii. Agro-Chemicals
Chemicals which essentially are meant for protecting agriculture crops against insects and
pests are covered under this sub-group.
The Chemical and petrochemical Industries occupies a pivotal position in meeting some
basic human needs and in improving the quality of life. It is extremely important to the economy
and is an integral part of everyday life. India has a high population base and thus, faces
formidable problems in providing sufficient food, medicines and adequate shelter. The chemical
industry provides the vital inputs required to augment food production and save crops from
attack by a variety of pests in a safe and selective way. The marked improvements in the average
life expectancy of our countrymen can be at-least partially attributed to the Chemical Industry
which has provided lifesaving drugs and other chemicals required for managing public health
care. The problem of housing can be tackled only with the assistance of the Chemicals Industry.
It plays a crucial role in housing development.
The Chemical Industry is rooted in science and provides valuable and often indispensable
inputs to a large number and variety of industries. Thus, without Chemical Industry, there would
be no electronics or microelectronics, refrigerators, recording tapes, automobiles, laser discs,
super magnets, processed foods and virtually all consumer products etc. Even the power industry
depends on the Chemical Industry for its operations. The use of chemicals (ion exchange resins)
becomes indispensable for removing dissolved salts needs in boilers and other applications. In
gold mining, cyanide solution is used for extracting gold. The crude oil refining process uses
chemicals, catalysts, heat, and pressure to separate and combine the basic types of hydrocarbon
molecules naturally found in crude oil into groups of similar molecules. Apart from providing a
variety of drugs for alleviation of human sufferings, the chemical industry provides safe
anesthetic agents and high quality artificial aids including a hip joint made from ultra-low
molecular weight polyethylene. Other health products include dental fills, contact lenses and
dialyses also depend on the Chemicals Industry.
Some of the most useful materials, synthetic polymers, also known as plastics, have
transformed our lives in the last few decades. The driving force for this development was
provided by the need for conservation of natural resources and energy efficiency and inherent
advantages of the material which created possibilities of innovative designs and cost savings. Its
usefulness, adaptability and flexibility of usage have led to a shift in manufacturing from the
conventional material based products to synthetic products.
Chemicals from petroleum may range from basic petrochemicals such as ethylene,
propylene, benzene, xylenes to finished end-products like plastics, rubbers, fibers, detergents,
pesticides, dyes etc. These may be classified as (a) first generation, (b) second generation, and
(c) third generation petrochemicals. First generation Petrochemicals are chemicals directly
available from petroleum crude oil or natural gas either by fractionation, isomerization, cracking
etc. These generally represented the basic petrochemicals, which are the building blocks for
various chemical syntheses. Examples of this class of chemicals are methane, ethane, propane,
ethylene, propylene, toluene, xylenes etc. Second generation petrochemicals are the derivatives
of the first generation petrochemicals. Example of such products are styrene (derived from
benzene and ethylene), dimethyl terepthalate or terephthalic acid (derived from p-xylene),
acrylonitrile (derived from propylene), ethylene glycol (derived from ethylene), vinyl chloride
monomer (derived from acetylene or ethylene) etc. Second generation petrochemicals constitute
the intermediate chemicals which serve as the raw materials for consumer industries like plastics,
rubbers, fibres, dyes, detergents etc. Third Generation Petrochemicals are the consumer
commodities derived generally from second generation petrochemicals and represent the most
important commercial products such as plastics, rubbers, fibres, detergents etc. Examples are
polystyrene (from vinyl chloride monomer), DDT from (chlorobenzene), azo dyes (from
styrene), Polyvinyl chloride (from aniline) etc. However, some of the products may be directory
synthesized from first generation petrochemicals, Polybutadiene rubber, for instance, is obtained
by polymerizing butadiene. Since most of the plastics or rubbers are derived from second
generation petrochemicals, polybutadiene rubber is regarded as a third generation petrochemical.
Chemical sector is predominantly based on feedstock derived from, naphtha, natural gas
and salt. Steam cracking/ Catalytic Reforming of low and high aromatic naphtha in oil refineries
provide Olefins (ethylene, propylene and butadiene) and Aromatics (benzene, toluene and
xylenes) and. Natural gas contains Methane (CH 4), Ethane (C2H6), Propane (C3H8) and Butane
(C4H10). Rich natural gas, which contains C2 and C3 in extractable quantity, is used in producing
olefins. Methane is converted into synthesis gas. Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide
& hydrogen which is used to make ammonia & methanol. Hydrocarbon feedstock, namely,
Methane, aromatics and olefins form the basis of the petrochemical industries. Salt is the feed
stock for the chlor-alkali chemical industry, just as naphtha and Natural Gas for the
petrochemical industry. Consumption of naphtha in petrochemical sector has increased from
6048 thousand tons in 2007-08 to 9620 thousand tons in 2013-14. Off take of natural gas for
petrochemical sector has not increased during the same period and its consumption was
1395million standard cubic meter.
The downstream petrochemical products permeate our daily lives in almost every aspect.
The value additions in the petrochemicals chain offer immense possibilities and cater to the need
of textiles and clothing, agriculture, packaging, infrastructure, healthcare, furniture, automobiles,
information technology, power, electronics and telecommunication, irrigation, drinking water,
construction and a host of other articles of daily and specialized usage amidst other emerging
areas.
Innovations in additives, alloys, blends, compounds, composites and high grade
reinforcement materials such as glass, nano-clays, carbon nano-tubes and carbon fibers require
attention for technology development. New developments in the field of bio and
photodegradable plastics, are also taking place all over the world. The Chemical and
petrochemical industries face the challenge to operate in an environmentally acceptable manner.
Chemicals are globally tradable and unless chemicals produced in India are cost effective, these
cannot contribute usefully to the Nations economy. With an eye on emerging usages, Research
and development efforts should focus on the need to modernize and upgrade the existing
manufacturing processes, improve the quality of existing product and make it safe for
environment and human health.

2.3. Describe the role of safety and protection systems.

Fire and gas detection systems have been around for many years.
A childhood memory is of being taken by my late father to the Mines Rescue Station at
Boothstown, Lancashire. There I saw walls of canaries in cages. Canaries were then a mandatory
requirement in coal mines. They were used to detect the presence of Carbon monoxide.
The coal industry has a continuous possibility of fire-damp (methane) emanating from the
strata. Great efforts are made not only to detect combustible and toxic gases but also to ensure
that equipment is safe for use in potentially explosive atmospheres.
 The process plant should be designed to be safe. However there will always be residual
risks. Layers of protection need to be designed in, to detect any anomalies that the process
control system hasnt taken care of. These additional layers should make the process safe. The
fire and gas detection system provides an extra layer of protection to mitigate the consequences
when the other safeguarding layers have not been sufficient.
The gas detection system can detect a discharge of combustible or toxic gas and take
action to minimize the leak and prevent it turning into a fire or explosion. If a fire should result,
systems can be attached to extinguish the fire and protect other areas from the actions of the fire.
The same system, usually with different detectors and principles, can be used to detect toxic
gases, give warning to personnel and provide the possibility of taking automatic actions.
Fires in process plants may be either like any other industrial fires, for example electrical
fires in utility areas, smouldering waste bins, etc., or an ignited leak of a product from the
process.
Some companies use separate gas and fire detection systems. This particularly applies to
the fire and gas systems designed to GOST codes (Russia and former Soviet Union states).
Generally, the fire detection system and gas detection system is combined into one fire and gas
system. A separation that may be made is to have one fire and gas system for the process areas
and another sub-system for the utility or office/accommodation areas.
Systems can be single, duplicated or triplicated. Redundant systems are not new. Systems
in the early 1980's were being delivered with dual, diversely located controllers, dual detectors,
and dual control outputs.
Fire Detection
Fires can be detected from flame, smoke or heat. A combination of devices may be
needed for best results. There is no perfect fire detector.
Flame Detectors
Flame detectors should not be confused with flame monitors. The function of a flame
monitor is to alarm in the absence of a flame, for example to cut the gas supply to a furnace if the
flame is extinguished. Flame monitors are normally wired to a dedicated burner control system,
not the fire and gas detection system. A flame detector should alarm on the presence of a flaming
fire and ignore normal phenomena that are not flames.
Infra-red (IR) Flame Detectors
These are currently a popular choice. The detector relies on infra-red radiation produced
by flames. The level and wavelength of infra-red radiation varies depending on the fuel of the
flame being detected. The detector detects a flame within a cone of vision. The shape and length
of the cone of vision varies between different models and manufacturers of flame detectors. In
some detectors, more than one wavelength of infra-red radiation is used. Flame pattern
recognition can be used to distinguish between constant sources of infra-red and flames.
Background infra-red radiation can lead to reduced sensitivity and reduced effective detection
distances. Careful placement is needed.
Figure 2.22. Example flame detector.
Camera-based Flame Detectors
Camera-based flame detectors use visual pattern recognition techniques to recognize
flame shapes. They can relay a picture of the area under detection to the control room operator,
thus minimizing the need to send staff towards a risk. Also a recording of events leading to
incidents may be made. These records can be used to review the circumstances of an incident.
Areas of the display that could cause false alarms (e.g. a flare or reflections of a flare) can be
masked from the detection area, whilst still being visible to the operator. In addition, a camera-
based detector can give the operator information about the current state of the fire, whereas a
traditional flame detector can only indicate limited alarm levels. These detectors require that a
flame is visible.

Figure 2.23. Example camera-based flame detector.

Smoke Detection
Smoke detection technology ranges from the battery-powered detectors on sale generally
to sophisticated visual, camera-based detection systems.
Point Smoke Detectors
Point detectors detect smoke at a fixed point. They need to be placed where smoke
realistically could travel in the event of a fire. The majority in use rely on smoke accessing a
chamber containing the detector element. These detectors therefore have a low IP rating and
cannot be used in external areas. With the use of addressable systems, each location can be
pinpointed.
Figure 2.24. Example point smoke detector
Ionization Point Smoke Detectors
This used to be the predominant smoke detection technology. It has been largely
superseded by optical or combined optical smoke /heat detectors.
These detectors use a small radioactive source and detect decreased conduction caused by
the ionization of smoke particles in a detection chamber. For this reason they are susceptible to
alarming in areas of high humidity.
Heat Detection
Heat detection is used where ambient temperatures or environment preclude the use of
smoke detection. Linear heat detectors offer wide area coverage, with some linear heat detectors
discriminating alarms both by temperature and location.
Point Heat Detection
These detect high temperatures at a given point. Descriptions have changed over time.
EN54 describes A1, A2, B, C, D, E, F and G types. They are still commonly described as Rate
of Rise, and Fixed heat detectors.
Rate of Rise Detectors respond to a sudden increase of temperature whilst fixed detectors
are set to a fixed temperature.
Example uses: Kitchens; turbine hoods; where codes mandate usage.
Rate Compensated describes a proprietary product extensively used in harsh
environments.

Figure 2.25. Rate compensated heat detector

Linear Heat Detectors

These detectors detect heat somewhere along the length of the device. They vary from the
simple destructive types that burn through and signal an alarm to sophisticated systems that
monitor the actual temperature at a particular point.
Gas Detection
In general, gas detection is divided into combustible gas detection and toxic gas
detection. This is a broad separation that breaks down in some cases, e.g. some gases are both
toxic and combustible in the concentrations expected. Historically there has also been a
separation in technology between combustible and toxic detection.
Below are some of the issues you need to consider when choosing gas detectors.
 Most devices used in the oil and gas industry are set to detect methane (CH 4) or
hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
Many detectors show cross-sensitivity; i.e. a detector for detecting one gas will also
detect another, at different readings. So at the time of purchase it is important to specify
the gas that is to be detected and consider other gases that may be present that may
affect the readings.
The nature of the gas should be considered e.g. H2S is heavier than air, methane rises,
propane sinks. However they may not behave like that under a high pressure discharge.
Altitude affects the readings of some detectors.
Portable personal gas detectors, set for multiple gasses may be used in areas where toxic
gases may be present.
Combustible Gas Detection
Two mainstream technologies are available infra-red absorption and catalytic types.
Other types are available and in development; e.g. metal oxide semiconductor sensors. Detection
methods from the field of analyzers may cross over to meet gas detection needs.
Point detectors are calibrated against the lower explosive limit (LEL) of a certain gas,
frequently methane. The lower explosive limit for methane mixed in air is achieved at a 5%
concentration. Typical alarm settings are 20% LEL and 60% LEL. Confusion can arise as these
levels are traditionally labelled low gas and high gas, whereas control instrument engineers
would use the term high alarm and high-high alarm.
Open path gas detectors are calibrated in LEL metres (LELm). This setting has evolved as
an analogue with the LEL range used in point detectors.
Catalytic Gas Detectors
Catalytic detectors rely upon burning gas in a sintered chamber. For this reason they are
only available as a point detector or as part of a multi-point aspirating system.

Figure 2.26. Catalytic gas detector.

They require periodic checking, calibration and replacement and are liable to poisoning
by chemicals. For these reasons, despite their lower cost than infra-red detectors they have fallen
out of general use in the process industries.
 Toxic Gas Detection.

Figure 2.27. Point toxic gas detector.

Various technologies are available chemical cell and semiconductor point detectors;
open path (Laser) gas detection is in development. Many different types of gas can be detected.
Cross-sensitivity to different gases other than those being looked for needs to be given careful
attention. Response times of detecting and testing frequencies need careful attention. Chemical
cell types require sensor replacement at intervals determined by the environment. Semiconductor
cells are also affected by their environment and may need to be kept awake by exposure to the
detected gas. New products are in development that is less susceptible to these limitations. Infra-
red single gas open path detectors are at an advanced stage of development. These offer the
important advantages of fast response and high reliability. Example uses: H2S from sour oil
wells or processing plant; carbon monoxide from burning products and CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)
build up.
Emergency shut-down system, or Safety instrumented systems (SIS), is defined as a
system designed to respond to conditions in the plant which may be hazardous in themselves or,
if no action was taken, could eventually give rise to a hazard. The SIS must generate the correct
outputs to mitigate the hazardous consequences or prevent the hazard.
Failure and/or spurious trips could result in expensive procedural and downtime
consequences. Thus, the reliability on safety and availability, need to be tested periodically
before the next maintenance, but not interrupt the operation.
Due to the critical nature of such systems. ESD system are typically composed of sensors,
logic solvers and final control elements. The actuated shutdown valve is expected to remain
static in one position for a long period of time and reliably operate only when an emergency
situation arises, i.e. to spring into safe mode position.
Emergency shutdown valves are the final defense against process abnormality. In a
modern system, ESD valves are connected to PLC and with sensors forming a Safety Loop.
(Figure 2.28.).
Figure 2.28.

B e i n g a p a r t o f S I S , e x p e c t a t i o n o n lo n g t e r m performance reliability
needs to be proven with safety calculation (SIL), on its MTBF.
The ESD valve is the Main Process Shut-off valve that controls the process fluid, e.g.
steam, gases, liquid, etc. Usually spring loaded single acting.
The solenoid operated valve, which controls pilot air to drive the rotary actuator, is the
heart of the actuated shutdown valve system that requires a high level of reliability, availability
and safety.
SOV ought to exhaust air to enable the ESD valve to return to fail safe mode by means of
spring force (fail close/open), whenever sensors detect a dangerous process situation. (Figure
2.29.).

Figure 2.29.

Both ISA and IEC use Safety Integrity Level (SIL) to measure the reliability of a SIS,
which reflects the criticality of the system in terms of required failure rates. The Safety Integrity
Level selected will depend on that required for the entire system.
That means, the safety case must be comprehensive and cover all activities performed
within, or related to, a plant or installation. Thus a system wide view should be implied and an
integrated approach to risk assessment which would take full account of all hazards and the
possible interactions between these.
Therefore industry is calling for flexible and cost-effective ESD solutions through
integration , less frequent proof testing, and scalable architectures.
 The newest system architectures also can offer the flexibility of hosting safety and
process critical control applications in the same controller, providing logical separation of control
and safety functions.
With integrated control and safety, users can choose the configuration that works best for
their application. Each option protects the integrity of the process while providing engineering
and operational efficiencies. These flexible architectures' integrated functionality provides
physical or logical separation of control and safety for better safety system performance and
process optimization.
All safety loops need to be examined and assessed to ensure safe operation of a plant and
compliance with IEC 61508 or 61511. When determining a SIL, all devices need to be
considered in each specific safety instrumented function (SIF) or field instrumentation, not just
the logic solver. The most forward thinking suppliers have all elements of the loop covered with
SIL certified instrumentation and logic solvers, from SIL1 through SIL3, protecting up to SIL4
with technology diversity.
IEC61508 clearly pointed out that the standards to meet the SIL system for the protection
of the overall security assessment, must cover emergency shutdown valve and control system.
The valve, actuator and especially the solenoid valve are most likely to have faults such as no
switching, faulty motion, coil failure and air leakage, etc. In fact, this is the greatest single cause
of dangerous failure situation.
However, for a long time, despite the Emergency Shutdown Systems SIL level being
continuously upgraded and improved, solenoid valve control systems used for emergency
shutdown valves has not been given sufficient attention, thereby affecting the overall integrity of
the SIL level. (Figure 2.30.).

Figure 2.30.

Norgren incorporating Herion has been the leading partner in industrial safety for many
years. The protection of equipment and personnel within potentially explosive atmospheres is of
the highest importance to Norgren and we have been continuously perfecting and extending its
range of solenoids suitable for applications in harsh environments to ensure a high level of
safety.
The ESD system is Norgren's response to the demands of customers in the chemical, and
specifically the petrochemical industry. They are designed for easy integration into both newly
developed and existing applications. Solenoid valve in this system are TV-approval based on
IEC 61 508 complying with SIL 4, and DIN V 19 251 complies with AK7 for safety shutdown
and critical control systems. ATEX and IEC Ex approval, high flow rate, maintenance free,
functional test possible even during operation, switching position monitoring via color visual
indicator or inductive proximity switch, total by-pass making replacement of solenoid valve(s)
without interrupting the process possible...... Norgren Herion's ESD system has gained a
worldwide reputation for extreme safety and availability.
Stainless steel solenoid coil and valves particularly suited for explosive atmospheres and
corrosion resistant applications have also been developed to answer for customers needs.
These competitive advantages are perfectly suited to contribute to the ability of our
customers to maintain and extend their high level of safety. Whether you are looking for
something off-the shelf or an engineered solution to meet application-specific needs, our
specialists will be familiar with your operating environments and legislation issues. They will
talk your language in every sense of the word. And they will work harder to understand your
business needs and processes, so they can really add value and help to make a difference.